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Edexcel GCSE History A: The
Making of the Modern World
Contents
Welcome to Modern World History 4
How to use this book 5
Unit 1 Peace and War:
International Relations 1900 – 1991
Section 1: Why did war break out? International rivalry 1900 – 1914 6
Examzone 26
Section 2: The peace settlement 1918-28 28
Examzone 48
Section 3: Why did war break out? International relations 1929-39 50
Examzone 70
Section 4: How did the Cold War develop? 1943-56 72
Examzone 92
Section 5: Three Cold War crises: Berlin, Cuba and Czechoslovakia c1957 – 69 94
Examzone 114
Section 6: Why did the Cold War end? The invasion of Afghanistan (1979) to the
collapse of the Soviet Union (1991) 116
Examzone 136

Unit 2 Depth Study:
Option 2a Germany 1918-39
Key topic 1: The Weimar Republic 1918-33 138
Key topic 2: Hitler and the Growth of the Nazi Party 1918-33 156
Key topic 3: The Nazi dictatorship 1933-39 172
Key topic 4: Nazi domestic policies 1933-39 186
Examzone 198
Unit 3 Source Enquiry: Option 3a War and the
transformation of British society c1903 – 28
Key topic 1: The Liberals, votes for women and social reform 202
Key topic 2: The part played by the British on the Western Front 216
Key topic 3: The home front and social change 230
Key topic 4: Economic and social change 246
Examzone 262
Unit 3 Source Enquiry: Option 3c War and the
transformation of British society c1903 – 28
Key topic 1: McCartyism and the Red Scare 266
Key topic 2: The civil rights movement 1945-62 278
Key topic 3: Changes in the civil rights movement 1963-70 294
Key topic 4: Other protest movements in the 1960s 314
Examzone 326
Examzone Revision 330

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Unit 1: International Relations 1900–1991
Section 4: How
did the Cold
War develop?
1943–56
How many World Wars have there been? This
seems like an easy question. There were two:
the rst between 1914 and 1918, and the second
between 1939 and 1945. However, some American
writers have suggested that there was a Third
World War, which started in 1945 and ended in
1991 with the fall of the Soviet Union. This war is
better known as the Cold War.
In this section you will study the
development of the Cold War.
In particular, you will look at: Spec check
Why did the Cold War begin? The end of the
Grand Alliance – how allies became enemies
1943–1947.
The development of the Cold War: dividing
Germany and dividing Europe 1948–1949.
Hungary under Soviet rule 1949–1956.
You will consider the breakdown in trust between the USSR
and America following their victory in World War Two, and
how this led to a division of Europe. Additionally, you will
see how ideology, the personalities of powerful men and the
development of the atom bomb intensi ed con ict in the late
1940s. Finally, you will consider the rst two ashpoints of
the Cold War: Berlin and Hungary.
Subject to Approval

Section 4: How did the Cold War develop? 1943–56
73
What was the Cold War?
Can we really call the Cold War the Third World War? There were
important differences between World War One and World War Two,
on the one hand, and the Cold War on the other. The Cold War was a
new kind of con ict in which America and the USSR never declared
war on each other, nor did American and Russian soldiers face each
other in battle. In fact during much of the time there was a ‘Cold
Peace’ – both sides were keen to avoid actually ghting because
they knew that a real Third World War, a nuclear war, would be
unwinnable.
However, although Russia and America never fought each other,
the Cold War had many of the characteristics of an actual war. For
example, both sides were involved in an arms race: a military build-up
of nuclear weapons as well as armies, navies and air forces. Both
sides formed military alliances and were involved in spying on each
other. Finally, propaganda was an essential aspect of the Cold War.
Governments used propaganda to persuade their own citizens that
they were under threat and therefore that the military build-up was
necessary. Propaganda was also essential to show why enemies were
evil and why they needed to be fought.
Cummings of the Daily Express, 24 August
1953: ‘Back to where it all started’
A British cartoonist sums up the nuclear
stand-off that developed during the Cold War.
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Why did the Cold War begin? The
Breakdown of the Grand Alliance
Learning objectives
In this chapter, you will learn about:
• The difference between communism and
capitalism.
• The three key meetings of the Grand Alliance.
• The diffi cult relationship between Russia and
America before the Cold War began.
The Grand Alliance (1941)
Prior to the Cold War, America and the USSR
worked together as members of the Grand Alliance:
an alliance created in 1941 to defeat the Nazis.
However, the Grand Alliance was a marriage of
convenience between communists and capitalists
united only in their opposition to Hitler. Once
Hitler had been defeated, the Alliance became
increasingly uneasy. Between 1943 and 1945,
the leaders of the Grand Alliance met at three
international conferences: Tehran, Yalta and
Potsdam.
Capitalism Communism
Focus Individual rights The rights of the
working class
Values Individual freedom Equality
Economy Free trade Government planned
Politics Democratic
elections
Communist Party
controls government
The Tehran Conference (1943)
The Tehran Conference was designed to make
plans for the reconstruction of Europe following
World War Two. The ‘Big Three’ – American
President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime
Minister Winston Churchill and Russian leader
Joseph Stalin – agreed that the USSR should have
a ‘sphere of in uence’ in Eastern Europe. A ‘sphere
of in uence’ meant an area in which communism
was respected. This would guarantee that the USSR
was not threatened by any of its neighbouring
countries. Equally, Western Europe would be a
British and American sphere of in uence, where
capitalism would be dominant.
The Big Three did not, however, agree on Germany’s
future. Stalin believed that Germany should
be punished for starting World War Two, losing
territory and paying reparations. This would ensure
that Germany was never again a threat. Roosevelt
and Churchill, on the other hand, believed that
Germany should be rebuilt. They argued that a
peaceful Europe needed a prosperous Germany.
The Yalta Conference (1945)
The Yalta Conference marked the highpoint of the
Grand Alliance. The Big Three made the following
decisions:
• Stalin agreed that Russian troops would help
America defeat Japan once Hitler had been
defeated.
• Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to the
establishment of a communist government in
Poland.
• The Declaration on Liberated Europe committed
the USSR, America and Britain to work for
democracy in Europe.
• The allies agreed to establish the United Nations,
an organisation committed to maintaining
peace.
• The Big Three restated their agreement that
the USSR should have a sphere of in uence in
Eastern Europe.
Signs of tension
In spite of the apparent unity, there were important
issues that divided the Big Three. For example,
although they all agreed to work for democracy,
there were ideological disagreements over
what democracy meant. Stalin believed that a
democratic government had to be a communist
government because only the communists truly
represented the working people. Roosevelt, on the
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75
other hand, believed that democracy involved a number of different
political parties competing to win the people’s support in free
elections.
The success of the conference was based largely on Stalin’s
relationship with Roosevelt. However, within two months Roosevelt
had died and the new American President, Harry S. Truman, was less
willing to compromise with Stalin, leading to further tensions at the
Alliance’s nal conference.
Stalin, Truman and Churchill at
Potsdam in 1945.
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76
Examination question
(a) Describe one issue that caused tension at
the Potsdam Conference (1945) [2]
The Potsdam Conference (1945)
The Potsdam Conference was the nal meeting of the three
leaders of the Grand Alliance. The Conference addressed
the question of the government of Europe following the
German surrender. The big question, according to Churchill,
was Germany. The allies agreed to ban the Nazi Party and to
prosecute surviving Nazis as war criminals. They also agreed
to reduce the size of Germany by approximately a quarter.
Finally, they agreed to temporarily divide Germany into four
zones allocated to the French, the British, the Americans
and the USSR.
Once again, there was disagreement on bigger issues. The
USSR wanted to impose heavy reparations on Germany,
whereas America wanted Germany to be rebuilt. The
Conference agreed a compromise whereby each ally would
take reparations from the zone they occupied.
Truman attempted to assert his authority during the
Potsdam Conference. His rst move was to postpone the
Conference to give American scientists more time to test
the rst atomic bomb. Following the successful test of the
American atomic bomb in July 1945, Churchill noticed a
change in Truman’s attitude. Truman believed that America
possessed the ultimate weapon and therefore, in Churchill’s
words ‘told Stalin where to go and generally bossed
everyone around’. Truman believed that the atomic bomb
was ‘the master card’ in the Potsdam discussions. It gave
America the power to destroy entire enemy cities without
risking a single American life.
Stalin refused to be bossed around. He was determined to
protect the interests of the USSR and was also unimpressed
by America’s bomb. Stalin’s plan was to protect the USSR by
creating a buffer zone – an area in Eastern Europe between
the USSR and the capitalist west.
Truman’s arrogance and Stalin’s determination soured
the relationship at the centre of the Grand Alliance. Their
relationship was further strained by the USSR’s actions in
Poland. Stalin had agreed to set up a government in Poland
that included both communists and capitalists. However,
by the time of the Potsdam Conference it was evident that
he had broken his word. Although the Potsdam Conference
nished with a show of unity, insiders at the conference
were aware that there were bitter divisions between
America and the USSR, which some thought would lead to a
new war.
Build Better Answers
The examiner is looking for a developed
statement, a statement that both answers the
question and provides some detailed support.
Question: Describe one decision that
was made about the division of Europe at
the Yalta Conference in 1945 [2]
A basic answer (Level 1).
At the Yalta Conference, Europe was divided
between Russia and America.
A good answer (Level 2).
At the Yalta Conference, Europe was divided
between Russia and America. It was agreed
that both countries should have a ‘sphere
of infl uence’ in Europe within which their
interests would be respected.
Subject to Approval

