Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson, James Robinson, and Pierre Yared (2005), “From Education to Democracy?†American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings 95: 44-49.
Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson, James Robinson, and Pierre Yared (2007), “Revaluating the Modernization Hypothesis,†NBER Working Paper No. 13334.
Barro, Robert, and Lee Jong Wha (2000), “International Data on Educational Attainment: Updates and Implications,†Harvard Center for International Development, Working Paper no. 42. B
- Birdsall, Nancy, Barbara Bruns, and Richard H. Sabot (1996), “Education in Brazil: Playing a Bad Hand Badly.†In Nancy Birdsall and Richard H. Sabot, eds. Opportunity Foregone: Education in Brazil, Washington, DC: Johns Hopkins Press for the Inter-American Development Bank.
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Bobba, Matteo, and Decio Coviello (2007), “Weak Instruments and Weak Identification, in Estimating the Effects of Education, on Democracy,†Economic Letters 96: 301-307.
Brady, Henry E. Sidney Verba, and Kay Lehman Schlozman (1995), “Beyond SES: A Resource Model of Political Participation,†American Political Science Review 89: 271-294.
- Brody, Richard A. (1978), “The Puzzle of Political Participation in America.†In: Anthony King (ed.), The New American Political System, Washington DC: American Enterprise Institute.
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- Brown, David S. (2002), “Democracy, Authoritarianism and Education Finance in Brazil,†Journal of Latin American Studies 34: 115-141.
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- Caselli, Francesco (2005), “Accounting for Cross-Country Income Differences.†In Philippe Aghion and Steven Durlauf, eds. Handbook of Economic Growth, Amsterdam: North-Holland.
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De la Croix, David, and Matthias Doepke (2008), “To Segregate or to Integrate: Education Politics and Democracy,†forthcoming in Review of Economic Studies.
Dee, Thomas (2004), “Are there Civic Returns to Education?†Journal of Public Economics 88: 16971720.
- Dewey, John (1916), Democracy and Education, New York: The Macmillan Company.
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enabou, Roland (2000), “Unequal Societies: Income Distribution and the Social Contract,†American Economic Review 90: 96-129.
- Engerman, Stanley L. and Kenneth L. Sokoloff (1997), “Factor Endowments, Institutions, and Differential Paths of Growth Among New World Economies: A View from Economic Historians of the United States.†In Stephen Haber, ed. How Latin America Fell Behind, California: Stanford University Press.
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- Ethnic Fractionalization: From Alesina et al. (2003). Equal to 1 minus the Herfindahl Index of population shares of ethnic groups within a country. This is treated as a state variable that does not vary over time.
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- Freeman, Richard B. (2004), “What, Me Vote?†In Social Inequality, New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 703-728.
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Galiani, Sebastian, Daniel Heymann, Carlos Dab us, and Fernando Tohm e (2008), “On the emergence of public education in land-rich economies,†Journal of Development Economics 86: 434-446.
Galor Oded, and Omer Moav (2006), “Das Human Kapital: A Theory of the Demise of the Class Structure,†Review of Economic Studies 73: 85-117.
Galor Oded, Omer Moav, and Dietrich Vollrath (2008), “Inequality in Land Ownership, the Emergence of Human Capital Promoting Institutions and the Great Divergence,†forthcoming in Review of Economic Studies.
- GDP per capita: From the WDI. Real GDP per capita in constant 2000 US dollars. Population: From the WDI. Population between ages 15-64. Gini coefficients: From the World Income Inequality Database (WIID), version 2.0, assembled by the World Institute of Development Economic Research (WIDER). We use the income gini coefficients (“incdefn†code equal to “Earnings, Grossâ€, “Income, Factorâ€, “Income, Grossâ€, “Income, Taxable â€, “Market Incomeâ€, “Monetary Income, Grossâ€, “Earnings, Netâ€, “Income, Disposableâ€, or “Monetary Income, Disposableâ€). We use only those data points identified by the WIID as being of reasonably good quality (quality code equal to 1 or 2). Democracy: From the Polity IV dataset. Democracy score, on a scale of 0 to 10. The reference date for the annual observations in the Polity IV dataset is 31 December. We match these to the data corresponding to 1 January of the following year.
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Glaeser, Edward L, Giacomo Ponzetto, and Jesse Shapiro (2005), “Strategic Extremism: Why Republicans and Democrats Divide on Religious Values,†Quarterly Journal of Economics 120: 1283-1330.
