Meet America's First Black Ph.D. Scientist Who Turned Opportunity Into Academic Success - Edward Bouchet

Authors: Bryan A. Wilson, Ph.D., M.B.A & Sierra A. Nance, PhD , B.S. (PhD Candidate - Univ. Michigan)

Author Contact Information

Bryan A. Wilson, Ph.D., M.B.A (Corresponding Author)

Email: bryawils@gmail.com 

Abstract

Edward Alexander Bouchet was born in New Haven, Connecticut, USA in 1852 during a period of racial segregation and injustice. He overcame tremendous odds and obtained a quality education at Hopkins Grammar School, preparing him for Yale College. In 1876, Edward Bouchet became the first person of color to obtain a Ph.D. in any field, not only from Yale but in the United States. However, due to the disenfranchisement and discrimination against African-Americans, Bouchet’s career advancement in Physics was stifled. Despite these challenges, Bouchet became a dedicated educator and advocate for the education of colored youth, until his death in 1918.

Keywords: Edward Alexander Bouchet; physics; history; black history; education; science, reconstruction era; graduate school

1.    African-Americans in higher education: American Pre-Civil War Era

The ancestors of many present-day African-Americans were brought to the “New World” as slaves or in servitude. Within these roles, many inalienable human rights were stripped away including the pursuit of obtaining a higher education. Some of the first American universities founded in the early 1600s included Harvard University (1636) and William & Mary University (1693). However, nearly two-hundred years would pass before any official record demonstrated the conferring of a degree by an American college to an African-American student. Prior to and following the American Revolutionary War, African-Americans were thought of as being intellectually inferior. These early 18th-century attitudes toward the intellectual capabilities of African-Americans reinforced the institution of slavery and its dehumanizing treatment while causing barriers to the attainment of higher education. Even prominent American founding father Thomas Jefferson penned the following thoughts: (1)

“In reason much inferior, as I think one could scarcely be found capable of tracing and comprehending the investigations of Euclid: and that in imagination they are dull, tasteless, and anomalous. Never yet could I find that a black had uttered a thought above the level of plain narration.”   

If considered intellectually inadequate, then what foundation could one build in advocating the right for educational attainment by African-Americans? The myth of genetic inferiority (2) wasn’t the sole cause preventing African-Americans from entering institutions of higher education, indeed, the complexities of segregation, classism, and racism also played a significant role. Despite these obstacles, African-Americans began to receive college degrees starting in the 1820s. The first degree recipients were Alexander Lucius Twilight (Middlebury College, 1823), Edward Jones (Amherst College, 1826), John Brown Russwurm (Bowdoin College, 1826), and Edward Mitchell (Dartmouth College, 1828). During the Antebellum Era pre-existing the American Civil War, roughly all free blacks who pursued higher education enrolled in some of the nation’s first historically black institutions. Some of these include Cheyney University (Established in 1832) and Lincoln University (Established in 1854) in Pennsylvania and Wilberforce University (Established in 1856) in Ohio (3).

Before the end of the American Civil War in 1865, approximately forty African-Americans graduated and received degrees from various American colleges and universities, all of which were in the Northern States (3). Northern institutions of higher education pioneered educational attainment for African-Americans. Deeply rooted in religious and abolitionist sentiments amongst the administration, many of these schools progressively enhanced educational equity for African-Americans and paved the way for future advances.      

2.    Education reform during Reconstruction Era America

The Reconstruction era ranging from 1865 to 1877 consisted of a period following the end of the American Civil War. President Abraham Lincoln’s administration ended slavery with the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863. In the years following, the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the passing of the 14th and 15th amendments established a national commitment to the fundamental basis of equality. As a result, newly freed African-Americans took advantage of liberties and enfranchisement support mechanisms such as labor unions, schools, and churches sanctioned by the Freedmen’s Bureau (4). Amidst this time of progression for African-Americans, there was also a period of hostility as political leaders of the South wanted to normalize an economy previously built on slavery.

The Northern states established several educational infrastructures, although these were still limited in their capacity to serve the vast number of newly freed slaves (nearly four million) (5). As a top priority during the Reconstruction Era, educational reform worked to establish public education in the Southern states for both free blacks and whites and specifically focused on ensuring that recently freed slaves were also afforded access to education. Until 1865 when Reconstruction began, the South, except for North Carolina, lacked a public education system.

