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Advanced Satellite Communications Systems Technical Training Course Sampler

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Jim Jenkins

The document outlines a professional development course on advanced satellite communications systems led by Dr. John Roach, detailing course schedules and topics covered. It discusses satellite communication history, common techniques, error handling, earth station equipment, and modulation methods among others. The Applied Technology Institute (ATI) emphasizes the importance of keeping technical professionals current with state-of-the-art technology through tailored training programs.

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Slides From ATI Professional Development Short Course Advanced Satellite Communications System Instructor: Dr. John Roach ATI Course Schedule: http://www.ATIcourses.com/schedule.htm ATI's Advanced Satellite: http://www.aticourses.com/advanced_satellite_communications_systems.htm
www.ATIcourses.com Boost Your Skills 349 Berkshire Drive Riva, Maryland 21140 with On-Site Courses Telephone 1-888-501-2100 / (410) 965-8805 Tailored to Your Needs Fax (410) 956-5785 Email: ATI@ATIcourses.com The Applied Technology Institute specializes in training programs for technical professionals. Our courses keep you current in the state-of-the-art technology that is essential to keep your company on the cutting edge in today’s highly competitive marketplace. Since 1984, ATI has earned the trust of training departments nationwide, and has presented on-site training at the major Navy, Air Force and NASA centers, and for a large number of contractors. Our training increases effectiveness and productivity. Learn from the proven best. For a Free On-Site Quote Visit Us At: http://www.ATIcourses.com/free_onsite_quote.asp For Our Current Public Course Schedule Go To: http://www.ATIcourses.com/schedule.htm
Outline of Topics I. OVERVIEW OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS; HISTORY II. SATELLITE ORBITS III. COMM SATELLITE CHARACTERISTICS; TRANSPONDERS; TRANSPONDER USAGE TYPES: CONNECTIVITY; MULTIPLE ACCESS METHODS IV. COMMUNICATIONS LINK ANALYSIS DEFINITIONS OF EIRP, G/T, Eb/No, Es/No LINK BUDGET EQUATIONS; EXAMPLE LINK BUDGET DEFINITIONS OF NOISE TEMPERATURE, NOISE FACTOR ATMOSPHERIC LOSSES, INCLUDING RAIN V. COMMON MODULATION TECHNIQUES BPSK, QPSK, OFFSET QPSK (OQPSK) STANDARD PULSE FORMATS, FREQUENCY SPECTRA PSK RECEIVER DESIGN TECHNIQUES; CARRIER RECOVERY; TIMING RECOVERY VI. OVERVIEW OF ERROR HANDLING AND ERROR CODES; STANDARD CODES; CODING PERFORMANCE AND CODING GAIN; VII. OVERVIEW OF SCRAMBLING & ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES; EFFECT ON CHANNEL PERFORMANCE Overview 1, I-2 2/11/2011
Outline of Topics VIII. EARTH STATION RF EQUIPMENT HPAs, LNAs, FREQUENCY CONVERTERS GAIN AND PHASE DISTORTION HPA AM/AM, AM/PM INTERMODULATION PRODUCTS FREQUENCY CONVERTERS; OSCILLATOR OR PHASE NOISE COMMUNICATIONS MODELING IX. TDMA NETWORKS; TIME SLOTS; PREAMBLE; EXAMPLE NETWORK X. TRANSMISSION OF TCP/IP OVER SATELLITE; USE OF PEP XI. DVB APPROACH TO SMALL APERTURE TERMINALS; DVB-S; DVB-RCS XII. EARTH TERMINAL ANTENNAS; POINTING, TRACKING; REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS XIII. SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES; DIRECT SEQUENCE; FREQUENCY HOP; SHORT, LONG CODES; LONG CODE ACQUISITION, TRACKING XIV. NYQUIST SIGNALING; BANDWIDTH EFFICIENT MODULATION (BEM) TYPES XV. CONVOLUTIONAL CODING AND VITERBI DECODING XVI. EMERGING DEVELOPMENTS AND FUTURE TRENDS Overview 1, I-3 2/11/2011
ACRONYMS ACI Adjacent Channel Interference ACK Acknowledgement ACS Add-Compare-Select AES Advanced Encryption System AFC Automatic Frequency Control AGC Automatic Gain Control AJ Anti-Jam ALC Automatic Level Control AM Amplitude Modulation AM/AM Ratio of AM on Output to AM on Input of an RF Device AM/PM Ratio of PM on Output to AM on Input of an RF Device ANIK Series of Canadian Communications Satellites ASI Adjacent Satellite Interference ASK Amplitude Shift Keying APK Amplitude Phase Shift Keying ARIANE A French Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle ARQ Automatic Repeat Request AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise BB Baseband BCH Bose Chauhuri Hocquenheim (Block Code) BDC Block (Frequency) Downconverter BER Bit Error Rate BFSK Binary Frequency Shift Keying Overview 1, I-4 2/11/2011
ACRONYMS BLOS Beyond Line-of-Sight BoD Bandwidth on Demand BOL Beginning of Life BPF Bandpass Filter BPS Bits per Second BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying BSC Binary Symmetric Channel BUC Block (Frequency) Upconverter BW Bandwidth C Band Frequency Band from 4 GHz to 6 GHz CBR Carrier-Bit Recovery (Intelsat TDMA Header Segment) CCIR Comite Consultatif International des Radiocommunications (now replaced by ITU-R) CCITT Comite Consultatif International Telegraphique et Telephonique (now replaced by ITU-T) CDC Control and Delay Channel (Intelsat TDMA Header Segment) CDMA Code Division Multiple Access CEPT Conference Eurpeene des Postes CEVD Convolutionally Encoded-Viterbi Decoded C/I Carrier to Interference Ratio C/IM Carrier to Intermodulation Product Ratio C/kT Carrier to Noise Density Ratio CMA Control, Monitor, and Alarm Overview 1, I-5 2/11/2011
ACRONYMS C/N Carrier to Noise Ratio C/No Carrier to Noise Density Ratio CNR Carrier to Noise Ratio CODEC Coder/Decoder COMSAT Communication Satellite Corporation COTM Communications-on-the-Move CPE Customer Premises Equipment CPFSK Continuous Phase Frequency Shift Keying CPSK Coherent Phase Shift Keying CSC Control and Signaling Channel CVSD Continuously Variable Slope Delta Modulation DA Demand Assignment DAMA Demand Assignment Multiple Access dB Decibel dBi Decibel with respect to Isotropic dBm Decibel with respect to 1 Milliwatt DBS Direct Broadcast Satellite dBW Decibel with respect to 1 Watt D/C Frequency Downconverter DEMOD Demodulator DEMUX Demultiplexer DE Differentially-Encoded, DES Data Encryption Standard DL Downlink DM Delay Modulation DMC Discrete Memoryless Channel Overview 1, I-6 2/11/2011
ACRONYMS DC (Frequency) Down Converter DS Direct Sequence (CDMA spreading technique) DPSK Differential Phase Shift Keying DQPSK Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying DSB-SC Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier DSCS Defense Satellite Communication System DSI Digital Speech Interpolation (Intelsat terminology) DVB-RCS DVB-Return Channel by Satellite DVB-S Digital Video Broadcasting-Satellite DVB-S2 Digital Video Broadcasting-Satellite, Generation 2 Eb/No Energy per Bit to Noise Density Ratio ECC Error Correction Coding EDAC Error Detection and Correction EHF Extra High Frequency EIRP Effective Isotropically Radiated Power EOL End of Life EMP Electromagnetic Pulse ES Earth Station ESA European Space Agency Es/No Energy per Symbol to Noise Density Ratio ET Earth Terminal FCC U.S. Federal Communications Commission FDM Frequency Division Multiplex FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access Overview 1, I-7 2/11/2011
