![
where [Cu2+]0 is the initial concentration of
Cu2+ in the sample. Substituting equation (6)
into equation (5) allows us to calculate the
desired potential.
………(7)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/coulometricmethods-140218131039-phpapp01/85/Coulometric-method-of-analysis-11-320.jpg)
Coulometric method of analysis
- 2. Introduction: It is a dynamic techniques, in which current passes through the electrochemical cell, Coulometry is based on an exhaustive electrolysis of the analyte. By exhaustive we mean that the analyte is completely oxidized or reduced at the working electrode or that it reacts completely with a reagent generated at the working electrode.
- 3. 1. There are two forms of coulometry: Controlled potential coulometry, in which we apply a constant potential to the electrochemical cell, and 2. Controlled-current coulometry, in which we pass a constant current through the electrochemical cell.
- 4. During an electrolysis, the total charge, Q, in coulombs, passing through the electrochemical cell is proportional to the absolute amount of analyte by faraday’s law Q = nFNA………..(1) where n is the number of electrons per mole of analyte, F is Faraday’s constant (96487Cmol-1), and NA is the moles of analyte.
- 5. A coulomb is equivalent to an Amber. second; thus, when passing a constant current, i, the total charge is Q =ite……………(2) where te is the electrolysis time. If the current varies with time, as it does in controlled- potential coulometry, then the total charge is .………….(3)
- 6. In coulometry, we monitor current as a function of time and use either equation (2) or equation (3) to calculate Q. Knowing the total charge, we then use equation (1) to determine the moles of analyte. To obtain an accurate value for NA, all the current must be used to oxidize or reduce the analyte. In other words, coulometry requires 100% current efficiency
- 7. Current efficiency is the percentage of current that actually leads to the analyte’s oxidation or reduction; to ensure 100% current efficiency is to hold the working electrode at a constant potential, chosen so that the analyte reacts completely without simultaneously oxidizing or reducing an interfering species
- 8. As electrolysis progresses the analyte’s concentration decreases, as does the current. The resulting current-versus-time profile for controlled-potential coulometry is shown in the Figure below Integrating the area under the curve (equation 3) from (t = 0 to t = te) gives the total charge
- 10. We can use the Nernst equation to estimate the minimum potential for quantitatively electrolysis If we define a quantitative electrolysis as one in which we reduce or oxidized 99.99% of substance Example; ……..(4) the required potential can be calculated by; ....................(5) then the concentration of Cu2+ at te is …….. (6)
- 11. where [Cu2+]0 is the initial concentration of Cu2+ in the sample. Substituting equation (6) into equation (5) allows us to calculate the desired potential. ………(7)
- 12. MINIMIZING ELECTROLYSIS TIME In controlled-potential coulometry, as shown in the above figure, the current decreases over time. As a result, the rate of electrolysis becomes slower and complete electrolysis of the analyte may require a long time. Factors affecting the analysis time: We can approximate the change in current as a function of time as ……….(8)
- 13. where i0 is the current at t = 0 and k is a rate constant For complete electrolysis in which we oxidize or reduce 99.99% of the analyte, the current at the end of the analysis, te, is ………..(9) Substituting equation (9) into equation (8) and solving for te gives the minimum time for complete electrolysis as
- 14. As k is directly proportional to the area of the working electrode and the rate of stirring, and that is inversely proportional to the volume of solution so factors affecting analysis time are; 1. Volume of electrochemical cell 2. Electrode surface area 3. Stirring rate A quantitative electrolysis typically requires approximately 30–60 min, although shorter or longer times are possible.
- 15. INSTRUMENTATION A three-electrode potentiostat is used to set the potential in controlled potential coulometry. The working electrodes is usually one of two types: a cylindrical Pt electrode manufactured from platinum-gauze or a Hg pool electrode Platinum is the working electrode of choice when we need to apply a positive potential while Hg is the electrode of choice for an analyte requiring a negative potential..
- 16. The auxiliary electrode, which is often a Pt wire, is separated by a salt bridge from the analytical solution. This is necessary to prevent the electrolysis products generated at the auxiliary electrode from reacting with the analyte and interfering in the analysis. A saturated calomel or Ag/AgCl electrode serves as the reference electrode.
- 17. Methods for determining the total charge; 1. One method is to monitor the current as a function of time and determine the area under the curve, as shown in the above figure. 2. Modern instruments use electronic integration to monitor charge as a function of time. The total charge at the end of the electrolysis is read directly from a digital readout
- 18. 3. Gravimetric technique If the product of controlled-potential coulometry forms a deposit on the working electrode, then we can use the change in the electrode’s mass as the analytical signal. For example, if we apply a potential that reduces Cu2+ to Cu at a Pt working electrode, the difference in the electrode’s mass before and after electrolysis is a direct measurement of the amount of copper in the sample. we call this electrogravimetry
- 19. Is a technique use a constant current in place of a constant potential, which produces the current-versus-time profile shown in the figure below
- 20. Controlled-current coulometry has two advantages over controlled-potential coulometry. First, the analysis time is shorter because the current does not decrease over time. A typical analysis time for controlled-current coulometry is less than 10 min, compared to approximately 30– 60 min for controlled-potential coulometry. Second the total charge is simply the product of current and time
- 21. 1. Problems with this technique; We need a method for determining when the analyte's electrolysis is complete. 2. The current efficiency may be <100%, due to secondary reactions
- 22. Maintaining current efficiency The change in the working electrode’s potential may result in a current efficiency <100%, as shown in the following reaction ………(10)
- 23. At the beginning, the potential of the working electrode remains nearly constant at a level near its initial value. As the concentration of Fe2+ decreases, the working electrode’s potential shifts toward more positive values until the oxidation of H2O begins. ……..(11) Because a portion of the total current comes from the oxidation of H2O, the current efficiency for the analysis is less than 100% and we cannot use eq.( 1) to determine the amount of Fe2+ in the sample.