Glaeser, Edward, Giacomo Ponzetto, and Andrei Shleifer (2007), “Why does Democracy Need Education ?†Journal of Economic Growth 12: 77-99.
Hall, Robert, and Charles Jones (1999), “Why Do Some Countries Produce So Much More Output Per Worker Than Others?†Quarterly Journal of Economics 114: 83-116.
- Heston, Alan, Robert Summers, and Bettina Aten (2006), “Penn World Table Version 6.2â€, Center for International Comparisons of Production, Income and Prices at the University of Pennsylvania.
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- Human capital per worker, log(H/L): From Caselli (2005). Calculated as the average years of schooling in the country, weighted by the Mincerian returns to education. Specifically, H/L = exp(φ(s)), where s is the average years of schooling in the population over 25 years of age, and φ() is a piece-wise linear function with a slope of 0.13 for s < 4, 0.10 for 4 < s < 8, and 0.07 for s > 8.
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- Huntington, Samuel P. (1991), “Democracy’s Third Wave†Journal of Democracy 2: 12-34.
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Lipset, Seymour (1959), “Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy,†American Political Science Review 53: 69-105.
Milligan, Kevin, Enrico Moretti, and Philip Oreopoulos (2004), “Does education improve citizenship? Evidence from the United States and the United Kingdom,†Journal of Public Economics 88: 1667-1695.
- Milner, Anthony (2000), “What Happened to ‘Asian Values’?†In Gerald Segal and David Goodman (eds.), Towards Recovery in Pacific Asia, London and New York: Routledge.
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Murphy, Kevin M., Andrei Shleifer, and Robert Vishny (1991), “Allocation of Talent: Implications for Growth,†Quarterly Journal of Economics 106: 503-530.
Naritomi, Joana, Rodrigo R. Soares, and Juliano J. Assun c˜ ao (2007), “Rent Seeking and the Unveiling of De Facto Institutions: Development and Colonial Heritage within Brazil,†University of Maryland mimeo.
- North, Douglass (1990), Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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- Physical capital per worker, log(K/L): Physical capital stock is calculated using the perpetual inventory method, namely: Kt = It + δKt−1, where It is investment and δ = 0.06 is the assumed depreciation rate. The investment flow data are from the Penn World Tables, Version 6.2 (Heston et al. 2006). The initial capital stock, K0, is taken as I0/(g + δ), where I0 is the earliest value of investment available. g is the average geometric growth rate of investment in the first 10 years for which the investment data are available. Countries with less than 20 years of investment flow data are dropped, since the assumed initial value for K0 has a larger effect when the available time series is too short. This means that only countries with investment data since 1970 are included, which in practice only drops the transition economies in Eastern Europe.
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- Pritchett, Lant (2003), “When Will They Ever Learn? Why All Governments Produce Schoolingâ€, BREAD working paper # 31.
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- Putnam, Robert D. (1995a), “Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital,†Journal of Democracy 6: 65-78.
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- Putnam, Robert D. (1995b), “Tuning In, Tuning Out: The Strange Disappearance of Social Capital in America,†PS: Political Science & Politics 28: 664-683.
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- Ratliff, William (2003), “Doing it Wrong and Doing it Right: Education in Latin America and Asiaâ€, Hoover Institution, Essays in Public Policy n. 110.
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- Rosenstone, Steven J. and John M. Hansen (1993), Mobilization, Participation and Democracy in America, New York: MacMillan.
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- Socialist: From La Porta et al. (1999). Dummy variable equal to 1 if country is of socialist legal origin.
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Solt, Frederick (2008), “Economic Inequality and Democratic Political Engagement,†American Journal of Political Science 52: 48-60.
- This follows Hall and Jones (1999): The first slope of 0.13 corresponds to the average Mincerian return to education observed in sub-Saharan Africa, the second slope of 0.10 corresponds to the average return for the world, while the third slope of 0.07 corresponds to the average return in the OECD.
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- Verba, Sidney, and Norman H. Nie (1987), Participation in America: Political Democracy and Social Equality, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
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- Verba, Sidney, Norman H. Nie, and Jae-On Kim (1987), Participation and Political Equality: A SevenNation Comparison, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
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- Wynia, Gary W. (1978), The Politics of Latin American Development, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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- Years of schooling: From the Barro and Lee (2000) dataset.
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