Activities
1. Divide the following conference aims into those belonging to the USA, those belonging to the USSR,
and those shared by both:
• A ‘sphere of infl uence’ in Eastern Europe.
• Reparations from Germany.
• Governments representing working people.
• A peaceful and prosperous Germany.
• Governments elected by the people.
• Prosecution of Nazi war criminals.
• A communist government in Poland.
• Democratic governments across Europe.
2. The three conferences – Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam – form the background to the Cold War. During
this period it became clear that relations between the USSR and America were uneasy. This activity
will help you to understand how these relationships developed.
a) On a large piece of paper, draw the following axes:
Cooperation 10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
Tension 1
Tehran Yalta Potsdam
b) For each conference, make two lists:
a) evidence that the ‘big three’ were cooperating
b) evidence that there was tension in their relationship.
c) Use the information on your lists to reach a judgement about the extent to which the big three
were cooperating at each conference. Give the big three a mark out of 10, where 10 represents
complete cooperation and 1 represents great tension.
d) Plot the scores for each conference on your graph.
e) In what ways did the relationship between the big three change during this period?
f) Make a list of reasons why the relationship between the big three changed between the Tehran
Conference in 1943 and the Potsdam Conference in 1945.
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78
Why did the Cold War begin?
Fear of War
Learning objectives
• The breakdown of trust between Russia and America.
• How Russia and America viewed each other in 1946.
The War of words
During 1946 it became increasingly clear that Europe had been
divided between capitalism in the west and communism in the
east. Stalin, representing the east, and Churchill, representing the
west, responded with a ‘war of words’ showing that the former allies
now viewed each other with tremendous suspicion. This suspicion
became an important part of the Cold War.
Stalin’s response to Churchill’s speech,
March 1946
Essentially, Mr Churchill now adopts the position of the warmonger,
and in this Mr Churchill is not alone. He has friends not only in
Britain but in the United States of America as well. A point to be
noted in this respect is that Mr Churchill and his friends bear a
striking resemblance to Hitler and his friends.
Churchill gave his speech during a trip to America and everyone
understood that President Truman supported what he had said.
Clearly, both sides had started to view each other as opponents
rather than allies.
Sending out the spies!
Truman and Stalin were concerned about the breakdown of the
Grand Alliance and the threat of a new war. Both men asked for
secret reports from their embassies to help them to understand how
their opponents were thinking. Both reports were sent as telegrams.
Question: Describe one factor
that led to a breakdown in the
Grand Alliance in 1946. [2]
A basic answer (Level 1).
This will be accurate, but will lack
detail.
A good answer (Level 2).
Better answers will be accurate and
will include supporting information.
Look at the question above. Take one
of the following factors:
a) Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ speech
b) The Long Telegram
c) Novikov’s Telegram
What supporting information would
you use to develop your point?
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron
curtain has descended across the continent. Behind the line lie all
the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe…
all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in
the Soviet sphere and all are subject, in one form or another,
not only to Soviet infl uence but to a very high and increasing
measure of control from Moscow.
Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ speech, March 1946
Subject to Approval

Do not confuse the Churchill’s ‘Iron
curtain’ with the Berlin Wall! The
‘Iron curtain’ is a metaphor for the
division of Europe, whereas the
Berlin Wall was an actual barrier
dividing Berlin.
Activity
Divide your class into three teams. Each team must prepare a short speech explaining who they believe was
responsible for the breakdown of the Grand Alliance. Team 1 will argue that the USA was to blame. Team 2 will
argue that the USSR was to blame. Team 3 will argue that both sides share the blame.
Present your speeches in turn. Your teacher will award marks in the following way:
• Relevant and accurate statement – 1 point
• Specifi c supporting detail – 2 points
• Clear explanation of why the opposing side is to blame – 3 points
The team with the most points wins!
79
The Long Telegram (1946)
Truman received worrying news in the ‘Long Telegram’. This telegram
reported that:
• Stalin had given a speech calling for the destruction of capitalism.
• There could be no peace with the USSR while it was opposed to
capitalism.
• The USSR was building up its military power.
Novikov’s Telegram (1946)
Novikov’s telegram to Stalin was equally concerning, and
reported that:
• America desired to dominate the world.
• Following Roosevelt’s death, the American government was no
longer interested in cooperation with the USSR.
• The American public was being prepared for war with the USSR.
Following these secret telegrams, both governments believed that
they were facing the possibility of war. Indeed, the government of
the USSR came to believe that war with America was inevitable. In
America, too, soldiers who had fought in World War Two, who had
returned to America and entered politics, called Stalin ‘the new
Hitler’. Their point was simple: Stalin, like Hitler, was preparing for
war and must be stopped.
On the verge of the Cold War
By the end of 1946, the Grand Alliance was all but over. America had
come to believe that the USSR was planning world domination and
many in the USSR feared that America was planning the same. At
the beginning of 1947, Truman addressed the American government,
setting out his belief that America must stand against communism.
This speech, setting out the ‘Truman Doctrine’, can be seen as the
unof cial declaration of the Cold War.
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80
The Development of the Cold War: The
Truman Doctrine and Marshall Aid
Learning objectives
• The key features of the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Aid.
• America’s reasons for offering Marshall Aid.
The Truman Doctrine (1947)
Following the ‘Long Telegram’, Truman asked the American military
to assess the strength of the USSR’s army. He learned that the USSR
was in no position to wage a war. Nonetheless, Truman believed
that the USSR had a second strategy which would allow them to
conquer more and more territory without having to declare war:
Stalin would encourage Communist revolutions across Europe. After
World War Two, much of Europe was shattered and citizens in Italy,
France, Greece, Turkey and the United Kingdom were suffering great
hardships. In these conditions communism was highly appealing. To
address this threat, in 1947 Truman set out a new policy which soon
became known as the ‘Truman Doctrine’.
The Truman Doctrine stated that:
• The world had a choice between communist tyranny and
democratic freedom.
• America had a responsibility to ght for liberty wherever it was
threatened.
• America would send troops and economic resources to help
governments that were threatened by communists.
• Communism should not be allowed to grow and gain territory.
The signifi cance of the Truman Doctrine
The Truman Doctrine was important because it suggested that
America, rather than the United Nations, had a responsibility to
protect the world. This marked a reversal of the USA’s policy of
‘isolationism’ which had meant that America would stay out of
international affairs. It was also signi cant because it divided the
world according to ideology: it stated clearly that capitalism and
communism were in opposition. Finally, it set a realistic goal for
American foreign policy. Truman was committed to ‘containment’,
which implied that America would not invade the USSR, but it would
make every effort to stop the spread of communism.
Question: Briefl y explain the key
features of the Truman Doctrine.
[6]
A basic answer (Level 1)
This will contain simple statements
that are accurate, but contain no
supporting examples. The Truman
Doctrine said that America would
help protect other countries from
Communism.
A good answer (Level 2)
This will be made up of one or
two statements which are both
accurate and developed with specifi c
examples. e.g. The Truman Doctrine
said that America would help protect
other countries from Communism by
sending troops and economic aid if
necessary.
An excellent answer
(Full marks)
To get full marks, you must write
three detailed statements with
specifi c examples,
Subject to Approval