ACRONYMS FEC Forward Error Correction FET Field Effect Transistor FFH Fast Frequency Hop FFSK Fast Frequency Shift Keying FH Frequency Hop FL Forward Link (VSAT or DVB terminology) FOM Figure of Merit FM Frequency Modulation FSK Frequency Shift Keying GEO Geosynchronous Earth Orbit GHz Gigahertz G/T Ratio of Antenna Receive Gain to Noise Temperature HEO Highly Elliptical Orbit HF High Frequency (3-30 MHz) HP Horizontal Polarization HPA High Power Amplifier HPF High Pass Filter Hz Hertz IBO Input Backoff IC Integration Contractor IF Intermediate Frequency Overview 1, I-8 2/11/2011
ACRONYMS IFL Interfacility Link INMARSAT International Maritime Satellite Organization INTELSAT International Telecommunications Satellite Organization IOT In-Orbit Test IP Internet Protocol IPA Intermediate Power Amplifier ISL Inter-Satellite Link ITU International Telecommunications Union K Kelvin, unit of temperature with respect to –2730C K-Band 10-30 GHz Ka-Band 15-30 GHz KBPS or Kb/s Kilobits per Second KHz Kilohertz KPA Klystron Power Amplifier Ku-Band 10-15 GHz KW Kilowatts L-band 1-2 GHz LEO Low Earth Orbit LHCP Left Hand Circular Polarization LNA Low Noise Amplifier LO Local Oscillator LOS Line-of-Sight LPD Low Probability of Detection LPF Low Pass Filter LPI Low Probability of Intercept Overview 1, I-9 2/11/2011
ACRONYMS LSB Least Significant Bit M&C Monitor and Control MA Multiple Access MAP Maximum a Posteriori ML Maximum Likelihood MLD Maximum Likelihood Detector MLSE Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimator MLSR Maximum Length Shift Register Sequence MBPS or Mb/s Megabits per Second MCPS or Mc/s Megachips per Second MEO Medium Earth Orbit MF Matched Filter MFSK M-ary Frequency Shift Keying MHz Megahertz MILSTAR U.S. Military Satellite System MODEM Modulator-Demodulator MSB Most Significant Bit MSK Minimum Shift Keying MUX Multiplexer mw Milliwatt MW Megawatt NAK Negative Acknowledgement NB Narrow Band Overview 1, I-10 2/11/2011
ACRONYMS NBW Noise Bandwidth NEO Near Earth Object NF Noise Figure NLOS Non-Line-of-Sight NRZ Non Return to Zero OBO Output Backoff OD Orbital Debris; Orbit Determination OQPSK Offset-QPSK OMT Orthomode Transducer OW Order Wire PA Power Amplifier PCM Pulse Code Modulation P/D Power Divider PEP Performance Enhancing Proxy PG Processing Gain PLL Phase Lock Loop PM Phase Modulation PN Pseudo-noise (sequence) PR Partial Response Signaling PRN Pseudo-random Noise PSD Power Spectral Density PSK Phase Shift Keying QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation QPR Quadrature Partial Response Overview 1, I-11 2/11/2011
ACRONYMS QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying RA Random Access RF Radio Frequency RHCP Right Hand Circular Polarization RL Return Link (VSAT or DVB terminology) RMS Root-Mean-Square RS Reed-Solomon Code RSL Received Signal Level RSS Root Summed Square Rx Receiver RZ Return to Zero S-Band 2-4 GHz S/C Spacecraft SC Service Channel (Intelsat TDMA Header Seqment) SCPC Single Channel per Carrier SFD Saturation Flux Density SFH Slow Frequency Hop SHF Super High Frequency SIT Satellite Interactive Terminal SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol SNR Signal to Noise Ratio SOTM SATCOM-on-the-Move SPADE Intelsat SCPC System SQPSK Staggered QPSK Overview 1, I-12 2/11/2011
ACRONYMS SS Spread Spectrum SSMA Spread Spectrum Multiple Access SSPA Solid-State Power Amplifier SW Switch TCP Transmission Control Protocol TDM Time Division Multiplexing TDMA Time Division Multiple Access TDRS Tracking and Data Relay Satellite TDRSS NASA Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System TPC Turbo Product Code TT&C Tracking, Telemetry, and Commanding TWTA Traveling Wave Tube Amplifier Tx Transmitter U/C (Frequency) Upconverter UDP User Datagram Protocol UHF Ultrahigh Frequency UL Uplink USAT Ultra Small Aperture Terminal UW Unique Word (Intelsat TDMA Header Seqment) VA Viterbi Algorithm VCO Voltage Controlled Oscillator VCXO Voltage Controlled Crystal Oscillator VP Vertical Polarization Overview 1, I-13 2/11/2011
ACRONYMS VSAT Very Small Aperture Terminal W Watts WB Wideband WG Waveguide X-Band 7-8 GHz Overview 1, I-14 2/11/2011
I. Overview and History Overview 1, I-15 2/11/2011
Early History of Satellite Communications 1945 - Arthur C. Clarke wrote about extraterrestrial relays Passive Reflectors (uplink signals reflected back to earth): 1951 - Bounce off the moon 1960/64 - Bounce off US-launched 100’ &135’ diameter Echo mylar balloons 1963 - Bounce off Project Westford dipoles in orbit Active Satellites: 1957 - Russian Sputnik 1- Launch 10/4/1957 – no mission payload 1958 - Explorer I – JPL – measured cosmic rays, etc; Launch: 1/31/1958 1958 - Project Score - US DoD– Launch: 12/18/1958; world’s first communications satellite - Recorded Christmas message on tape recorder; UHF - First store-&-forward and real time communications - Battery-powered - 185 x 1484 km orbit; 32.3° Inclination 1960 - Courier 1B - US DoD; Launch: 10/4/1960 - First with solar cells & nickel cadmium batteries - 1 Voice channel & TTY, 2 Watts, 1.7 - 1.9 GHz - Orbit altitude: 938 x 1237 km orbit; 28.33° inclination Overview 1, I-16 2/11/2011
Early History of Satellite Communications (cont’d) 1962 TELSTAR I (AT&T) 1968 - INTELSAT III - First publically available instantaneous repeating satellite 1969 - TACSAT I (DOD) - 6/4 GHz, 3.3 Watts - First live TV transmission across the Atlantic 1971 - INTELSAT IV - 600 One-way voice circuits - 12 36 MHz channels; - Demonstrated large earth terminal antennas 6 Watts/channel 1962 - Relay (NASA/RCA) 1972 - ANIK (Canada) - Two 10 Watt transponders (4630 x S.M.; 47.5°) - First domestic satellite 1963 - Syncom II (NASA) 1974 - WESTAR (Western Union) - First geosynchronous satellite - First U.S. domestic satellite - Two channels, 500 kHz each - 7.31/1.8 GHz, 2 Watts 1977 - Advanced WESTAR/TDRSS - Inclination: 32° (II) 0.5° (III) - Commercial s/c development with Western Union financing guaranteed 1965 - Molniya (USSR) by NASA - Elliptical orbit - Inclination angle: 63.4° 1993 - ACTS (NASA) - First Ka technology satellite 1965 - Intelsat I (Early bird) NASA then turned SATCOM technology 1966 - Intelsat II development over to industry Overview 1, I-17 2/11/2011
General Satellite System Architecture USER SATELLITE SATELLITE USER TERMINAL CONTROL HUB NETWORK TERMINAL CENTER EARTH OPERATIONS (TT&C) STATION CENTER (NOC) DATA SOURCE Handset/LAN Handset/LAN 1 Overview 1, I-18 2/11/2011