Following the Civil War, northern Benevolent Societies, with the aim of helping oppressed people overcome barriers that prevent full participation in society, along with the Freedmen’s Bureau provided funding for African-American education (6). State governments did not become involved until after 1868; however, funding and support included biases, as state and county school boards were not diverse and exclusively white. Consequently, schools remained segregated and unequal; white teachers received better pay and obtained adequate resources than public schools for black children (7). To circumvent some of these problems, the black community came together to purchase land, build schools, and hire their own teachers.

Despite the tactical methods employed to improve education in the South, its establishment was a slow process, as the economy in the South was primarily based on agriculture. This dictated the public school schedule for both blacks and whites; as children still needed to help their families with fieldwork. To accommodate as many students as possible, schoolhouses often consisted of one-room buildings with different grade levels being taught in the same room.

In addition to the installation of public schools, various academies were established for individuals from ages thirteen to twenty. Often reserved for wealthy families, this type of schooling required attendees to pay tuition and boarding fees. For example, John B. Cary’s Male and Female Academy in Hampton, Virginia exposed students to foreign languages, chemistry, philosophy, and astronomy (8). A number of affluent free blacks in the South attended the academies. However, newly freed slaves, eagerly awaited their opportunity to obtain an education in any capacity, as this right, just a few years prior, was considered illegal, often times punishable in the form of beating or even death during slavery.

By 1869, black teachers educating free blacks outnumbered white teachers in the same position by more than 3,000. With more than fifty children in a classroom at one time, they taught from northern textbooks that provided moral instruction and black history in addition to standard lessons (8). Also during this time, there was the emergence and establishment of some of the first black colleges in the South. In 1867 Howard University in Washington, D.C. began providing classical education for African-Americans in the disciplines of law, medicine, education, and pharmacy. Other institutions such as Hampton Normal & Agricultural Institute (Hampton University) founded in 1868, offered industrial training for African-American students.

3.    Early life and education in New Haven, Connecticut

African slaves were first introduced into Connecticut in the early 1600s and by the late 1700s included one of the largest populations of slaves in New England. As the colony developed, lawful exclusionary practices, limited the economic and social development of slaves and free African-Americans. By April 1717, bills passed by the Lower House of Connecticut prohibited free African-Americans and slaves from purchasing land or holding real estate without liberty from the town and also from living in families of their own, without such liberty (9). Following the American Revolutionary War, new sentiments about freedom and the equality of rights initiated a movement to end slavery. Connecticut passed the Gradual Abolition Act of 1784, which prospectively emancipated slaves born into slavery after reaching 25 years of age. More stringent laws were passed in 1788 for the complete suppression of the Connecticut slave trade as well as eliminating the transportation of slaves from the state.

According to an oral report on the history of Connecticut, in 1831, town meetings in New Haven began to discuss the possibility of opening a college for African-Americans. However, some residents opposed this proposition, while others felt it necessary due to the increasing population of African-Americans in the area. In a paper read before the New Haven Colony Historical Society by genealogist William C. Fowler of Amherst College, residents expressed (9):

“It will be seen by an advertisement in this paper, that a call is made on our citizens, to meet this day, and express their opinion on the expediency of establishing a College, in this city, for the education of colored persons. We do not know, but we are slow of heart to believe, but we confess we cannot think there are just grounds to fear the establishment of any such institution in this town.”

Original plans for the school included its establishment in the town of Cornwall, Connecticut, since this area experienced past success with the establishment of Indian schools (9). Despite the advances, town officials failed to reach an agreement, giving way to less progressive actions. In 1833 the legislature of Connecticut passed an Act which rendered establishing schools for the education of blacks from other states penal. Various abolitionist groups rebelled against the new laws inasmuch as facing legal convictions. Quaker Prudence Crandall, faced legal action and violent social scrutiny when she decided to open a school exclusively for black girls in Canterbury, Connecticut, in 1833.

The state of Connecticut, though slow to change would later become instrumental in educating some of the nation’s most eminent African-American scholars. With Yale University at the forefront, this academic institution began admitting black students as early as the 1830s. Most notable Yale graduates include Dr. Edward Alexander Bouchet, the nation’s first African-American to earn a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree. Yale conferred Bouchet’s Ph.D. in Physics in 1876, a momentous achievement that inspired a future generation of black scientists and set the trajectory for numerous careers in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM).