Briefl y explain the key features of the
Marshall Plan. [6]
81
The Marshall Plan (1947)
Truman described containment and the Marshall Plan as ‘two halves
of the same walnut’. By this he meant that America had a dual
strategy for dealing with communism. First, containment aimed
to beat communism through military force. Secondly, the Marshall
Plan of 1947 committed $13 billion of American money to rebuild
the shattered economies of Europe. By encouraging prosperity, the
Marshall Plan would weaken the attraction of communism. To those
suffering economic hardship following World War Two, the promise
of sharing resources equally had great appeal. If people were wealthy,
however, the idea of sharing resources would have less appeal. In
order to qualify for American money, European countries had to
agree to trade freely with America. In this way, the Marshall Plan also
helped the American economy.
Initial reaction to the Marshall Plan
European leaders met at the Paris Conference of 1948 to discuss
the American offer. Many European countries were keen to receive
Marshall Aid. However,
representatives from the USSR
walked out of the conference
claiming that the Americans
were attempting to split Europe
into ‘two camps’. They argued
that Marshall Aid was the
rst step in creating a military
alliance which would wage war
on the Soviet Union. Stalin also
insisted that Eastern European
countries in the Soviet ‘sphere
of in uence’ refuse the help
offered by America. By contrast,
16 countries including Britain
and France welcomed the offer,
seeing it as a way of rebuilding
their economies and defeating
communism in their own
countries.
Activity
You are one of Truman’s advisors. Prepare a letter to be sent to the leaders of all European governments inviting
them to the Paris Conference of 1948. The letter should:
• Describe America’s offer of assistance (the Marshall Plan).
• Explain why America is offering this assistance.
• Set out what the government must do in order to qualify for this offer.
Remember to be persuasive!
Subject to Approval

138
Unit 2: Depth Study
Key Topic 1: The Weimar
Republic 1918–33
By 1918, the Germans had been at war – the First World
War – for four years. They faced the combined might of the
Allies – Britain, France, Russia and the USA. The Allied navies
were blockading Germany, preventing imports. There were
shortages of weapons for troops and basic supplies for the
population. The Germans launched a last desperate attack
upon Paris in the spring of 1918, but failed.
Food shortages caused severe hardship and military failures caused a sense
of hopelessness. All this created public unrest all over Germany. Workers
at the Daimler plant in Stuttgart went on strike and demonstrated in the
streets. In Munich, there was an uprising led by a Jewish communist named
Kurt Eisner. In several cities workers set up their own local government
councils. In Hanover, soldiers refused to control rioters and in Kiel and
Hamburg, naval crews refused to follow orders and mutinied.
It was clear that Germany would lose the war. The Army told the German
Emperor (the Kaiser) that he had to abdicate to save the country from civil
war. On 9th November 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm accepted his fate and ed to
Holland.
Germany’s biggest political party, the Social Democratic Party (SDP) declared
Germany a republic, soon known as the Weimar Republic. Friedrich Ebert,
an SDP leader, became its rst Chancellor. But governing the new Germany
was very dif cult.
In this Key Topic you will study: Spec check
The origins and early problems of the Weimar Republic
1918–23.
The recovery of the Weimar Republic under Stresemann
1924–29.
The impact of the Great Depression 1929–33.
The Weimar Republic faced many problems in its early years. There were
economic problems caused by the effects of the war; there were revolts
against the new government. From 1924 the work of Chancellor Stresemann
seemed to bring prosperity back to Germany. But this came to a dramatic
end after 1929 when economic depression destroyed both the German
economy and the Weimar Republic.
Subject to Approval

Option 2A: Germany 1918–39
139
The Treaty of Versailles
Learning objectives
• the Treaty of Versailles – its terms and effects
• reasons for German resentment of the treaty.
The Diktat
On 11th November 1918, just two days after the Kaiser had abdicated,
Mattias Erzberger, representing the new government, signed the
Armistice – an agreement to stop ghting. The Allied leaders, David
Lloyd George (Britain), Georges Clemenceau (France) and Woodrow
Wilson (United States) then drew up the peace treaty.
The Germans were given 15 days to respond to the treaty. It
said Germany had to accept the blame for starting the war, pay
reparations (compensation) to the defeated nations and agree to
reductions in Germany’s armed forces and land.
The Germans were bitterly opposed and asked for several changes;
all were refused. The treaty was a diktat – it was imposed upon
them. Because of their military collapse, and economic and political
turmoil, they had to accept. On 28th June 1919, the German delegation
signed Treaty of Versailles.
The treaty was not liked by the German people or German political
parties. They blamed Germany’s new political leaders for signing
the treaty. This link with defeat and humiliation weakened the new
republic right from the very start.
The victors demand that, as the
defeated, we shall be made to pay
and, as the guilty, we shall be
punished. The demand is that we
should agree that we, alone, are
guilty of having caused the war.
Such a confession, in my mouth,
would be a lie.
Vengeance, German nation!
Today, in the Hall of Mirrors at
Versailles, a disgraceful treaty
is being signed. Never forget it!
On that spot…German honour is
being dragged to its grave. There
will be revenge for the shame of
1919.
Activity
Put yourself in the place of
Chancellor Ebert. Write a reply
to the Deutsche Zeitung.
Use the information on these
two pages to explain why
you had to sign the Treaty of
Versailles.
A cartoon from The Star in 1921. When reparations were fi xed in 1921, even the
British press could see that they were too high.
Count Brockdorff-Rantzau, leader of the
German delegation at Versailles.
Deutsche Zeitung, a German newspaper, 28th
June 1919.
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140
Unit 2: Depth Study
The terms of the Treaty of Versailles
Germany had to pay reparations to the Allies
• Eventually xed, in 1921, at 136,000 million
marks (£6,600m).
Germany lost land
• Alsace and Lorraine were given to France
• Eupen and Malmédy went to Belgium
• Posen and West Prussia were given to Poland
• The loss of Posen divided Germany in two,
cutting off East Prussia from the rest of the
country
• Plebiscites (public votes) had to take place in
other areas, to decide whether to leave Germany
• Upper Silesia voted to become part of Poland
• Northern Schleswig decided to become part of
Denmark
• The German port of Danzig was made an
international city – not governed by Germany.
• Altogether, Germany lost:
• about 13% of its European territory
• almost 50% of its iron and 15% of coal
reserves.
Germany lost all its colonies
• 11 German colonies in Africa and the Far East
were given to victorious countries as ‘mandates’
– territories to look after.
German military forces were cut
• The army was limited to 100,000; to be used
internally only.
• The navy was limited to 6 battleships, 6
cruisers, 12 destroyers and 12 torpedo boats. No
submarines were allowed. The rest of the eet
was destroyed.
• No air force was allowed. The existing air force
was destroyed.
• The Rhineland was demilitarised.
• The German army was not allowed in
Rhineland, which bordered France.
Paris
Versailles Stuttgart
Germany and the Treaty of Versailles
POLAND
Danzig
(free city)
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
East Prussia
West
Prussia
DENMARK
HOLLAND
BELGIUM
FRANCE
Weimar
Munich
Berlin
Hamburg
Kiel
Northern Schleswig
Hanover
The Ruhr
Posen
Upper Silesia
Rhineland
Alsace
and
Lorraine
Eupen
and
Malmédy
KEY:
Areas Germany ceded
to other countries
Areas which left
under plebiscite
Demilitarised zone
International city
Subject to Approval