Satellite System Operators • Example Satellite System Operators: – SES – Intelsat – Eutelsat – PanAmSat – JSAT – Telesat Canada – Space Communications (Japan) – Loral Space and Communications – Many other European and Asian operators • Each analyzes requests for service to assure legal and efficient use • Each protects their users – Operators cooperate to protect each others systems – Continuously monitor and control use of their satellites – Help investigate/characterize/geolocate interference sources • One equipment supplier claims to be capable of locating an interference to within 10 km from GEO Overview 1, I-19 2/11/2011
Legal Authorities over Spectrum • International Telecommunications Union (ITU): – Controls RF frequency assignments worldwide – Controls orbit locations (e.g., longitude for GEO) for satellites – Also has provided many technical standards for use in • SATCOM • Other radio environments, e.g., microwave LOS radios • In-Country Governmental Regulatory Body: – Controls spectrum use within the country – United States: • Federal Communications Commission (FCC) manages non-government use • National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) manages Federal use of spectrum – Foreign countries: Formerly, the PTT (which was a part of government) typically also managed radio spectrum. Varies country to country • Purpose: – Protect customers and assures efficient use of spectrum • Provides legal protection from interference from users on their systems or other systems • Satellite operators, e.g., work together to assure limited inter-system interference • Procedure: – Users must typically coordinate with other systems and obtain license before beginning operations – outside the US, this is often termed obtaining “landing rights” Overview 1, I-20 2/11/2011
Major US SATCOM RF Frequency Bands RF Band Bandwidth Downlink Uplink UHF: Military 5 & 25 KHz 243–270 MHz 292-319 MHz C Band: (6/4 GHz) 500 MHz 3.7-4.2 GHz 5.925-6.425 GHz X Band (8/7 GHz) 500 MHz 7.25-7.75 GHz 7.9-8.4 GHz Ku Band: 14/11 GHz 500 MHz 10.95-12.75 GHz 13.75-14.5 GHz Ka Band: 30/20 GHz Commercial Ka 2.5 GHz 17.7- 20.2 GHz 27.5-30 GHz Military Ka 1 GHz 20.2-21.2 GHz 30-31 GHz Military EHF: (44/20) 2 GHz up/1 down 20.2-21.2 GHz 43.5-45.5 GHz Military RF Inter-Satellite Band: 5 GHz 59-64 GHz Note: The exact RF band range for satellite use varies beween the three ITU Regions (US is in Region 2) & standard vs. extended band. The above are general band designations used throughout industry and in this course. These SATCOM band designations were adopted from radar band designations Overview 1, I-21 2/11/2011
Major Advantages of Satellite Communications • Interconnects users distributed across wide geographical areas • Provides access for rural users with limited local terrestrial communications • Easily supports broadcast to many terminals simultaneously • Based on satellite antenna footprint • Provides reasonably wide bandwidths • User terminals can be installed very quickly •Transportable/mobile terminals valuable for • Disaster support & recovery • Satellite Newsgathering (SNG trucks) • Early Deployment of troops in foreign areas • Transit case (TC) terminals can be checked as baggage on airplanes Overview 1, I-22 2/11/2011
Current C/Ku Satellite Antenna Footprints Support Wide Connectivity Among Users Overview 1, I-23 2/11/2011
SATCOM Disadvantages and Potential Remedies • Most communications satellites are in 23,000 miles high GEO orbits • Relatively large link signal loss and long transmission delay • Potential solutions: • Use large antennas and high power amplifiers • Use Performance Enhancing Protocols (PEPs) for TCP/IP links • Heavy rainfall causes link fading particularly at Ku/Ka RF bands • Potential solutions: • Use additional link margin • Use adaptive link data rate, or adaptive coding/modulation • Use site diversity • Interference can be a issue: • Co-channel interference due to operator errors • Other user is pointed at wrong satellite, on incorrect RF frequency or polarization • Adjacent satellite interference (ASI) from users with very small antennas • Potential solutions: • Work with satellite operator and NOC to determine source of interference and depend on operator to police your link per your lease agreement Overview 1, I-24 2/11/2011
Typical Transponder Services and Protection • Example commercial satellite offerings: – Full period, 24/7 • Monthly • Yearly • Multi-year – the longer the period, the lower the cost – Scheduled & recurring e.g., at 2-3 PM EST every day – Occasional use • Good example is a Satellite Newsgathering (SNG) truck • Example levels of protection available for full time service: – Fully protected: in the event of transponder failure, protection of users by • Assignment of other pre-emptible transponders – same satellite • Assignment of other pre-emptible transponders – other satellites – Non-Pre-emptible: Cannot be pre-empted in case of other transponder failures – Pre-emptible: not protected ---- could be pre-empted in case of other transponder failures Overview 1, I-25 2/11/2011
II. Satellite Orbits An Excellent Reference: Roger Bate, Donald Mueller, Jerry White, Fundamentals of Astrodynamics, Dover Publications, 1971 Overview 1, I-26 2/11/2011
Classes of Satellite Orbits • Low Earth Orbit (LEO) --- defined as having altitude < 2000 km – Circular, e.g., Iridium, Globalstar, Orbcomm; also many scientific, weather spacecraft – For comm use, a constellation of satellites is usually required to achieve reasonable visibility to users – A number of standard constellations of multiple satellites have been defined to meet certain objectives: • Walker constellations, etc. • Usually specified as, e.g., 7 spacecraft in each of 9 orbital planes at a specified inclination angle, equally spaced around the equator • Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) – Circular, with altitudes from ~ 2,000 km out to 35786 km, – e.g., GPS is ~ “half-synchronous” with altitude of ~ 20,200 km – Not many communications satellites in this regime; also Van Allen belts are in MEO • Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO) – Elliptical orbits, e.g., Molniya, Tundra, primarily at 63.40 inclination – Achieves good visibility with high average elevation angles for users at high latitudes • Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) – Circular, with altitude such that the orbital period exactly equals one sidereal period of the earth’s rotation – If excellent station-keeping is maintained, this could be called a “geostationary” orbit – By far the dominant orbit for communications satellites Overview 1, I-27 2/11/2011
General Cases of Orbital Geometry Overview 1, I-28 2/11/2011