Edward Alexander Bouchet (Figure 1) was born September 15, 1852, in New Haven, Connecticut, the only son of Susan and William Bouchet. Bouchet’s father was the servant of John B. Robertson of Yale College and a member of the Temple Street Congregational Church; which would later prove to be instrumental in providing the initial basis for Bouchet’s formal education. Bouchet’s education began at the Artisan Street Colored School, an institution of the Temple Street Congregational Church. Later he would spend two years at New Haven High School before his matriculation into Hopkins Grammar School, a college preparatory school for Yale College.

Considering the racial climate and unequal access to education for African-Americans at the time, it is likely Bouchet’s relationship with John Robertson, in addition to his own merit, played a role in his matriculation into Hopkins Grammar School, as an entrance exam was required. Though Connecticut was progressive in abolishing slavery, officially freeing their slaves in 1848 - seventeen years before the establishment of the 13th amendment - integration was not supported (10). Three years after the Civil War, Bouchet became the first African-American on record to graduate from Hopkins; he graduated as class valedictorian in 1870. As expected of Hopkins’ graduates, Bouchet went on to attend Yale College (11). Bouchet completed his undergraduate degree in 1874 with a 3.22 grade point average, including induction into the prestigious Phi Beta Kappa Honor Society (12), and went on to complete his graduate degree in 1876, at the age of 24.

Bouchet completed his graduate work and dissertation on geometrical optics under Dr. Arthur W. Wright (13) and earned his doctorate in experimental physics; his dissertation was entitled “On Measuring Refracting Indices.”(14, 15) At the time, Bouchet was only the 6th person in the United States to obtain a Ph.D. in physics and the first African-American to receive a doctorate in any field from an American university. Despite his achievements in the scientific field, there is no record of Bouchet becoming a productive researcher within the academic physics professoriate of the time. However, he used his acquired education from both Hopkins and Yale to influence and nurture young African-Americans who yearned to seek higher education in the liberal arts and sciences.

4.    Yale and African-American education

James Pennington, an escaped slave, is noted as the first African-American with a Yale education, auditing courses at the divinity school in 1834 (10). However, African Americans were not permitted to officially enroll until much later; Cortlandt Van Rensselaer Creed became the first African-American to graduate from Yale, obtaining his medical degree in 1857 (16). Upon Creed’s matriculation in 1854, Yale Medical School became the first professional school at Yale to admit black students followed by Yale School of Law in 1893. By 1900, Yale had educated approximately 200 African-American students, with 11 having attended medical school and more than half attending Yale’s Divinity School (11). Furthermore, in that same year, Oreshatekeh Faduma became the first African-born student enrolled in Yale’s Divinity School. Unfortunately, with the passing of Jim Crow laws, racial discrimination prohibited the admission of African-Americans into medical school from 1900 to 1945; these discriminatory practices were also inherited by the nursing school when they opened in 1923. It may have been the admission of regret by Yale’s Provost Edgars Furniss in 1945, that made it possible for African-Americans to return to Yale. At the time, Yale was in the process of opposing a bill presented in the Connecticut legislature to prohibit discrimination on the basis of race, religion, and national origin in admissions to private colleges (17). Furniss proclaimed to President Charles Seymore that “one fatal measure is that we do discriminate against well-qualified applicants solely on racial grounds.” (18) Although Jim Crow laws were enforced until 1965, Yale College continued to enroll African American students. From 1850 to 1950 Yale enrolled 45 African-American students, with 10% pursuing higher education at Yale’s Law, Medical, and Divinity schools (11).

5.    Bouchet’s scientific contributions

Although the awarding of Bouchet’s doctoral degree is recorded in Yale University student records and acknowledged by academicians worldwide, there is no evidence regarding any written or electronic record of his graduate work or thesis. The lack of this information makes it considerably challenging to decipher the nuances of Bouchet’s scientific contributions. However, we can gain further insight by examining the work of Bouchet’s graduate adviser, Arthur W. Wright. Wright also earned his Ph.D. degree in Physics from Yale in 1861. His dissertation included studies on satellite mechanics and the conferring of his degree was one of the first three awarded by an American university (19). Particularly, he is accredited as being the first American physicist to study X-rays and their applicability in generating photographs for medical diagnoses (20). Additionally, Wright’s research interests included studies on the polarity and spectrum of light and he published two prominent papers on these subjects in 1874 (21, 22).

