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- For asylum applications, an alternative data source would be the UNHCR data (used for example in Hatton, 2009). The UNHCR has regularly produced data on asylum applications in OECD countries and other countries of the World. Compared to Eurostat (2020) data, the main advantage of the UNHCR data consists on their coverage. But we believe that Eurostat (2020) data are the best available data on asylum seekers in Western European countries. Moreover, these data are comparable and more accurate than the UNHCR data which suffer from a number of limitations, the most problematic is the double counting of individuals seeking asylum in Europe (see OECD, 2016, p.29 for a comprehensive discussion).
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- There are two family reunification groups: foreign relatives of French citizens and foreign relatives of migrants already settled in France. The other reasons category includes third-country nationals who were admitted for humanitarian reasons who did not apply for asylum (victims of trafficking in human beings and/or sexual violence and individuals who obtained a residence permit on medical grounds), those who arrived minors in France, those who have been regularized after a period of more than ten years of continuous residence, those who received work accident annuity, veterans and retired persons. Our series of migration flows clearly show a break in 2001, both for the flows of asylum seekers and permanent migrants (Figure 3).
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- X j=0 δjDjt + εt (A-4) where j = 0, 1, ..., m, m is the number of breaks (giving m + 1 regimes) with Djt = 1 if Tj ≤ t < Tj+1 and Djt = 0 otherwise, and with T0 = 1 and Tm+1 = T + 1 (break date corresponds to be the first date of the subsequent regime). There are m possible breaks or m+1 possible regimes in Equation (A-4) that are characterized by changing in the intercepts δj in the autoregressive process. Given the period covered by our sample (22 years), we set the maximum number possible breaks to three. We also set the minimum regime size to 20% of the sample (4.40 years). We consider the Bai-Perron sequential testing procedure which tests the null hypothesis m = l against the alternative m = l + 1 until the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Its uses a F-type test statistic that has a non-standard distribution whose critical values are tabulated in Bai and Perron (2003).
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