Common Names for Circular Orbits Overview 1, I-29 2/11/2011
Three Parameters Describe Orbit Size and Shape 1  b 2 2 e = 1 − 2     a  b η Apogee Perigee Earth a • Semi-Major axis, a • Eccentricity, e • True Anomaly, η Overview 1, I-30 2/11/2011
Three Parameters Describe Orbit Orientation • Angle of Inclination, I • Angle between orbital and equatorial planes • Right ascension of ascending node, Ω • Measured eastward in the equatorial plane from the vernal equinox • Argument of Perigee, ω • Measured in orbital plane in the direction of the orbital motion from ascending node to line from earth center to perigee Overview 1, I-31 2/11/2011
Communications-oriented Characteristics of Circular Orbits • Orbital Period • Coverage • Time above the Horizon Overview 1, I-32 2/11/2011
Orbital Period for a Circular Orbit • From Kepler’s Laws we know that the orbital sidereal period is a function of satellite altitude: T(sec) = [2π/√GMe](re + h)3/2 where re is the earth’s radius, h is the satellite altitude, and GMe = 398,600.4418 km2/s2 • Note that: re = 6378 km (or 3444 nm or 3963 sm) • For example, the period of a satellite whose altitude is zero (the so-called Herget orbit -- the absolutely minimum orbital period possible) would be: TH = 84.486 minutes Overview 1, I-33 2/11/2011
Sidereal Period vs. Low Altitude Satellite 130 120 Sidereal Period (min) 110 100 90 SKYLAB 80 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 Altitude (nmi) Overview 1, I-34 2/11/2011
Sidereal Period vs. High Altitude Satellite 1600 1400 Synchronous Orbit 1200 Sidereal Period (min) 1000 800 600 400 200 10,000 11,000 12,000 13,000 14,000 15,000 16,000 17,000 18,000 19,000 20,000 Altitude (nmi) Overview 1, I-35 2/11/2011
Maximum Visibility (Zenith Pass) for a LEO 30 25 20 Time in View (min) 15 10 SKYLAB 5 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 Altitude (nmi) Overview 1, I-36 2/11/2011
Maximum Visibility for a MEO/GEO Satellite 35,000 30,000 20 Days 25,000 Time in View (min) 20,000 15,000 10 Days Synchronous Orbit 10,000 5,000 0 10,000 11,000 12,000 13,000 14,000 15,000 16,000 17,000 18,000 19,000 20,000 Altitude (nmi) Overview 1, I-37 2/11/2011
Example LEO Ground Trace: ISS (278<h< 460 km) Overview 1, I-38 2/11/2011
Example HEO Ground Trace: Molniya (e = 0.72) Overview 1, I-39 2/11/2011
“Station Circle” Size Depends on LEO Altitude & Minimum Allowed Terminal Elevation Angle Overview 1, I-40 2/11/2011
Implications of the Station Circle Geometry for LEOs • Only users who are both within a station circle are able to simultaneously communicate directly via a LEO – Very limited geographic coverage for real time communications – Potential solutions for communicating using LEOs • Use store-and-forward techniques – Uplinked message is stored on board S/C and rebroadcast downlink when intended receiver comes into view • DoD (DARPA) had several LEO S/C in orbit at the start of First Gulf War (1991) and experimented with this approach: • MAC I, MAC II; MICROSAT – single plane of 6 small satellites • Use crosslinks between LEOs to relay the messages – Iridium took this approach • Implement lots of ground sites for coverage – Globalstar took this approach • Many environmental & scientific satellites are in LEO orbit due to their sensor requirements and must communicate in one of two main ways: – Store telemetry and mission data as needed • Burst telemetry and mission data down and receive commands when their ground station(s) come into view – Use the Tracking & Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) as a GEO relay Overview 1, I-41 2/11/2011
Spacecraft Velocity Depends on Orbit Altitude • The linear velocity of a spacecraft in circular orbit can be found from the circumference of the orbit and the orbital period: v = 2π(re+h)/T = 631.35/(re+h)1/2 • So, for a 300 km orbit, v = 7.73 km/sec • For a GEO orbit, (re+h= 42,223 km), v = 3.07 km/sec • The velocity of a spacecraft in an elliptical orbit at perigee can be higher than the velocity of a spacecraft in the lowest circular orbit, or as high as ~ 10 km/sec Overview 1, I-42 2/11/2011
Geosynchronous Orbits Overview 1, I-43 2/11/2011
Geosynchronous Satellite Orbit Altitude From Kepler’s Law: T = [2π /(GMe )1/2](re + h)3/2 where re is the earth’s radius, h is the satellite altitude, and GMe = 398,600.4418 km2/s2 (typically designated as µ) Thus for a satellite whose orbital period is equal to 1 sidereal day (23 hours, 59 minutes, 4 seconds, or 86,344 sec) re + h = 42,223 km or 23,093 nm, or 26,242 sm Thus the altitude of a Geosynchronous satellite is h = 42,223 km – 6378 km = 35845 km or h = 23,093 nm - 3444 nm = 19,649 nm or h = 26,242 sm – 3963 sm = 22,279 sm Overview 1, I-44 2/11/2011
“3-Ball” GEO Constellation and its Geometric Coverage But spacecraft antenna footprints will determine actual coverage Overview 1, I-45 2/11/2011
Potential GEO Coverage Varies Slightly with Terminal’s Elevation Angle Overview 1, I-46 2/11/2011
Perturbations from the Ideal GEO Orbit • There are three major perturbations (plus other smaller influences) that require expenditure of ∆v for station-keeping: • Gravitational action of the moon and the sun • Earth’s triaxiality (non-sphericality) • Solar radiation pressure • The major perturbation is the precession of the orbital plane causing it to increase over 26 years to about 150 before returning back to 00 • Inclination can increase at about 0.850 initially • “Gravity wells” exist due to the ellipticity of the equator that would affect a GEO E-W station-keeping that should be corrected: • A GEO would tend to move toward one of the two stable points at: – 75.30 E and 104.70 W (Himalayas and Rockies) • A GEO would tend to move away from one of the two unstable points at: – 165.30 E and 14.70 W (Marshall Islands and Portugal) • Station-keeping fuel necessary to maintain the assigned longitude and to minimize inclination angle of the orbital plane can add 10-40% to the dry mass of a GEO; fuel is measured in units of change in velocity, ∆v. • N-S station-keeping requires ∆v ~50 m/s per year; E-W up to 2 m/s per year • Some satellites have also been launched with ion-thrusters Overview 1, I-47 2/11/2011
“Figure 8” Movement of a GEO Satellite • If a GEO’s orbital plane has an inclination angle with respect to the equatorial plane equatorial plane ≠ 0, then its subsatellite point on the earth’s surface, traces out a figure 8 pattern on the earth’s surface: • The figure 8 repeats every 24 hours • The N-S dimension of the figure 8 increases as the inclination increases • The sun and moon would cause an uncorrected GEO to increase up to ~150 inclination • Example Figure 8 ground trace of the nadir point: Overview 1, I-48 2/11/2011