Explain why the Germans disliked
the Treaty of Versailles. [8]
141
Dolchstoss – the stab in the back
The Treaty of Versailles was particularly unpopular because the
German Army had never been defeated in the war. It had failed to
win, but it had not been defeated. Critics of the treaty claimed that
the army had been ready to ght on. They said that the army had
been betrayed by politicians in Berlin. In effect that they had been
‘stabbed in the back’ (the Dolchstoss).
Even Ebert, the new Chancellor, greeted the return of the German
Army to Berlin in December 1918 with the words ‘Your sacri ce and
deeds are without parallel. No enemy defeated you!’ Ebert had to
accept the peace, but he had lost two sons who were soldiers in the
war and he never accepted defeat.
Despite this, the politicians who signed the treaty were blamed for
its harsh terms. These politicians became known as the ‘November
Criminals’ and resentment followed the new republic all the way to
its collapse in 1933.
The treaty therefore had lasting effects within Germany.
• It weakened the popularity of the Weimar Republic.
• It caused lasting political protest.
• It harmed Germany’s economy.
The examination will always have
questions on why things happened –
like the one above.
This will give two reasons why the
Germans disliked the treaty.
This will give detailed information to
illustrate each reason.
A better answer (Level 3)
This will explain why each reason
was unpopular (e.g. Losing Posen
divided Germany into two parts,
cutting off East Prussia completely).
An excellent answer (Level
3 full marks)
This will show links between reasons
(e.g. The Germans didn’t like being
blamed for the war. They thought this
was unfair. But also this blame meant
they had to pay reparations, which
they also disliked. The answer then
gives details of reparations and why
they were disliked.)
A poster from 1931 showing a German
in the Shackles of Versailles. Even 12
years after the treaty was signed, parties
campaigned against it.
Subject to Approval

142
Unit 2: Depth Study
The Weimar Republic – a new
constitution
Learning objectives
After the Kaiser’s departure, there was
unrest all around Germany. Armed groups
clashed with the army and claimed
control in some towns. But central
government went on much as before. Civil
servants stayed in post and six moderate
social democrats formed a Council of
People’s Representatives, a temporary
government. They weren’t interested in
revolutionary change. They organised
elections for a National Assembly which
met, in February 1919, to create a new
constitution. With so much unrest in
Berlin, the Assembly met in Weimar – and
the new republic was called the Weimar
Republic, even after the government
moved back to Berlin. By August 1919
the Assembly had drawn up the new
constitution.
Armed protesters parading in Berlin in 1919.
The terms of the constitution
The constitution was more democratic than government
under the Kaiser. German people had more control. There
was also a system of checks and balances. This meant
that power was shared out.
Local government was run by the 18 regions of Germany
(eg Bavaria, Prussia) which kept local parliaments.
Central government was given more power than before.
The dominant house of the new German parliament was
the Reichstag. It controlled taxation.
• Members of the Reichstag were elected every four
years.
• All men and women over 20 could vote, using a secret
ballot.
• Proportional representation was used. This meant that
the number of Reichstag seats which political parties
were given depended on the percentage of votes they
gained.
The other house of the German parliament was called the
Reichsrat.
• A number of members were sent by each local region,
according to its size.
• The Reichsrat could hold up new laws unless overruled
by a two-thirds majority of the Reichstag.
The head of the government was the Chancellor, who
chose ministers and ran the country.
• In order to pass laws, he needed majority support in
the Reichstag.
The head of state was the president, who was directly
elected by the people every seven years. The president
took no part in day-to-day government, but was a
powerful gure.
• He chose the chancellor (the chancellor was usually
the leader of the largest party).
• He could dissolve the Reichstag, call new elections and
assume control of the army.
• Under Article 48, the president could suspend the
constitution and pass laws by decree.
• how a new constitution was agreed
• the terms of the new Weimar
constitution
• the weaknesses of the constitution.
Subject to Approval

143
A social democrat, Friedrich Ebert, was elected by
the Assembly as the rst president. He carefully
gained the support of powerful groups in society.
He promised General Groener, the head of the
German Army, that there would be no reform of
the armed forces. He reassured the industrialists’
leader, Hugo Stinnes, that there would be no
nationalisation of private businesses. He ensured
the support of trade unions by promising their
leader, Karl Legien, a maximum eight-hour working
day. With this support, the new government
overcame the opposition of the protesters and
gradually gained control of the country. The new
republic was successfully launched.
Weaknesses of the constitution
Firstly, proportional representation meant that
any party with a small election vote gained seats
in the Reichstag. During the 1920s, 28 parties
were represented in the Reichstag. To get majority
support, chancellors needed coalitions of several
parties – usually Social Democrats, the People’s
Party, the Democratic Party and the Centre Party.
But these all wanted different things, making
stable government dif cult.
Secondly, the careful balancing of powers made
strong, decisive government by the chancellor very
dif cult in times of crisis. This second weakness
meant that, whenever compromise broke down,
chancellors had to ask the president to suspend
the constitution, under Article 48, and rule by
decree. This gave the impression that the new
constitution didn’t really work.
The Weimar Republic was built on shaky
foundations. Extremist parties didn’t support it;
moderate Germans feared it was too weak.
Did you know?
Because the National Assembly could not meet
in Berlin, its meetings were held in Weimar’s
National Theatre, complete with stage, circle
and box seats.
Describe how the Weimar Republic was
governed. [6]
Your exam paper will always have a question like the one
above, which tests your ability to select and communicate
factual information.
This will make one or two points without detail (e.g. The
Government was democratic).
This will give detail (e.g. The Government was more
democratic than under the Kaiser, because men and
women over 20 could vote).
An excellent answer (Level 3 full marks)
This will make three points, all with supporting detail.
A 1950s painting of Ebert addressing the National
Assembly in the National Theatre in Weimar, 1919.
Subject to Approval

144
Economic problems 1918–23
Learning objectives
• the bankruptcy of the new Weimar government
• the occupation of the Ruhr
• infl ation and hyperinfl ation.
Bankruptcy
At rst, Germany’s biggest problem was that its government was
bankrupt. Its reserves of gold had all been spent in the war. The
Treaty of Versailles made things worse. It deprived Germany of
wealth-earning areas, such as coal elds in Silesia; it also made the
German government pay reparations. Germany asked for reductions,
but the victors, especially France, needed money to pay war debts to
the USA. With no gold reserves and falling income, by 1923 Germany
could no longer pay.
Occupation of the Ruhr
In retaliation, the French sent troops into the German industrial area
of the Ruhr. They con scated raw materials, manufactured goods
and industrial machinery. The German government urged passive
resistance; workers went on strike; there was even some sabotage.
The French replied by arresting those who obstructed them and
bringing in their own workers.
The Germans bitterly resented what the French had done. However,
many Germans also resented the failure of the Weimar Republic
to resist, even though, realistically, they had no choice. Germany’s
reduced troop numbers of 100,000 were no match for the 750,000 in
the French army.
The occupation of the Ruhr did the French little good, but it
crippled Germany. Many factories and 80% of German coal and
iron were based there. The disruption increased Germany’s debts,
unemployment and the shortage of goods.
Infl ation
These shortages meant that the price of things went up and people
had to pay more money to get what they needed. This is called
in ation.
Unfortunately, the government made this worse. They needed more
money to pay their debts, but unemployment and failing factories
meant taxes brought them in less money. From 1919–23, government
income was only a quarter of what it needed. So they just printed
more money. In 1923, the government had 300 paper mills and 2,000
printing shops just to print more money.
This 1923 poster shows German bitterness
about the economic situation. France is seen
ravaging German industry. The caption reads
‘Hands off the Ruhr area’.
German cartoon from 1922 – Gutenberg, the
German inventor of the printing press says
‘This I did not want!’
Unit 2: Depth Study
Subject to Approval

