![system there is evidence that Cas9 is integral in the initial recognition of the potential
protospacer PAM sequence in the invading DNA [15]. This dual role for Cas9 is a logical
mechanism to ensure that the protospacers selected will be present next to the required PAM
sequence so that Cas9 will be able to recognize it for future targeting and cleavage when
challenged”(Riordan). A protospacer is also known as PAM (protospacer adjacent motif). It is
the DNA sequence immediately following the target DNA sequence of the Cas9 protein. The
ability to target a specific sequence makes this a more sophisticated approach than previous
technologies. However, screening and identifying mutations is time consuming and may lack
accuracy. “The second shortcoming of the CRISPR Cas9 system is the presence of unintended or
off-target effects of the gRNA. Because DSBs can lead to the introduction of indels through the
process of NHEJ, off-target effects have the potential to introduce secondary and potentially
harmful mutations, which could possibly cause either a reduction or increase in the production of
a crucial gene” (Riordan). When dealing with DSBs or (double strand breaks) in DNA sequence,
and array of circumstances could result in unintended ways. If the genetic code of a species is
being broken and adjusted, uncertainty lies within the results. Researchers continue to triumph
over obstacles to allow this technology to prosper.
Many possibilities have been revealed within the scientific community as research
progresses. The potential to thrive economically came to life. The technology has the ability to
boost agricultural yields and food production. “Most commonly, scientists modify plants to make
them resistant to herbicides, to speed growing time, or to enable them to produce their own
pesticides to defend themselves from insects” (Biotechnology and..). It proves to be highly
lucrative, yet relatively inexpensive to produce such products. This continues to reflect great
interest as a means to accommodate an increasingly large population. To the contrary, many](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/3b2a6c13-ded5-434f-96e5-3a2a14243710-161006174433/85/Altering-the-Code-of-Life-2-320.jpg)
Altering the Code of Life
- 1. Altering the Code of Life By April Johnson Imagine a world where you could create your own genetic destiny. When you’re given a set of genes from generations passed, yet it does not mean those genes have to be concrete. Since modern science has shown advancement in revealing the human genome, an increase in genetic engineering has taken rise. Scientists are able to delete, insert or replace genes in cells. In order to edit genes, various advanced technologies are needed in order to perform such operations. For example, CRISPR or (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) is a gene-editing technology that relies on an engineered protein 9 (Cas9). Cas9 is an enzyme that is directed by a guide RNA to target DNA sequence. Cas9 cuts both strands of the DNA which causes priming of the gene for editing (Erickson). This technology has the ability to alter genes that could be used in a variety of ways if successfully viable. There is quite the controversial debate on whether this research should progress. Advances show there is great promise for future generations, yet the ability to disrupt the natural state of human life remains an ethical issue. As with all proposals that have the opportunity to flourish, there are advantages and disadvantages that must undergo scrutiny. In scientific study, there is a vast amount of knowledge that needs to be obtained. In order to do so, one must accumulate a greater amount of information based off experimentation results. This area of research is necessary in order for future scientific generations to come. In the midst of genome editing, other technologies have been developed such as Recombinant DNA (rDNA) or Zinc Finger Nucleases, to name a few. The most recent and currently promising technology being studied is CRISPR- Cas9. In comparison to previous technologies, it is the most efficient and provides direct alterations to genes’ loci. “For the type II
- 2. system there is evidence that Cas9 is integral in the initial recognition of the potential protospacer PAM sequence in the invading DNA [15]. This dual role for Cas9 is a logical mechanism to ensure that the protospacers selected will be present next to the required PAM sequence so that Cas9 will be able to recognize it for future targeting and cleavage when challenged”(Riordan). A protospacer is also known as PAM (protospacer adjacent motif). It is the DNA sequence immediately following the target DNA sequence of the Cas9 protein. The ability to target a specific sequence makes this a more sophisticated approach than previous technologies. However, screening and identifying mutations is time consuming and may lack accuracy. “The second shortcoming of the CRISPR Cas9 system is the presence of unintended or off-target effects of the gRNA. Because DSBs can lead to the introduction of indels through the process of NHEJ, off-target effects have the potential to introduce secondary and potentially harmful mutations, which could possibly cause either a reduction or increase in the production of a crucial gene” (Riordan). When dealing with DSBs or (double strand breaks) in DNA sequence, and array of circumstances could result in unintended ways. If the genetic code of a species is being broken and adjusted, uncertainty lies within the results. Researchers continue to triumph over obstacles to allow this technology to prosper. Many possibilities have been revealed within the scientific community as research progresses. The potential to thrive economically came to life. The technology has the ability to boost agricultural yields and food production. “Most commonly, scientists modify plants to make them resistant to herbicides, to speed growing time, or to enable them to produce their own pesticides to defend themselves from insects” (Biotechnology and..). It proves to be highly lucrative, yet relatively inexpensive to produce such products. This continues to reflect great interest as a means to accommodate an increasingly large population. To the contrary, many