Inclined Orbit Operations • Since station-keeping fuel is the major determinant of normal spacecraft operational life, one approach to extending the operations of a GEO is to: – Reduce expenditure of station-keeping fuel by not correcting (very often) for orbital inclination angle and allow figure 8 movement to increase – Allow inclination angles up to 3-50 or more – Use of the patented “Comsat Maneuver” made Inclined Orbit Operations feasible by compensating for footprint movement with changing motion of the spacecraft • Major drawback is that earth station antennas (with narrow beamwidths) would be required to track the satellite’s movement – However the slow Figure 8 movement over a 24 hour period can be tracked by relatively inexpensive tracking systems Overview 1, I-49 2/11/2011
Orbital Debris Overview 1, I-50 2/11/2011
One Representation of Only the Largest Space Objects Overview 1, I-51 2/11/2011
Overview of the Orbital Debris Problem • Since Sputnik there have been ~ 5000 space missions • Number of debris fragments > 1 cm size estimated to be > 500,000 • Total objects now officially cataloged by the DoD is ~ 34,000, of which ~ 13,000 are still in orbit + ~ 5,000 that are being tracked but not cataloged – The unpredicted collision of Iridium 33 and COSMOS 2251 in February 2009 resulted in the addition of > 1500 large (> 10 cm) pieces of debris • Concentrated near 800 km but extending from 200-1700 km • Approximately 1300 objects are satellites but only ~ 800 have fuel and can be moved if necessary to avoid a collision • Space Surveillance Network can track objects larger than ~ 10 cm in LEO orbit up to ~ 2000 km altitude – 10 cm debris at 5-7 km/sec can do terrific damage – The next generation Space Fence is required to track up to 200,000 objects in LEO orbit vs. current Space Fence tracking of 20,000 objects • Other sensors can do much better than 10 cm but are not available full time – E.g., NASA Solar System Radar at Goldstone (70m) can detect mm-size debris in LEO orbit • At GEO, the minimum estimated size routinely tracked is ~ 70 cm Overview 1, I-52 2/11/2011
Histogram of Cataloged Objects as of 5 June 2009 Overview 1, I-53 2/11/2011
US Government Guidelines for Disposal • Operational lifetime limited to 25 years • Spacecraft or upper stage must be disposed of by one of three methods: – LEO Orbits: Atmospheric Reentry Option • Maneuver to orbit in which, using conservative projections for solar activity, atmospheric drag will limit lifetime to < 25 years after completion of mission; risk of human casualty should be < 1 in 10,000 – “Storage” Orbit • Between LEO and MEO: Maneuver to an orbit with perigee altitude above 2000 km and apogee altitude below 19,700 km ( 500 km below semi-synchronous, e.g., where GPS is) • Between MEO and GEO: Maneuver to an orbit with perigee altitude above 20,700 km and apogee altitude below 35,300 km (500 km above semi-synchronous and 500 km below synchronous altitude – GEO: See next slide • Direct Retrieval: Unlikely with current technology Overview 1, I-54 2/11/2011
Inter-agency Space Debris Coordination (IADC) Committee Guidelines on GEO Disposal • A GEO should retain enough fuel to be maneuvered into an orbit above the GEO protected region fulfilling the following two conditions: – A minimum increase in perigee altitude of 235 km + (1000 x CR x A/m), where CR is the solar radiation pressure coefficient A/m is aspect area to dry mass ratio (m2/kg-1) 235 km is the sum of : 200 km (upper altitude of GEO protected region) & 35 km (max. descent of re-orbited s/c due to luni- solar & geopotential perturbations) – An eccentricity of ≤ 0.003 (added in 2007) • Bottom line: 300 km above nominal GEO altitude is typically used • In addition: Operators should passivate all spacecraft stored energy sources: – Chemical: vent chemicals, burn excess fuels, relieve pressure vessels – Electrical: discharge batteries Overview 1, I-55 2/11/2011
To learn more please attend ATI course Advanced Satellite Communications Systems Please post your comments and questions to our blog: http://www.aticourses.com/blog/ Sign-up for ATI's monthly Course Schedule Updates : http://www.aticourses.com/email_signup_page.html

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Advanced Satellite Communications Systems Technical Training Course Sampler

  • 1. Slides From ATI Professional Development Short Course Advanced Satellite Communications System Instructor: Dr. John Roach ATI Course Schedule: http://www.ATIcourses.com/schedule.htm ATI's Advanced Satellite: http://www.aticourses.com/advanced_satellite_communications_systems.htm
  • 2. www.ATIcourses.com Boost Your Skills 349 Berkshire Drive Riva, Maryland 21140 with On-Site Courses Telephone 1-888-501-2100 / (410) 965-8805 Tailored to Your Needs Fax (410) 956-5785 Email: ATI@ATIcourses.com The Applied Technology Institute specializes in training programs for technical professionals. Our courses keep you current in the state-of-the-art technology that is essential to keep your company on the cutting edge in today’s highly competitive marketplace. Since 1984, ATI has earned the trust of training departments nationwide, and has presented on-site training at the major Navy, Air Force and NASA centers, and for a large number of contractors. Our training increases effectiveness and productivity. Learn from the proven best. For a Free On-Site Quote Visit Us At: http://www.ATIcourses.com/free_onsite_quote.asp For Our Current Public Course Schedule Go To: http://www.ATIcourses.com/schedule.htm
  • 3. Outline of Topics I. OVERVIEW OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS; HISTORY II. SATELLITE ORBITS III. COMM SATELLITE CHARACTERISTICS; TRANSPONDERS; TRANSPONDER USAGE TYPES: CONNECTIVITY; MULTIPLE ACCESS METHODS IV. COMMUNICATIONS LINK ANALYSIS DEFINITIONS OF EIRP, G/T, Eb/No, Es/No LINK BUDGET EQUATIONS; EXAMPLE LINK BUDGET DEFINITIONS OF NOISE TEMPERATURE, NOISE FACTOR ATMOSPHERIC LOSSES, INCLUDING RAIN V. COMMON MODULATION TECHNIQUES BPSK, QPSK, OFFSET QPSK (OQPSK) STANDARD PULSE FORMATS, FREQUENCY SPECTRA PSK RECEIVER DESIGN TECHNIQUES; CARRIER RECOVERY; TIMING RECOVERY VI. OVERVIEW OF ERROR HANDLING AND ERROR CODES; STANDARD CODES; CODING PERFORMANCE AND CODING GAIN; VII. OVERVIEW OF SCRAMBLING & ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES; EFFECT ON CHANNEL PERFORMANCE Overview 1, I-2 2/11/2011
  • 4. Outline of Topics VIII. EARTH STATION RF EQUIPMENT HPAs, LNAs, FREQUENCY CONVERTERS GAIN AND PHASE DISTORTION HPA AM/AM, AM/PM INTERMODULATION PRODUCTS FREQUENCY CONVERTERS; OSCILLATOR OR PHASE NOISE COMMUNICATIONS MODELING IX. TDMA NETWORKS; TIME SLOTS; PREAMBLE; EXAMPLE NETWORK X. TRANSMISSION OF TCP/IP OVER SATELLITE; USE OF PEP XI. DVB APPROACH TO SMALL APERTURE TERMINALS; DVB-S; DVB-RCS XII. EARTH TERMINAL ANTENNAS; POINTING, TRACKING; REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS XIII. SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES; DIRECT SEQUENCE; FREQUENCY HOP; SHORT, LONG CODES; LONG CODE ACQUISITION, TRACKING XIV. NYQUIST SIGNALING; BANDWIDTH EFFICIENT MODULATION (BEM) TYPES XV. CONVOLUTIONAL CODING AND VITERBI DECODING XVI. EMERGING DEVELOPMENTS AND FUTURE TRENDS Overview 1, I-3 2/11/2011