On days when Mutti was not able to buy bread, she searched through Examination question
the garbage cans for potato peels and other scrap…(or)…she took kitchen
scraps and leftovers from the houses where she did laundry.
Activity
• Write the following on small cards: fall in value of pensions; shortage of industrial goods; government bankruptcy; fall in
value of savings; infl ation; reparations; occupation of the Ruhr; printing more money; loss of land after Versailles.
• Organise the cards into causes and effects. Draw lines between causes and their effects. (Note: some cards may be both
a cause of one thing and an effect of another.)
• What does the resulting diagram tell you about
• the causes of the bankruptcy of the German government?
• the causes of the social and economic problems of the German people?
145
This made it easier for the government to pay reparations. But it
made in ation even worse. It was a vicious circle: the more prices
rose, the more money was printed, which made prices rise again. By
1923, prices reached spectacular heights: in 1919 a loaf of bread cost
1 mark; by 1922 it cost 200 marks; and by 1923 it cost 100,000 million
marks. This extreme in ation is called hyperin ation.
The results of hyperin ation were complex.
• Everyone suffered from shortages. This was because German
marks became worthless in comparison with foreign currency. In
1918 £1 cost 20 marks; by 1923 £1 cost 20 million million marks.
Foreign suppliers refused to accept marks for goods, so imports
dried up and shortages of food and other goods got worse – for
everyone.
• Everyone found it dif cult to buy what they needed – even if their
wages went up. People had to carry bundles of money in baskets
and even wheelbarrows. Many workers were paid twice a day, so
that they could rush out and buy goods before prices rose even
further. Some suppliers refused to take money at all, asking for
payment in kind (swapping goods).
• People with savings were hit hardest. Money saved in bank
accounts, insurance policies or pensions became worthless. People
with these types of savings were mainly from the middle class.
Eventually, things improved. In September 1923 a new chancellor was
appointed – Gustav Stresemann. In November 1923, he cancelled the
old mark and issued a new currency – the Rentenmark. This led to a
period of stability. However, most Germans had suffered and many of
them blamed the Weimar Republic. The middle classes had suffered
most. They should have been the bedrock of support for the Weimar
Republic.
German cartoon
from 1923. A mother
holds her emaciated
child above a sea
of paper money,
pleading for ‘brot’ –
bread.
Explain why there were so many
economic problems in Germany
between 1918 and 1923. [8]
Note: This is a causation question –
about why things happened. There
will always be a causation question
in your examination.
On Hitler’s Mountain, by Irmgard Hunt; her mother lived in
Germany in the 1920s.
Subject to Approval

146
Political problems 1918–1923
Learning objectives
• the main political groups in the Weimar Republic
• the political unrest in the Weimar Republic from 1918–23.
Socialists are left wing; communism is an extreme
left wing movement.
At this time, the right wing in German politics
included a host of small nationalist parties.
• They resented that the Weimar Republic’s Social
Democratic politicians had abandoned the army
in 1918.
• Even more, they hated the Communists who had
undermined the Kaiser with riots and mutinies
in 1918.
• They feared the damage Communists would do
to their property and German traditions.
• They wanted to reverse the terms of the Treaty
of Versailles, reinstate the Kaiser, boost the army
and return Germany to its former strength.
• They gained support from the military, the
judiciary and the civil service, who were opposed
to giving power to ordinary people in the new,
democratic Weimar Republic.
The rst years of the Weimar Republic were
dominated by political unrest all over Germany.
This unrest came from right wing and left wing
groups.
Right wing and left wing
Generally speaking, those on the right wing of
politics:
• want to keep society very stable
• want a strong government dominated by
powerful leaders
• support capitalism, the private ownership of
land and business
• stress family unit, law and order and traditional
values
• are nationalist – placing the interests of the
nation over the individual.
Fascism and Nazism are extreme right wing
movements.
Generally, those on the left wing of politics:
• want to change society rapidly
• aim to treat all people as equals and give
political power to workers
• oppose capitalism; they want to abolish private
ownership of land or business and put these in
the hands of workers
• are internationalist; they stress cooperation of
nations.
Did you know?
The terms ‘left’ and ‘right’ to describe political
views date back to the French Revolution. In the
new 1789 parliament, members who wanted to limit
change and keep power in the hands of the King
and a small elite sat on the King’s right. Those who
wanted to change political system and give the
people more power sat on the King’s left.
A right wing cartoon. It shows
Karl Liebknecht, leader of
Germany’s Communists,
attacking German property,
industry, money and families.
Unit 2: Depth Study
Subject to Approval

147
The left wing in Germany was dominated by the
KDP, the German Communist Party.
• They wanted a revolution in Germany like the
one in Russia in 1917.
• They thought that the Weimar Republic gave too
little power to the workers.
• They wanted government by councils of workers
or soldiers.
• They wanted to abolish the power in Germany of
the landowning classes and the army.
From 1918 to 1923, the German people were
unhappy about:
• the Weimar leaders’ decision to admit defeat in
1918
• the 1919 Treaty of Versailles – which Germans
regarded as punitive and vindictive
• the hardships caused by unemployment and
in ation.
All this persuaded many people in Germany to
support extreme left wing or right wing political
groups between 1918 and 1923. If they did support
extremist groups, at this stage, German workers
tended to support the socialists and communists,
while the German Army, business classes and
A left wing political poster produced by the KDP. Note
that they portray themselves as the slayers of German
landowners tended to support the right wing
capitalism, militarism and the German landed nobility –
groups.
the ‘Junker’. The Spartacists were part of the Communist
Party.
The main political parties in the
Weimar Republic
KDP SDP DDP ZP DVP DNVP NSDAP
Communist
Social
Democratic
Party
Democrats
Party
Centre Party People’s Party National Party Nazi Party
Extreme left
wing
Moderate left
wing
Left wing
liberal
Moderate Right wing
liberal
Right wing
party
Extreme right
wing
Opposed
Weimar
Republic
Supported
Weimar
Republic.
Supported
Weimar
Republic
Supported
Weimar
Republic
Supported
Weimar
Republic in
1920s
Opposed
Weimar
Republic
Opposed
Weimar
Republic
Supported by
workers and
some middle
classes
Supported by
workers and
middle classes
Backed by
business
Originally
the party of
the Catholic
Church
Backed by
upper middle
classes
Landowners,
wealthy middle
class and big
business
Subject to Approval