- 24. Although we cannot prevent the potential from drifting until another species undergoes oxidation, we can maintain a 100% current efficiency if the product of that oxidation reacts both rapidly and quantitatively with the remaining Fe2+. To accomplish this we can add an excess of Ce3+ to the analytical solution, when the potential of the working electrode shifts to a more positive potential Ce3+ eventually begins to oxidize as shown; …….(12)
- 25. The Ce4+ that forms at the working electrode rapidly mixes with the solution where it reacts with any available Fe2+ maintaining a current efficiency of 100%. …… ……(13) Combining reaction (12) and reaction (13) shows that the net reaction is the oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+ …………..(14) A species, such as Ce3+, which is used to maintain 100% current efficiency, is called a mediator.
- 26. Endpoint determination; As shown from the above example, when the oxidation of Fe2+ is complete current continues to flow from the oxidation of Ce3+, and, eventually, the oxidation of H2O. So there is no signal that indicate there is no more Fe2+ in solution. In this example it is convenient to treat a controlled- current coulometric analysis as a reaction between the analyte, Fe2+, and the mediator, Ce3+, as shown by reaction 13.
- 27. This reaction is identical to a redox titration; thus, we can use the end points for a redox titration to signal the end of a controlled-current coulometric analysis. For example, ferroin provides a useful visual endpoint for the Ce3+ mediated coulometric analysis for Fe2+, changing color from red to blue when the electrolysis of Fe2+ is complete.
- 28. INSTRUMENTATION Controlled-current coulometry normally is carried out using a two-electrode galvanostat, consisting of a working electrode and a counter electrode. The working electrode—often a simple Pt electrode— is also called the generator electrode since it is where the mediator reacts to generate the species that reacts with the analyte.
- 29. There are two other crucial needs for controlledcurrent coulometry instrument: 1. An accurate clock for measuring the electrolysis time, te, and 2. A switch for starting and stopping the electrolysis The switch must control both the current and the clock, so that we can make an accurate determination of the electrolysis time.
- 30. Quantitative Applications Coulometry is used for the quantitative analysis of both inorganic and organic analytes. 1. Controlled-potential coulometry The majority of controlled-potential coulometric analyses involve the determination of inorganic cations and anions, including trace metals and halides ions. It is also used for the quantitative analysis of organic compounds, example is the reduction of trichloroacetate to dichloroacetate, and of dichloroacetate to monochloroacetate.
- 31. 2. Controlled-current coulometry (coulometric titrations) The use of a mediator makes a coulometric titration a more adaptable analytical technique than controlled-potential coulometry For an analyte that is not easily oxidized or reduced, we can complete a coulometric titration by coupling a mediator’s oxidation or reduction to an acid–base, precipitation, or complexation reaction involving the analyte.
- 32. For example, if we use H2O as a mediator, we can generate H3O+ at the anode and generate OH– at the cathode. Coulometric acid–base titrations have been used for the analysis of strong and weak acids and bases, in both aqueous and non-aqueous matrices. In comparison to a conventional titration, a coulometric titration has many important advantages. 1. The first advantage is that electrochemically generating a titrant allows us to use an unstable reagent.
- 33. Although we cannot easily prepare and store a solution of a highly reactive reagent, such as Ag2+ or Mn3+, we can generate them electrochemically and use them in a coulometric titration. Second, because it is relatively easy to measure a small quantity of charge, we can use a coulometric titration to determine an analyte whose concentration is too small for a conventional titration. Third, standardizations using primary standards are not necessary,
- 34. The coulometric method of analysis is accurate, precise , sensitive, selective and not expensive but Controlled-potential coulometry is a relatively time consuming analysis, with a typical analysis requiring 30–60 min. Coulometric titrations, on the other hand, require only a few minutes,
- 35. Another important example of redox titrimetry is the determination of water in substance such as pharmaceutical preparation and raw material . The titrant for this analysis is known as the Karl Fischer reagent and consists of a mixture of iodine, sulfur dioxide, pyridine, and methanol.
- 36. Because the concentration of pyridine is sufficiently large, I2 and SO2 react with pyridine (py) to form the complexes py•I2 and py•SO2. When added to a sample containing water, I2 is reduced to I– and SO2 is oxidized to SO3.
- 37. Methanol is included to prevent the further reaction of py•SO3 with water. The titration’s end point is signaled when the solution changes from the product’s yellow color to the brown color of the Karl Fischer reagent.
- 38. Thanks