  • 5. ACRONYMS ACI Adjacent Channel Interference ACK Acknowledgement ACS Add-Compare-Select AES Advanced Encryption System AFC Automatic Frequency Control AGC Automatic Gain Control AJ Anti-Jam ALC Automatic Level Control AM Amplitude Modulation AM/AM Ratio of AM on Output to AM on Input of an RF Device AM/PM Ratio of PM on Output to AM on Input of an RF Device ANIK Series of Canadian Communications Satellites ASI Adjacent Satellite Interference ASK Amplitude Shift Keying APK Amplitude Phase Shift Keying ARIANE A French Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle ARQ Automatic Repeat Request AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise BB Baseband BCH Bose Chauhuri Hocquenheim (Block Code) BDC Block (Frequency) Downconverter BER Bit Error Rate BFSK Binary Frequency Shift Keying Overview 1, I-4 2/11/2011
  • 6. ACRONYMS BLOS Beyond Line-of-Sight BoD Bandwidth on Demand BOL Beginning of Life BPF Bandpass Filter BPS Bits per Second BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying BSC Binary Symmetric Channel BUC Block (Frequency) Upconverter BW Bandwidth C Band Frequency Band from 4 GHz to 6 GHz CBR Carrier-Bit Recovery (Intelsat TDMA Header Segment) CCIR Comite Consultatif International des Radiocommunications (now replaced by ITU-R) CCITT Comite Consultatif International Telegraphique et Telephonique (now replaced by ITU-T) CDC Control and Delay Channel (Intelsat TDMA Header Segment) CDMA Code Division Multiple Access CEPT Conference Eurpeene des Postes CEVD Convolutionally Encoded-Viterbi Decoded C/I Carrier to Interference Ratio C/IM Carrier to Intermodulation Product Ratio C/kT Carrier to Noise Density Ratio CMA Control, Monitor, and Alarm Overview 1, I-5 2/11/2011
  • 7. ACRONYMS C/N Carrier to Noise Ratio C/No Carrier to Noise Density Ratio CNR Carrier to Noise Ratio CODEC Coder/Decoder COMSAT Communication Satellite Corporation COTM Communications-on-the-Move CPE Customer Premises Equipment CPFSK Continuous Phase Frequency Shift Keying CPSK Coherent Phase Shift Keying CSC Control and Signaling Channel CVSD Continuously Variable Slope Delta Modulation DA Demand Assignment DAMA Demand Assignment Multiple Access dB Decibel dBi Decibel with respect to Isotropic dBm Decibel with respect to 1 Milliwatt DBS Direct Broadcast Satellite dBW Decibel with respect to 1 Watt D/C Frequency Downconverter DEMOD Demodulator DEMUX Demultiplexer DE Differentially-Encoded, DES Data Encryption Standard DL Downlink DM Delay Modulation DMC Discrete Memoryless Channel Overview 1, I-6 2/11/2011
  • 8. ACRONYMS DC (Frequency) Down Converter DS Direct Sequence (CDMA spreading technique) DPSK Differential Phase Shift Keying DQPSK Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying DSB-SC Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier DSCS Defense Satellite Communication System DSI Digital Speech Interpolation (Intelsat terminology) DVB-RCS DVB-Return Channel by Satellite DVB-S Digital Video Broadcasting-Satellite DVB-S2 Digital Video Broadcasting-Satellite, Generation 2 Eb/No Energy per Bit to Noise Density Ratio ECC Error Correction Coding EDAC Error Detection and Correction EHF Extra High Frequency EIRP Effective Isotropically Radiated Power EOL End of Life EMP Electromagnetic Pulse ES Earth Station ESA European Space Agency Es/No Energy per Symbol to Noise Density Ratio ET Earth Terminal FCC U.S. Federal Communications Commission FDM Frequency Division Multiplex FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access Overview 1, I-7 2/11/2011
  • 9. ACRONYMS FEC Forward Error Correction FET Field Effect Transistor FFH Fast Frequency Hop FFSK Fast Frequency Shift Keying FH Frequency Hop FL Forward Link (VSAT or DVB terminology) FOM Figure of Merit FM Frequency Modulation FSK Frequency Shift Keying GEO Geosynchronous Earth Orbit GHz Gigahertz G/T Ratio of Antenna Receive Gain to Noise Temperature HEO Highly Elliptical Orbit HF High Frequency (3-30 MHz) HP Horizontal Polarization HPA High Power Amplifier HPF High Pass Filter Hz Hertz IBO Input Backoff IC Integration Contractor IF Intermediate Frequency Overview 1, I-8 2/11/2011
  • 10. ACRONYMS IFL Interfacility Link INMARSAT International Maritime Satellite Organization INTELSAT International Telecommunications Satellite Organization IOT In-Orbit Test IP Internet Protocol IPA Intermediate Power Amplifier ISL Inter-Satellite Link ITU International Telecommunications Union K Kelvin, unit of temperature with respect to –2730C K-Band 10-30 GHz Ka-Band 15-30 GHz KBPS or Kb/s Kilobits per Second KHz Kilohertz KPA Klystron Power Amplifier Ku-Band 10-15 GHz KW Kilowatts L-band 1-2 GHz LEO Low Earth Orbit LHCP Left Hand Circular Polarization LNA Low Noise Amplifier LO Local Oscillator LOS Line-of-Sight LPD Low Probability of Detection LPF Low Pass Filter LPI Low Probability of Intercept Overview 1, I-9 2/11/2011
  • 11. ACRONYMS LSB Least Significant Bit M&C Monitor and Control MA Multiple Access MAP Maximum a Posteriori ML Maximum Likelihood MLD Maximum Likelihood Detector MLSE Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimator MLSR Maximum Length Shift Register Sequence MBPS or Mb/s Megabits per Second MCPS or Mc/s Megachips per Second MEO Medium Earth Orbit MF Matched Filter MFSK M-ary Frequency Shift Keying MHz Megahertz MILSTAR U.S. Military Satellite System MODEM Modulator-Demodulator MSB Most Significant Bit MSK Minimum Shift Keying MUX Multiplexer mw Milliwatt MW Megawatt NAK Negative Acknowledgement NB Narrow Band Overview 1, I-10 2/11/2011
  • 12. ACRONYMS NBW Noise Bandwidth NEO Near Earth Object NF Noise Figure NLOS Non-Line-of-Sight NRZ Non Return to Zero OBO Output Backoff OD Orbital Debris; Orbit Determination OQPSK Offset-QPSK OMT Orthomode Transducer OW Order Wire PA Power Amplifier PCM Pulse Code Modulation P/D Power Divider PEP Performance Enhancing Proxy PG Processing Gain PLL Phase Lock Loop PM Phase Modulation PN Pseudo-noise (sequence) PR Partial Response Signaling PRN Pseudo-random Noise PSD Power Spectral Density PSK Phase Shift Keying QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation QPR Quadrature Partial Response Overview 1, I-11 2/11/2011