148
Violent political unrest
One thing which made politics in the Weimar Republic so violent
was that political parties had their own private armies. They
recruited mainly ex-soldiers, who were often unemployed and bitter
that their government had accepted peace. The left wing had its
Rotfrontkämmpfer (Red Front Fighters). The Stahlhelm (Steel Helmets)
were a conservative organisation on the right wing. Even the
moderate SDP had its Sozi force.
At rst, private armies were for protection, but they quickly caused
political activity to become violent. For example:
• Hugo Hasse, one of Ebert’s Council of People’s Representatives, was
murdered in 1919
• Matthias Erzberger, a moderate politician who signed the
surrender of Germany in 1918, was shot and killed walking in the
Black Forest in August 1921
• Walther Rathenau, the Weimar Foreign Minister, was machine-gunned
to death in the street in Berlin in June 1922.
In all, between 1919 and 1922 there were 376 political murders,
mostly of left wing or moderate politicians. However, not a single
right wing murderer was convicted and executed, while ten left wing
assassins were. This shows how much the legal system (the judiciary)
was lled with right wing supporters.
The Spartacist League
Sometimes, extreme political groups tried overthrow the Weimar
Republic by force. For example, in January 1919 in Germany, there
were Communist uprisings. They set up workers’ and soldiers’
soviets – local councils – in towns throughout Germany. A central
Council of Commissars was created claiming to be the true
government, as a direct threat to Chancellor Ebert’s new
moderate government in Berlin.
The most in uential communist leaders were Rosa
Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, leaders of the Spartacist
League, named after Spartacus, the leader of a slaves’ revolt
in Ancient Rome. On 6th January 1919, they led a march of
100,000 communists in Berlin and took over key buildings.
The Chancellor, Ebert, and his Defence Minister, Gustav
Noske, needed to put down the rebels. They realised that the
regular army (the Reichwehr) was in no shape to put down
the revolt alone. They turned to the Freikorps.
The Freikorps were demobilised soldiers, returning from the
war, who had refused to give back their arms. They were
anti-Communist and worked with the regular army. It is
estimated that the Freikorps numbered 250,000 by March
1919.
With the help of the Freikorps, the Weimar government was
able to put down the Spartacist uprisings in early 1919.
Overall, several thousand communist supporters were killed,
The Social Democratic politi-cians
into whose lap the German
government fell in 1918 didn’t have
widespread support. Instead, they
faced a bitter, suffering population,
fi lled with unrealistic ideas about
what peace could bring and divided
about…the road ahead.
Richard Bessel, Nazism and War, 2004.
A recruitment poster for the Freikorps, 1919.
Unit 2: Depth Study
Subject to Approval

Watch out!
Exam candidates sometimes get confused.
• The Kapp Putsch (Revolt) was a Right wing uprising.
• The Spartacist League was a Left wing organisation.
Describe the ways political unrest was dealt with in
Germany in the years 1919–20. [6]
Note: This is a question where you select information and
communicate it. There will always be a question like this in
your exam.
149
mostly in Berlin. Both Rosa Luxemburg and Karl
Liebknecht were captured and then murdered by
army of cers on the way to prison.
The Kapp Putsch (revolt)
Despite the involvement of the army, the unrest
continued. In 1920, 5000 right-wing supporters of
Dr Wolfgang Kapp marched on Berlin to overthrow
the Weimar Republic and bring back the Kaiser.
For a while, the rebels controlled the city. The
government ed to Dresden; they urged people not
to cooperate and instead to go on strike.
Many workers obliged; they had socialist leanings
and no desire to see the Kaiser return. Essential
services – gas, electricity, water, transport – stopped
and the capital ground to a halt. Kapp realised he
could not govern and ed. He was caught and put
in prison, where he later died.
Still the unrest continued. In 1923, there was
another right wing uprising – the Munich Putsch –
led by Adolf Hitler.
Unrest subsides
It wasn’t until the end of 1923 that the political
unrest calmed down. A new chancellor, Gustav
Stresemann, came to power; in ation was brought
under control, suffering was reduced and politics
became more moderate.
However, by this time, the Weimar Republic was
permanently weakened by the political unrest.
• They had not been able to govern on their own
authority. They relied upon workers’ strikes and
the violence of the Freikorps. Government forces
had killed thousands of Germans to keep them
in power.
• Extremist parties had gathered strength during
the turbulent years of 1918–23. They still had
their private armies and events had proved the
worrying lesson that those with most military
power would eventually win.
Armed Freikorps soldiers, an armoured car and a fl ame-thrower,
putting down unrest in Berlin during 1920.
Activity
As a class or a group, draw up a balance sheet of successes and failures for the Weimar Republic by 1923.
Overall, how had it done?
Subject to Approval

266
Unit 3: Source Enquiry
Key Topic 1:
McCarthyism and
the Red Scare
Although the USA and the Soviet Union had
been allies during the Second World War, their
political differences soon caused problems
once the war was over. The Soviet Union was
communist. The USA was capitalist. Both sides
wanted the nations of the world to accept their
political system. The opposition between them
became known as the Cold War.
In this Key Topic,
you will study: Spec check
The impact of the Cold War.
The development of the Red Scare.
The impact of McCarthyism.
You will see how the fear of communism had a signi cant
effect on US foreign policy. People feared that the Cold War
could turn into a real war, possibly a widely destructive
nuclear war, at any time. At the end of the war, only the
West knew how to make the hugely destructive atomic
bombs. The US government was desperate to stop the
Soviet Union nding out how to make these bombs. You
will also see how this fear caused a reaction against
communism within the USA, known as the Red Scare,
which led to people losing their jobs or going to prison
because of their political beliefs. Reaction went further
– Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed after having
been convicted of passing nuclear secrets to the Soviets.
The pursuit of communists, real and imaginary, was called
‘McCarthyism’ after Senator Joseph McCarthy, one of the
most active communist hunters. Eventually, McCarthyism
declined but even now there are disputes about how real
the communist threat was.
Subject to Approval

SWEDEN
ESTONIA
LATVIA
LITHUANIA SOVIET
UNION
POLAND
DENMARK
EAST
GERMANY
BELGIUM
LUXEMBOURG
FRANCE
SWITZERLAND
AUSTRIA
ROMANIA
HUNGARY
GREECE
ALBANIA
TURKEY
BULGARIA
YUGOSLAVIA
North Sea
Iron Curtain
Mediterranean Sea
Black Sea
Baltic
Sea
NORWAY
KEY:
Territories occupied by
the Soviet Union in 1945
Communist takeover
‘free’ elections
The communist Soviet Union and the capitalist
West fought together in the Second World War and
even made agreements about working together
after the war. Once the war was over, many of
the countries occupied by the Soviet Union soon
had communist governments. The USA watched
this spread of communism with growing concern,
fearing a communist takeover of Europe. President
Truman decided to send aid to European countries
that were suffering badly after the war, to help
keep them non-communist.
The Marshall Plan, set up by the US government,
gave thousands of millions of dollars in aid to
European countries. It provided everything from
money, to food, to the railway cars needed to
transport that food. The Soviet Union saw this as
an attempt to ‘bribe’ these countries into staying
capitalist. Cold War fears drove much US policy,
at home and abroad, for many years. People were
especially fearful of possible nuclear war, and the
USA was desperate to keep the secret of making
atomic bombs out of Soviet hands.
Option 3C: A divided union? The USA 1945–70
267
The impact of the Cold War
Soviet expansion in Europe by 1950. Think about which
countries might be next.
Today, nearly every nation must choose between
opposing ways of life. Too often, the choice is forced
on them. One way of life, based on the will of the
people, has free elections, guarantees of individual
freedom, free speech and religion, and freedom from
political oppression. The second has the will of a
minority forced on the majority. It relies on terror and
oppression, a controlled press, fi xed elections, and
the suppression of individual freedom. I believe the
US must support peoples resisting attempted control
by armed minorities or by outside pressures. I believe
our help should be mainly economic aid to restore
economic stability and orderly political processes.
From a speech made by President Truman on 12
March 1947. It outlined the Truman Doctrine – the
idea that the US should help other countries resist
communism.
Source B
The communists believe there can be no permanent
co-existence with the US. For Soviet power to be
secure, it has to disrupt our society, destroy our way
of life and break us as an international power. The
Soviets have a highly developed system for working
in other countries and they are very experienced
and skilful at using it secretly.
Source A Part of a telegram sent to the White House
in February 1946 by George Kennan, the US
ambassador in Moscow. Think about how this
would affect US reactions to the Soviet Union.
Subject to Approval