The publishing of these papers by Wright coincides with a period of time in which Bouchet studied under his tutelage. Perhaps, it is plausible to infer that a part of Bouchet’s thesis work focused on the same subject matter.  Bouchet’s dissertation was titled, “On Measuring Refracting Indices”. The refractive index of a substance describes the speed and manner by which light scatters through a respective medium. Refractive index not only quantifies how much light is refracted when it passes through a material, but also the speed. Substances with higher refractive indices impede the speed of light, while substances with lower refractive indices allow light to pass through faster. An example of this phenomenon is demonstrated by air having a refractive index of 1 while a diamond has a much higher refractive index of 2.42. The concept of refractive index spans numerous applications including the electromagnetic spectrum, radio waves, and X-rays.

Although the exact details of Bouchet’s research are unknown, the very nature of doctoral graduate training is for a pupil to contribute to one’s respective field of study in some capacity. Traditionally, the evidence of research productivity is best demonstrated by a scientist’s published body of work. These records provide a basis not only for a researcher’s merit but serve as a foundation by which future scientific advances are built. Despite the absence of published scientific literature, Bouchet’s milestone achievement in obtaining his Ph.D. provided a foundation of hope for many scientists and continues to be a pillar of inspiration.  

6.    Educating future black scientists

Bouchet earned a teaching position at the Institute for Colored Youth during his undergraduate senior year at Yale (Figure 2). The Institute for Colored Youth was founded in 1837 by Richard Humphreys with the intent of providing a quality, classical education to African-American youth in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Notable alumni include Octavius V. Otto, Julian Abele, and Rebecca J. Cole. Today, the Institute for Colored Youth is known as Cheyney University of Pennsylvania, the oldest historically black institution of higher learning. Alfred Cope, a Philadelphia philanthropist, and board of managers’ member of the Institute supported Humphrey’s vision and offered Bouchet a teaching position. However, Cope encouraged Bouchet to first “devote his time to the acquisition of further knowledge and familiarity with the scientific matters” (14) by continuing his studies at Yale’s graduate school. Bouchet accepted the position on the condition that he would receive an annual salary of $1500. Not only did Cope agree on the starting salary, but he also financially supported Bouchet’s graduate education at $150 per year in tuition (14). Upon obtaining his Ph.D., Edward Bouchet began his career at the Institute under Cope’s Scientific Fund. This program was founded in 1874 to promote education and training in the sciences at the Institute for Colored Youth.

Philadelphia proved to be a city with a great emphasis on empowering African-Americans with quality education as early as 1794 when the first black night school opened at Mother Bethel AME Church (23). Furthermore, Philadelphia had a sufficient population of affluent blacks who had a great influence on the black community. These individuals founded the American Society for Free Persons of Color in 1830 promoting education and financial independence (24). Moreover, not only was the Institute for Colored Youth the only high school in Philadelphia for African-Americans at the time but with the addition of Bouchet, it now played an integral role in educating and training for careers in the scientific field (25).

Bouchet spent twenty-six years at the Institute, teaching courses in chemistry, physics, astronomy, physical geography, physiology, and etymology (25). He also made requests to the school board for a full scientific laboratory for the students on several occasions; the board finally granted his request in 1889. Furthermore, he gave lectures to members of the Institute, students and faculty, and the public (25). During his stay in Philadelphia, Edward Bouchet was both an influential and prominent member of the African-American community. He became a member of the Franklin Institute, promoting the mechanic arts; Century Building and Loan Association, assisting African-Americans in purchasing homes; and St. Thomas Church where he served as secretary and lay reader. He also was an active member of the local Yale alumni chapter. Bouchet remained in Philadelphia until 1902 when, unfortunately, he was fired from the Institute for Colored Youth.

After his departure from the Institute for Colored Youth, Bouchet worked diligently to continue his teaching career; a mission that eventually caused him to cycle through many secondary educational institutions and non-academic positions. In September of 1902, he traveled to St. Louis, Missouri where he landed a position at Sumner High School teaching math and physics until November 1903. However, instead of leaving, he stayed in St. Louis becoming business manager and assistant superintendent for a private “colored” hospital, Provident Hospital. The following year he became the U.S. inspector of customs at the Louisiana Exposition in St. Louis. Before he left that position in March 1905, Bouchet witnessed the acceptance of Negro Day at the World’s Fair in St. Louis. He served as both treasurer of The Negro Day Committee and Chairman of the program subcommittee. It is not known why Bouchet left Sumner High School and seemed to abandon his teaching career, but regardless of his position, he seemed passionate about serving and advancing the African-American community. In October 1906, Bouchet re-entered the field of academia, becoming Director of the Academic Department of St. Paul’s Normal and Industrial School in Lawrenceville, Virginia. Here he also taught physics, chemistry, and Latin. Bouchet left Virginia in 1908, traveling to Gallipolis, Ohio, to secure another teaching position at Lincoln High School.