- 3. argue this could result in unintended consequences. “Several studies showing ill effects from the consumption of genetically modified foods have fueled these concerns. In 1999, the British medical journal the Lancet published a study finding that genetically modified potatoes sickened rats. In 2005, the Independent, a British newspaper, reported a secret study by Monsanto—a large agricultural company that has produced many genetically modified crops—indicating that rats developed blood and kidney abnormalities after eating a strain of Monsanto genetically modified corn” (Biotechnology and..). As much of this science remains uncertain, there is the concern that these developments may affect the human germ-line in unexpected or dangerous ways for future generations to come. One might ask, at what price does the public have to pay for what they are consuming? Not only could this technology serve in economics, but it has the possibility to be used in clinical applications. The hopes of this scientific work could hold potential in medical therapies. Researchers are attempting to change and replace faulty DNA in individuals as a result of disease. “Gene therapy attempts to fix damaged DNA by inserting healthy DNA into a target cell. Once in the body, the healthy DNA begins to produce essential protein, restoring the cells to normal function. Genes are usually introduced into a patient's body with a vector—a tool, generally a virus, used as a "molecular delivery truck." To create a vector, scientists "disable" the viruses, removing the disease-causing genes and replacing them with normal DNA” (Biotechnology and..). Scientists currently attempt to alter genes associated with an array of disorders. For example, “Schwank and colleagues used this system to correct a mutation in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene (CFTR). They used intestinal organoids that were derived from adult stem cells from two cystic fibrosis patients who were homozygous for the same CFTR mutation” (Lokody). In this study, results revealed a successful
- 4. repair in DNA. The authors also looked for off-target mutations and found that they were rare. This shows promise for future generations as the goal for off-target mutations must stay low in order to have success. In many of alterations targeted for gene therapy, the target genes are not being altered efficiently enough, and advancements still need progress to be brought to a clinical approach. Historically, many countries have come a long way since genome sequencing became available. However, making changes to the natural “code of life” remains an ethical issue which causes legal limitations. “Genetically engineering human germ-line cells is prohibited in many European countries, but not in the U.S. or China. In the U.S., however, federal research money cannot be used to fund such work” (Erickson). Since this is the case, China has already used gene- editing technology to alter human embryos. This work made congressional lawmakers alarmed. “Rep. Lamar Smith (R-Texas), chairman of the House Science, Space & Technology Committee, said that “the U.S. can and should provide scientific and moral leadership” in this area” (Erickson). This makes one question our ethics system regarding science in a broad sense. On what grounds, is it right or wrong to make changes to the “code of life”? If more information were to reveal itself in the midst of factual research, is it wrong because the act of doing so resists what is natural? In terms of legislation regarding genetically modified food, the FDA makes statements to determine it to be safe for consumption, yet there is not a relative amount of research backing those statements. Most of the research that currently exists contradicts the legal standpoint and shows dire consequences of carcinogenicity. If manipulating organisms’ remains safeguarded in a legal aspect, how does it pose such an unethical issue? When speaking in terms of ethics and science, there is a clash on an interpersonal level versus what proves to be factual. One should look at both aspects of disposition and determine
- 5. which cost has greater reward. As with all good things to come, there will always be drawbacks. From different standpoints, one could argue genetically engineering is altering nature to meet human demands or adjusting human demands to accommodate nature. “The former holds that nature is no more than stuff to be put to use—to be pumped out of the ground, cut down, burned, turned to waste, and disposed of as needed. The latter calls on us to cherish the natural world as it is and limit the harm humans are wreaking on it—not just in order to keep the planet habitable for humans as long as possible, but because the planet, with its diversity of life, is valued in its own right. Synthetic biology seems in some ways to be the nonpareil example of the “altering nature to suit human demands” ideal” (Kaebnick). There are ways in which the human population has made attempts to accommodate nature in ways of “green” technology. However, in the aspects mentioned throughout, advances are being made to “alter nature to suit human demands”. That is the reason why this remains an ethical issue. Many have a hard time accepting the work that goes against what naturally occurs. One cannot predict the outcome effects of such actions. It seems morally wrong to change the way in which life exists. This may be a solid argument standpoint, yet our environment adapts to its’ surroundings. Time and technology have evolved, and they allow for ideas that may pose skeptical to some. In a highly evolving world, one needs to keep an open- mind with sound judgment. Without this scientific field of study, the knowledge obtained today would not be possible. This research should not be looked at in a matter of ethics, but rather in a scientific approach to what exists.
- 6. Works Cited Bell, Charles C., et al. "A High-Throughput Screening Strategy For Detecting CRISPR-Cas9 Induced Mutations Using Next-Generation Sequencing." BMC Genomics 15.1 (2014): 1- 15. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2015. “Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering. ” Issues & Controversies. Infobase Learning, 15 Sept. 2014. Web. 24 Nov. 2015. <http://icof.infobaselearning.com/recordurl.aspx?ID=14660>. Dettweiler, Ulrich, and Perikles Simon. "Points To Consider For Ethics Committees In Human Gene Therapy Trials." Bioethics 15.5/6 (2001): 491. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2015. JASANOFF, SHEILA, J. BENJAMIN HURLBUT, and KRISHANU SAHA. "CRISER Democracy Gene Editing And The Need For Inclusive Deliberation." Issues In Science & Technology 32.1 (2015): 25-32. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2015. KAEBNICK, GREGORY E. "Of Microbes And Men." Hastings Center Report 41.4 (2011): 25- 28. Biomedical Reference Collection: Basic. Web. 24 Nov. 2015. Lokody, Isabel. "Correcting genetic defects with CRISPR--Cas9." Nature Reviews Genetics 15.2 (2014). General Science Collection. Web. 24 Nov. 2015. Riordan, Sean M., et al. "Application of CRISPR/Cas9 for biomedical discoveries." Cell & Bioscience 5 (2015): 33. General Science Collection. Web. 24 Nov. 2015.