268
The Berlin Crisis
The rst clash of the Cold War was in Berlin. The
Soviet Union, Britain, France and the US all held
parts of Germany after the war. The plan was to
work together to unite Germany. However, Cold War
fears meant disputes broke out; both sides made
secret plans to exclude the other. Berlin, in Soviet-controlled
Germany, was split into four sectors, one
for each of the Soviet Union, France, Britain and
the US. The Soviet Union pressed Berliners from
all sectors to vote to become communist in ‘free’
elections. In June 1948, it closed Berlin’s transport
links out of Soviet-controlled Germany, cutting
off supplies to the British, French and US sectors.
It looked as if these sectors would be starved into
voting communist. So the western powers ew in
supplies, despite the possibility of being shot down
by the Soviets and dropped them in their sectors. In
April 1949, they set up the Federal Republic of West
Germany. The Soviets then set up the communist
German Democratic Republic. Berlin was split
between the two.
Cold War fears hardened. In April 1949, the USA,
Canada and Western Europe set up a military
alliance called NATO, agreeing to defend each other
if attacked. So the Soviet Union set up the Warsaw
Pact, a communist version of NATO.
War in Korea
After the war, Korea (like Germany) was occupied
by US and Soviet troops and divided into a
communist north and a non-communist south. As
in Germany, both sides disagreed over uni cation.
They saw Korea as an important symbol in Asia
– it mattered whether the united Korea was
communist or not. After the war, North Korea
elected a communist government; South Korea
elected a non-communist one. In 1950, they went
to war, with the US giving military help to the
South (acting for the UN and supplying troops and
a commander) and the Soviet Union supporting
the North. The war dragged on until 1954 and
ended with the country still divided. The USA
began the war saying it would help countries ght
communism with aid, advice and supplies. They
ended the war prepared to send troops to ght in
the name of the USA in another war.
The front cover of a magazine sold (and
given away free) by a church group in the
USA. Think about why they would give it
away free.
Source C
Top tip
Students who consider the purpose of a source will do
well. Source C was clearly created as a piece of anti-communist
propaganda. Churches in the USA saw the
Soviet Union as violently opposed to religion.
Subject to Approval

269
Question: Mr. President, would
you comment on the importance of
Indochina [Cambodia, Laos and
Vietnam, which had been French
colonies] to the free world?
Answer: First, you have the value
of a place in terms of its materials
that the world needs. Then you have
the possibility of many people being
taken over by a dictatorship. Finally,
you have to consider the ‘falling
domino’ principle. You have a row
of dominoes set up, you knock over
the fi rst one, and the last one goes
over very quickly. Asia has lost 450
million people to the Communist
dictatorship; we simply can’t afford
greater losses. The loss of Indochina
could be followed by the loss of
Burma, Thailand and Indonesia. That
would be millions and millions of
people. The possible consequences of
the loss are just incalculable to the
free world.
Source D Schoolchildren in the USA in 1951 practising the ‘duck and
From a press conference given by
President Eisenhower on 7 April 1954.
cover’ system, supposed to protect them if there was a nuclear
attack. These practices were held regularly. Think about what
that suggests about how threatened people felt.
Source E
1 Study the map on page 267. In groups, discuss how the map suggests that US fears about
the Soviet Union’s desire to take over Europe might be reasonable. Think of an argument
the Soviet Union could put forward to counter this.
2 In groups, discuss what you can learn from the sources about how Cold War fears
affected US policy. Make a table like the one below to show your decisions. The fi rst one
has been done for you.
Source A B C D E
It suggests… The US government would become more
afraid of communists in the USA.
Because… An important government offi cial told
the White House that the Soviet Union
would want to destroy the US way of
life.
Activities
Subject to Approval

270
The ‘Red Scare’
Cold War fears also affected government policy inside the
USA. Many people believed the Soviet Union was working
secretly inside the USA to overthrow the government
and fear of communism grew. The Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) built up les on possible communists. The
House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC), set
up by the government, questioned more and more people
in a search for Soviet agents. One woman, Elizabeth Bentley,
admitted to being a Soviet agent. She gave the FBI names of
150 agents, including 40 government workers. HUAC held
more investigations.
HUAC also investigated Hollywood, fearing communists
might use the lm industry to spread propaganda. Ten
Hollywood writers refused to give evidence to HUAC.
Famous lm stars, such as Humphrey Bogart, supported
the Hollywood Ten, but the Ten were still sent to prison
for their refusal to give evidence. The FBI set up Loyalty
Boards to investigate government workers and over 200
were forced to resign. People became less willing to support
those investigated by HUAC or the FBI as anti-communist
hysteria increased. They did not want to be accused of
being communist themselves and face the possibility of
imprisonment or losing their jobs or homes.
The Hiss Case
In 1948, Alger Hiss who had advised President Roosevelt
and worked for the UN was accused of being a communist.
He had been accused before, but this time HUAC accepted
the evidence against him and he was sent to trial. While
the trial was going on the Soviets tested their rst atomic
bomb, increasing fears of a nuclear war and communist spy
rings. The evidence for and against Hiss was complicated
and confused. He was found guilty and sent to prison for
ve years. He and his supporters still protest his innocence.
Information from various Soviet sources after the Cold
War ended suggests both his guilt and his innocence.
Despite President Truman’s pleas that US citizens had a
right not to be punished for their opinions, the House of
Representatives passed the McCarran Act to limit the places
where communists could be employed and denied them US
passports. All communist organisations had to be registered
and their members were investigated.
Members of the Association of Motion Pic-ture
Producers strongly disapprove of the
action of the Hollywood Ten. We will sack
or suspend, and will not re-employ, any of
the Ten until he is acquitted or has given
evidence and declares under oath that he is
not a Communist.
We will not knowingly employ a Communist
or a member of any party wishing to over-throw
the US government by force or by
illegal or unconstitutional methods. How-ever,
we will not be swayed by hysteria or
intimidation. We see that there is a danger
of hurting innocent people. There is a risk
of creating an atmosphere of fear. Creative
work cannot be done in an atmosphere of
fear.
Statement issued by
Hollywood Motion Picture
producers, 24 November 1947.
Think about why they made
this statement.
Source A
Question: Is the FBI interested in infor-mation
about any Communists, or only
those connected with spy rings or possible
sabotage?
Answer: The FBI is mainly interested in
members of the Communist Party who might
be engaged in espionage, sabotage, or who
are a possible threat to the internal secu-rity
of the United States. However, the FBI
is interested in knowing the identity of all
Communists in the United States. Any Com-munist
might be recruited into espionage. He
may be handing out peace petitions today.
Tomorrow he may be sabotaging American
industry or working as a spy.
From an interview with J Edgar Hoover,
Director of the FBI, in the US News and
World Report, August 11, 1950. Think
about why Hoover answered as he did.
Source B
Subject to Approval

Top tip
Political cartoons often have a
message and show the views of the
cartoonist about political issues.
Students who can work out the
message from the content of the
cartoon will get higher marks than
those who describe what is in the
cartoon.
271
Activities
1 Write a letter to a friend from
one of the people who signed
Source A. Explain why you
supported the letter.
2 Study Source C.
a Circle which you think is
the right answer in the
sentences below.
The cartoonist approves of
the investigations.
The cartoonist does
not approve of the
investigations.
b List as many details from
the cartoon as you can to
support your answer under
the following headings:
• The person being
investigated
• The evidence the
investigators are fi nding
c Complete the sentences
below, using your
examples:
I can tell how the
cartoonist feels about the
investigations because…
A cartoon from The Washington Post, 24 April 1949. This
cartoonist, Herbert Block (who signed himself ‘Herblock’),
made up the word ‘McCarthyism’.
Source C
Subject to Approval