It is uncertain what Bouchet did between his departure from Lincoln in 1913 and his return to New Haven in 1916. There is some evidence suggesting from his resignation paper, that he became ill with arteriosclerosis and briefly taught at a small college in Texas before returning to New Haven (14). Edward Bouchet remained in New Haven, Connecticut until his death in October 1918.

7.    Limiting a great scientist and educator

Even though Bouchet was a talented and accomplished scientist, he encountered much opposition and received little recognition; a plight commonly endured by African-Americans in the pursuit of higher education (26-28) Surely he faced opposition being the only African-American in his class at both Hopkins and Yale in a segregated society; however, even after obtaining his doctorate in Physics being black still proved to be a misfortune (29). The year before Edward Bouchet arrived at the Institute for Colored Youth, his sponsor Alfred Cope passed away. Cope supported the equal education of black students in comparison to their white counterparts. As a member of the school’s board of managers, he was able to enforce this vision, recruiting successful African-Americans, like Bouchet, to teach and mentor the students. Shortly after his death, it became apparent that his absence would be detrimental to the future of the school. Under the new management, Bouchet began with a starting annual salary of $1200 instead of the $1500 Cope promised. By the end of his career at the Institute for Colored Youth, he was only making $1000 a year, despite a request from the acting principal, Fanny Coppin, for a salary increase for the entire faculty (25).  

In 1902, the Institute for Colored Youth began to shy away from its foundation as an Institute to progress the academic education of African-Americans and started leaning towards becoming an Institute for technical training. Also during this period, Booker T. Washington’s ideal that African-Americans would be more successful if they focused on industrial training rather than formal education was gaining support and likely influenced this decision. However, prominent black scholars of the time, most notably W.E.B. DuBois refuted Washington’s views, considering this would only lead to gradualism amongst blacks and thus serve to dilute the value of liberal arts institutions for people of color. The opposing views of both scholars became historically known as the DuBois-Washington controversy, and the importance of a liberal arts education versus an industrial education was highly debated. Bouchet’s position in these manners remains unknown, although one could speculate that he was a proponent of blacks receiving a classical liberal arts education similar to his.   

Furthermore, the board of the Institute for Colored Youth decided to replace Fanny Coppin with Hugh M. Brown, a supporter of Washington. With Brown as principal, “industrial education would be stressed and agriculture and domestic arts would dominate the curriculum. Thus, the complete dismissal of the classical courses…would result” (14, 25). Changing the curriculum of the Institute did not receive much support from the faculty. It is apparent that a conflict manifested between Edward Bouchet and the board, considering the salary decreases. A conflict between Brown and Bouchet also developed after Brown’s appointment, and that is probably why he was the only faculty member not compensated when the classic academic department was suspended (14, 25).

It is plausible to assume that Bouchet did not support Washington’s view on industrial education, as the emphasis on classical education at Hopkins Grammar School played a huge role in his success at Yale. When Bouchet left Philadelphia, he gravitated towards schools that maintained traditional education; however, his stay at these institutions was brief. Perhaps he felt limited as an educator at these schools. He obtained a Ph.D. from Yale College but was only able to find employment primarily in high schools. Moreover, the physics professoriate of the time lacked diversity, as there were no records of people of color or women physics professors. His view on classical versus industrial education may have limited his employment by higher industrial education institutions. It is believed that Bouchet contacted Hollis Frissell, principal at Hampton Institute, an educational facility for blacks in Hampton, Virginia, expressing his interest in obtaining a faculty position. Although not blatantly denied the position, Frissell informed Bouchet that no positions were available and that he would ask Booker T. Washington if there was a position at Tuskegee Institute (14). There is no record that Bouchet was offered a position from either institution at any time, but we can infer from his teaching career and his passion for traditional education that his values and teaching philosophy did not garner support at these schools.  