  • 13. ACRONYMS QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying RA Random Access RF Radio Frequency RHCP Right Hand Circular Polarization RL Return Link (VSAT or DVB terminology) RMS Root-Mean-Square RS Reed-Solomon Code RSL Received Signal Level RSS Root Summed Square Rx Receiver RZ Return to Zero S-Band 2-4 GHz S/C Spacecraft SC Service Channel (Intelsat TDMA Header Seqment) SCPC Single Channel per Carrier SFD Saturation Flux Density SFH Slow Frequency Hop SHF Super High Frequency SIT Satellite Interactive Terminal SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol SNR Signal to Noise Ratio SOTM SATCOM-on-the-Move SPADE Intelsat SCPC System SQPSK Staggered QPSK Overview 1, I-12 2/11/2011
  • 14. ACRONYMS SS Spread Spectrum SSMA Spread Spectrum Multiple Access SSPA Solid-State Power Amplifier SW Switch TCP Transmission Control Protocol TDM Time Division Multiplexing TDMA Time Division Multiple Access TDRS Tracking and Data Relay Satellite TDRSS NASA Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System TPC Turbo Product Code TT&C Tracking, Telemetry, and Commanding TWTA Traveling Wave Tube Amplifier Tx Transmitter U/C (Frequency) Upconverter UDP User Datagram Protocol UHF Ultrahigh Frequency UL Uplink USAT Ultra Small Aperture Terminal UW Unique Word (Intelsat TDMA Header Seqment) VA Viterbi Algorithm VCO Voltage Controlled Oscillator VCXO Voltage Controlled Crystal Oscillator VP Vertical Polarization Overview 1, I-13 2/11/2011
  • 15. ACRONYMS VSAT Very Small Aperture Terminal W Watts WB Wideband WG Waveguide X-Band 7-8 GHz Overview 1, I-14 2/11/2011
  • 16. I. Overview and History Overview 1, I-15 2/11/2011
  • 17. Early History of Satellite Communications 1945 - Arthur C. Clarke wrote about extraterrestrial relays Passive Reflectors (uplink signals reflected back to earth): 1951 - Bounce off the moon 1960/64 - Bounce off US-launched 100’ &135’ diameter Echo mylar balloons 1963 - Bounce off Project Westford dipoles in orbit Active Satellites: 1957 - Russian Sputnik 1- Launch 10/4/1957 – no mission payload 1958 - Explorer I – JPL – measured cosmic rays, etc; Launch: 1/31/1958 1958 - Project Score - US DoD– Launch: 12/18/1958; world’s first communications satellite - Recorded Christmas message on tape recorder; UHF - First store-&-forward and real time communications - Battery-powered - 185 x 1484 km orbit; 32.3° Inclination 1960 - Courier 1B - US DoD; Launch: 10/4/1960 - First with solar cells & nickel cadmium batteries - 1 Voice channel & TTY, 2 Watts, 1.7 - 1.9 GHz - Orbit altitude: 938 x 1237 km orbit; 28.33° inclination Overview 1, I-16 2/11/2011
  • 18. Early History of Satellite Communications (cont’d) 1962 TELSTAR I (AT&T) 1968 - INTELSAT III - First publically available instantaneous repeating satellite 1969 - TACSAT I (DOD) - 6/4 GHz, 3.3 Watts - First live TV transmission across the Atlantic 1971 - INTELSAT IV - 600 One-way voice circuits - 12 36 MHz channels; - Demonstrated large earth terminal antennas 6 Watts/channel 1962 - Relay (NASA/RCA) 1972 - ANIK (Canada) - Two 10 Watt transponders (4630 x S.M.; 47.5°) - First domestic satellite 1963 - Syncom II (NASA) 1974 - WESTAR (Western Union) - First geosynchronous satellite - First U.S. domestic satellite - Two channels, 500 kHz each - 7.31/1.8 GHz, 2 Watts 1977 - Advanced WESTAR/TDRSS - Inclination: 32° (II) 0.5° (III) - Commercial s/c development with Western Union financing guaranteed 1965 - Molniya (USSR) by NASA - Elliptical orbit - Inclination angle: 63.4° 1993 - ACTS (NASA) - First Ka technology satellite 1965 - Intelsat I (Early bird) NASA then turned SATCOM technology 1966 - Intelsat II development over to industry Overview 1, I-17 2/11/2011
  • 19. General Satellite System Architecture USER SATELLITE SATELLITE USER TERMINAL CONTROL HUB NETWORK TERMINAL CENTER EARTH OPERATIONS (TT&C) STATION CENTER (NOC) DATA SOURCE Handset/LAN Handset/LAN 1 Overview 1, I-18 2/11/2011
  • 20. Satellite System Operators • Example Satellite System Operators: – SES – Intelsat – Eutelsat – PanAmSat – JSAT – Telesat Canada – Space Communications (Japan) – Loral Space and Communications – Many other European and Asian operators • Each analyzes requests for service to assure legal and efficient use • Each protects their users – Operators cooperate to protect each others systems – Continuously monitor and control use of their satellites – Help investigate/characterize/geolocate interference sources • One equipment supplier claims to be capable of locating an interference to within 10 km from GEO Overview 1, I-19 2/11/2011
  • 21. Legal Authorities over Spectrum • International Telecommunications Union (ITU): – Controls RF frequency assignments worldwide – Controls orbit locations (e.g., longitude for GEO) for satellites – Also has provided many technical standards for use in • SATCOM • Other radio environments, e.g., microwave LOS radios • In-Country Governmental Regulatory Body: – Controls spectrum use within the country – United States: • Federal Communications Commission (FCC) manages non-government use • National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) manages Federal use of spectrum – Foreign countries: Formerly, the PTT (which was a part of government) typically also managed radio spectrum. Varies country to country • Purpose: – Protect customers and assures efficient use of spectrum • Provides legal protection from interference from users on their systems or other systems • Satellite operators, e.g., work together to assure limited inter-system interference • Procedure: – Users must typically coordinate with other systems and obtain license before beginning operations – outside the US, this is often termed obtaining “landing rights” Overview 1, I-20 2/11/2011
  • 22. Major US SATCOM RF Frequency Bands RF Band Bandwidth Downlink Uplink UHF: Military 5 & 25 KHz 243–270 MHz 292-319 MHz C Band: (6/4 GHz) 500 MHz 3.7-4.2 GHz 5.925-6.425 GHz X Band (8/7 GHz) 500 MHz 7.25-7.75 GHz 7.9-8.4 GHz Ku Band: 14/11 GHz 500 MHz 10.95-12.75 GHz 13.75-14.5 GHz Ka Band: 30/20 GHz Commercial Ka 2.5 GHz 17.7- 20.2 GHz 27.5-30 GHz Military Ka 1 GHz 20.2-21.2 GHz 30-31 GHz Military EHF: (44/20) 2 GHz up/1 down 20.2-21.2 GHz 43.5-45.5 GHz Military RF Inter-Satellite Band: 5 GHz 59-64 GHz Note: The exact RF band range for satellite use varies beween the three ITU Regions (US is in Region 2) & standard vs. extended band. The above are general band designations used throughout industry and in this course. These SATCOM band designations were adopted from radar band designations Overview 1, I-21 2/11/2011
  • 23. Major Advantages of Satellite Communications • Interconnects users distributed across wide geographical areas • Provides access for rural users with limited local terrestrial communications • Easily supports broadcast to many terminals simultaneously • Based on satellite antenna footprint • Provides reasonably wide bandwidths • User terminals can be installed very quickly •Transportable/mobile terminals valuable for • Disaster support & recovery • Satellite Newsgathering (SNG trucks) • Early Deployment of troops in foreign areas • Transit case (TC) terminals can be checked as baggage on airplanes Overview 1, I-22 2/11/2011