272
McCarthyism
In October 1949, China became a communist
country. This was a big blow to the capitalist West.
As anti-communist hysteria increased, Joseph
McCarthy, Senator for Wisconsin, made a public
speech in which he said: I have here in my hand a
list of 205 names known to the Secretary of State as
being members of the Communist Party and who are
still working in and shaping the policy of in the State
Department. The next day, on 10 February 1950, he
changed this number to 57. Ten days later, he told
the Senate he could name 81. The senate set up the
Tydings Committee to investigate his accusations
and communist hunting had a new name:
McCarthyism.
At rst, McCarthy had a lot of support. Twenty- ve
US states brought in anti-communist laws. The
media latched onto his sensational accusations
and helped to fuel the hysteria. In many parts of
the US, anti-communist groups worked to hound
suspected people out of their jobs and homes and
beat them up. Levels of fear rose. Now factory
workers could as easily be the target of ‘red-baiters’
as people in jobs where they in uenced how people
thought or government policy, like teachers or
government workers.
Many newspapers, from Honolulu to Washington,
echoed his charges that there was a spy ring in
Washington. McCarthyism was catching fi re. By March
1950, the donations and the letters of support were
heavy: ‘Why don’t you get the rats out of the State
Department?’ Drew Pearson [a newspaper reporter
later accused of communism by McCarthy] wrote in
his diary for 21 March 1950, ‘Support for McCarthy
seems to be growing. Senator Taft amazed me by
admitting that he was encouraging McCarthy’.
Source B
Activity
From Reds, a book about McCarthyism written by
Ted Morgan in 2003.
1 In Source A, McCarthy was said to have had
thousands of letters of support.
a Explain why these letters may have been
supporting him.
b Explain why these letters may not have been
supporting him.
Source A
A photo used in a newspaper on 24 March 1950,
saying that McCarthy was getting between 5000
and 6000 letters a day supporting his campaign
to clear communists out of the State Department.
Think about why the photo was taken and what
might be in the letters.
Subject to Approval

Question: Do the sources support the view that there
was a huge amount of support for McCarthy in the
years 1950-51? Explain your answer. [10]
This will consider points of agreement or points of
disagreement, quoting from the sources.
A better answer (Level 3)
This will consider both points of agreement and points of
disagreement.
An excellent answer (Level 4)
This will weigh up the evidence, thinking about how
reliable it is.
273
‘McCarthyism’ is now part of the language. Thou-sands
turn out to hear his speeches. Millions regard
him as ‘a splendid American’ (a fellow senator recently
called him that). Other millions think McCarthy a
worse menace than the Communist conspiracy against
which he professes to fi ght.
Some have argued that McCarthy’s end justifi es his
methods. This argument seems to assume that lies are
required to fi ght Communist lies. Experience proves,
however, that what the anti-Communist fi ght needs
is truth, clearly and carefully presented. As The New
York Times put it: ‘He has been of no use whatever
in helping us to fi nd the guilty, but many of us have
begun to suspect there must be some good, however
small, in anybody who Senator McCarthy opposes.’
Part of an article published in TIME magazine on
October 22, 1951.
Source C
Activities
1 a For each source, write a sentence or two
explaining whether you think it shows support
for McCarthy and why.
b Write a paragraph to answer the following
question (using the information from 1a): How
far do the sources support the idea that there
was a huge amount of support for McCarthy
between 1950 and 1951?
Source D
An ‘anti-communist squad’ in California attacking
suspected communists outside a car factory on 23
July 1950.
Subject to Approval

Maximise your marks
Know
Zone
Question B:
Examiner’s tip: Question (b) will be a question which
asks you to take a major event or policy and explain it
by writing about its ‘key features’ or explaining ‘in what
ways’ a policy or treaty or action caused something to
happen. Be careful that you don’t just tell the story. You
need to decide what the key features (or most important
points) were and write about each in turn. Let’s look at an
example.
‘What were the key features of the Anschluss Crisis in
1938?’ (6 marks)
Student answer
Hitler wanted to join Austria and Germany together even
though the Treaty of Versailles said that they should not
be joined. The Austrian Nazis made a huge fuss and the
Chancellor had to give them places in government. Still
they were not happy and Chancellor Schuschnigg was
put under pressure to invite Germany to join with Austria
in Anschluss. He decided to have a referendum but
Hitler didn’t like this. So Hitler invaded and then held the
referendum.
Examiner comments
This is quite a good summary of the story of March
1938 and is accurate about the events. But it doesn’t
really give ‘the features’, so would only be rewarded
at around half marks for providing developed
statements. Each key feature should be like a peg
that you hang facts and explanation on. Let’s re-write
the answer with features added. So that you can spot
them easily we will put them in bold.
One of the features of the Anschluss Crisis was that
Hitler continued with his policy of breaking the
Treaty of Versailles. Hitler wanted to join Austria and
Germany together even though the Treaty of Versailles
said that they should not be joined. He also used
a policy of creating trouble in Austria and then
bullying the Austrians into submission. The Austrian
Nazis were encouraged to make a huge fuss and the
Chancellor had to give them places in government.
Still they were not happy and Chancellor Schuschnigg
was put under pressure to invite Germany to join with
Austria in Anschluss. He decided to have a referendum
but Hitler didn’t like this. So Hitler invaded and then held
the referendum. Another feature was that Britain and
France continued with their policy of appeasement.
Neither country made any attempt to stop Hitler breaking
the terms of the Treaty.
As you can see, this answer has three developed
explanations of key features and would receive full
marks.
examzone Unit 1 - section 3
In the Unit 1 exam, you will be required to answer
questions from three sections. We are going to focus
on Unit 1, Section 3.
As with all the sections in Unit 1, you will have to
answer three questions. The examiners think that you
need only 25 minutes to answer three questions on
each section. So they are not expecting you to write
huge amounts. The number of marks and the number
of lines set aside in the answer book help you judge
how much to write. We are going to look at question
(b) and question (c)
Exam Zone
70
Subject to Approval

Maximise your marks
Question (c)
Examiner tip: Question (c) will test your understanding
of causation. That means they will be questions which ask
you ‘Why?’ something happened. This question also tests
extended writing, but you will only have 15 minutes to
answer in the exam so get straight to the point!
Higher
Question: ‘Explain why relations between Britain and
Germany changed in 1939’
Student answer
At the beginning of 1939 Britain and Germany were
on quite good terms. It was only a few months since
they had signed the Munich Agreement and the Anglo-
German Declaration. But during 1939 a number of things
happened which caused the relations to get worse. First
of all Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia, then he signed
the Nazi Soviet Pact and fi nally he invaded Poland. So
relations changed.
Examiner comments
This isn’t really a very good answer. It tells the story
of 1939 briefl y and does say relations got worse
because of events. BUT in a piece of extended writing
the examiners want you to:
- identify the causes
- give some historical detail
- make links between the causes and the question
(in the above example we aren’t told why the Nazi-
Soviet Pact caused a change of relations – just that
it did!)
Let’s re-write this so that it explains the causes.
At the beginning of 1939 Britain and Germany were
on quite good terms. It was only a few months since
they had signed the Munich Agreement and the Anglo-
German Declaration. But during 1939 a number of things
happened which caused the relations to get worse.
First of all it became apparent to Britain that they could
not trust Hitler. British foreign policy was based on
appeasement. This involved negotiating with Hitler to
reach agreement. Hitler had said that after Munich he
had no more territorial demands. So when he invaded
Czechoslovakia he showed he was a liar and British
policy had to change. The policy also had to change when
he signed the Nazi Soviet Pact. This was an agreement
between Hitler not to go to war. Britain had been
presuming that Hitler could not invade Poland because
Stalin would stop him. Now Chamberlain knew this was
not the case relations had to change. So Chamberlain
made an agreement with Poland.
This answer would get better marks because:
- it gives two distinct reasons why relations changed
(the invasion of Czechoslovakia and the Nazi-Soviet
Pact)
- it gives details
- it makes links between the reasons and the
question (Now Chamberlain knew this was not the
case relations had to change)
But to get full marks you have to do a little more. You
have to prioritise or make links between the reasons.
I suppose, in the end, the invasion of Czechoslovakia and
the signing of the Nazi-Soviet Pact are both the same
reason. They both show that in 1939 Hitler could not be
trusted. When Chamberlain realised this, he knew it was
rearmament, not appeasement, that was needed.
By adding this to the end of the previous answer, the
student would get full marks because the reasons are
linked.
Exam Zone
71
Subject to Approval

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