8.    Leaving a legacy

Though never given the opportunity to reach his full potential as a scientist, Edward Alexander Bouchet influenced many African-Americans to pursue a classical education and to become successful (Table 1) (30). J. Arnot Mitchell of Gallipolis, Ohio was inspired to continue his education at Bowdoin College and graduated in 1913. He went on to become the first African-American faculty member at Ohio State University. As the first African-American to receive a doctorate from an American university in any field, Bouchet opened the door for blacks in science and became a prominent example of academic success. Elmer Samuel Imes, St. Elmo Brady, and Percy L. Julian were among the first to obtain doctorate degrees from predominantly white universities (30). Elmer Imes was the second African-American to receive a Ph.D. in Physics in 1918; he obtained his degree from the University of Michigan. Furthermore, in 1972 Willie Hobbs Moore became the first African-American woman to obtain a doctorate in physics.

In 1977 the National Society of Black Physicists was founded on the campus of Morgan State University, a historically black institution, to promote the professional well-being of African-American physicists within the international scientific community and within society.  Even now, African-Americans continue to make breakthroughs in the field of physics as Jedidah C. Isler became the first black woman to graduate with a Ph.D. in astrophysics from Yale in 2014, and a year later Whitney Ingram became the first black female to obtain a Ph.D. in Physics from the University of Georgia. To date, there are more than 80 Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) offering degrees in science and engineering and that number continues to grow (31).

 The full recognition of Bouchet’s influence in the field of physics occurred in 1988 when the International Centre for Theoretic Physics (ICTP) and the Black American Friends of ICTP organized the first Edward Bouchet International Conference on Physics and Technology in Trieste, Italy. This conference brought together both African and African-American scientists (32). The success of this conference led to the creation of the Edward Bouchet-ICTP Institute the following year. However, Bouchet was not formally recognized as the first African-American to obtain a doctorate at Yale and in the United States until 1998. Through the efforts of Curtis Patton, a professor of epidemiology at Yale, a ceremony was held at Evergreen Cemetery in New Haven, Connecticut commemorating Bouchet’s lifetime achievements and unveiling a monumental headstone on his unmarked grave (Figure 3) (33, 34). Furthermore, in 2005 Yale and Howard concurrently founded the Edward A. Bouchet Graduate Honor Society. Today this society has been implemented in universities across the country, recognizing and promoting diversity in graduate and professional education. 

9.    Conclusion

“To know physics is to have power. To be well rounded in the liberal arts is to be able to think broadly and question all sorts of things...” (Dr. Freeman Hrabowski III, Inaugural Yale Bouchet Leadership Awardee personal remarks from keynote address, September 18, 2002) (35).

Although Edward Bouchet possessed academic credentials that would deem him qualified to become an active member of the scientific community, he was never granted the opportunity. As evidenced by his tenure as a secondary school academician, Bouchet’s scholarly astute was not fully appreciated. Perhaps society’s lack of a fully developed and proper infrastructure to accommodate Bouchet’s talents and potential is to blame for his limited career trajectory. Yale was awarded the first Ph.D. degree in the United States in 1861, with Bouchet earning his doctorate 15 years later. The culmination of Bouchet’s doctoral studies coincided with the Reconstruction Era. Certainly, the opposition Bouchet may have faced as a result of his race and a radically changing period dramatically impacted his science career aspirations. However, what is notable was his ability to defy the odds and his limited resources to become something greater. Bouchet’s ability to transcend academically and then, in turn, continuously inspire trainees from all types of backgrounds in the sciences and beyond is remarkable and warrants recognition.

Acknowledgments

The authors graciously acknowledge Judith Ann Schiff and Michael Frost in the Yale University Library Manuscripts and Archives office for their assistance in providing feedback with respect to this article. Ms. Sierra A. Nance was supported by the Wake Forest School of Medicine Postbaccalaureate Research Education Program (PREP), a predoctoral training program sponsored by the National Institutes of Health-National Institute of General Medical Sciences (R25-GM064249).

#blackinstem #blackhistorymonth #blackhistorymonth2023 #youngblackpharma #stemeducation #blackhistory #diversityinstem #diversityequityinclusion #diversity #education #storiesthatmatter #storiesthatinspire #blackexcellence #blackeducators #blackculture #science #sciencecommunication #scienceeducation #inspiration #motivation #motivationmonday

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