  • 24. Current C/Ku Satellite Antenna Footprints Support Wide Connectivity Among Users Overview 1, I-23 2/11/2011
  • 25. SATCOM Disadvantages and Potential Remedies • Most communications satellites are in 23,000 miles high GEO orbits • Relatively large link signal loss and long transmission delay • Potential solutions: • Use large antennas and high power amplifiers • Use Performance Enhancing Protocols (PEPs) for TCP/IP links • Heavy rainfall causes link fading particularly at Ku/Ka RF bands • Potential solutions: • Use additional link margin • Use adaptive link data rate, or adaptive coding/modulation • Use site diversity • Interference can be a issue: • Co-channel interference due to operator errors • Other user is pointed at wrong satellite, on incorrect RF frequency or polarization • Adjacent satellite interference (ASI) from users with very small antennas • Potential solutions: • Work with satellite operator and NOC to determine source of interference and depend on operator to police your link per your lease agreement Overview 1, I-24 2/11/2011
  • 26. Typical Transponder Services and Protection • Example commercial satellite offerings: – Full period, 24/7 • Monthly • Yearly • Multi-year – the longer the period, the lower the cost – Scheduled & recurring e.g., at 2-3 PM EST every day – Occasional use • Good example is a Satellite Newsgathering (SNG) truck • Example levels of protection available for full time service: – Fully protected: in the event of transponder failure, protection of users by • Assignment of other pre-emptible transponders – same satellite • Assignment of other pre-emptible transponders – other satellites – Non-Pre-emptible: Cannot be pre-empted in case of other transponder failures – Pre-emptible: not protected ---- could be pre-empted in case of other transponder failures Overview 1, I-25 2/11/2011
  • 27. II. Satellite Orbits An Excellent Reference: Roger Bate, Donald Mueller, Jerry White, Fundamentals of Astrodynamics, Dover Publications, 1971 Overview 1, I-26 2/11/2011
  • 28. Classes of Satellite Orbits • Low Earth Orbit (LEO) --- defined as having altitude < 2000 km – Circular, e.g., Iridium, Globalstar, Orbcomm; also many scientific, weather spacecraft – For comm use, a constellation of satellites is usually required to achieve reasonable visibility to users – A number of standard constellations of multiple satellites have been defined to meet certain objectives: • Walker constellations, etc. • Usually specified as, e.g., 7 spacecraft in each of 9 orbital planes at a specified inclination angle, equally spaced around the equator • Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) – Circular, with altitudes from ~ 2,000 km out to 35786 km, – e.g., GPS is ~ “half-synchronous” with altitude of ~ 20,200 km – Not many communications satellites in this regime; also Van Allen belts are in MEO • Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO) – Elliptical orbits, e.g., Molniya, Tundra, primarily at 63.40 inclination – Achieves good visibility with high average elevation angles for users at high latitudes • Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) – Circular, with altitude such that the orbital period exactly equals one sidereal period of the earth’s rotation – If excellent station-keeping is maintained, this could be called a “geostationary” orbit – By far the dominant orbit for communications satellites Overview 1, I-27 2/11/2011
  • 29. General Cases of Orbital Geometry Overview 1, I-28 2/11/2011
  • 30. Common Names for Circular Orbits Overview 1, I-29 2/11/2011
  • 31. Three Parameters Describe Orbit Size and Shape 1  b 2 2 e = 1 − 2     a  b η Apogee Perigee Earth a • Semi-Major axis, a • Eccentricity, e • True Anomaly, η Overview 1, I-30 2/11/2011
  • 32. Three Parameters Describe Orbit Orientation • Angle of Inclination, I • Angle between orbital and equatorial planes • Right ascension of ascending node, Ω • Measured eastward in the equatorial plane from the vernal equinox • Argument of Perigee, ω • Measured in orbital plane in the direction of the orbital motion from ascending node to line from earth center to perigee Overview 1, I-31 2/11/2011
  • 33. Communications-oriented Characteristics of Circular Orbits • Orbital Period • Coverage • Time above the Horizon Overview 1, I-32 2/11/2011
  • 34. Orbital Period for a Circular Orbit • From Kepler’s Laws we know that the orbital sidereal period is a function of satellite altitude: T(sec) = [2π/√GMe](re + h)3/2 where re is the earth’s radius, h is the satellite altitude, and GMe = 398,600.4418 km2/s2 • Note that: re = 6378 km (or 3444 nm or 3963 sm) • For example, the period of a satellite whose altitude is zero (the so-called Herget orbit -- the absolutely minimum orbital period possible) would be: TH = 84.486 minutes Overview 1, I-33 2/11/2011
  • 35. Sidereal Period vs. Low Altitude Satellite 130 120 Sidereal Period (min) 110 100 90 SKYLAB 80 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 Altitude (nmi) Overview 1, I-34 2/11/2011
  • 36. Sidereal Period vs. High Altitude Satellite 1600 1400 Synchronous Orbit 1200 Sidereal Period (min) 1000 800 600 400 200 10,000 11,000 12,000 13,000 14,000 15,000 16,000 17,000 18,000 19,000 20,000 Altitude (nmi) Overview 1, I-35 2/11/2011
  • 37. Maximum Visibility (Zenith Pass) for a LEO 30 25 20 Time in View (min) 15 10 SKYLAB 5 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 Altitude (nmi) Overview 1, I-36 2/11/2011
  • 38. Maximum Visibility for a MEO/GEO Satellite 35,000 30,000 20 Days 25,000 Time in View (min) 20,000 15,000 10 Days Synchronous Orbit 10,000 5,000 0 10,000 11,000 12,000 13,000 14,000 15,000 16,000 17,000 18,000 19,000 20,000 Altitude (nmi) Overview 1, I-37 2/11/2011
  • 39. Example LEO Ground Trace: ISS (278<h< 460 km) Overview 1, I-38 2/11/2011
  • 40. Example HEO Ground Trace: Molniya (e = 0.72) Overview 1, I-39 2/11/2011
  • 41. “Station Circle” Size Depends on LEO Altitude & Minimum Allowed Terminal Elevation Angle Overview 1, I-40 2/11/2011
  • 42. Implications of the Station Circle Geometry for LEOs • Only users who are both within a station circle are able to simultaneously communicate directly via a LEO – Very limited geographic coverage for real time communications – Potential solutions for communicating using LEOs • Use store-and-forward techniques – Uplinked message is stored on board S/C and rebroadcast downlink when intended receiver comes into view • DoD (DARPA) had several LEO S/C in orbit at the start of First Gulf War (1991) and experimented with this approach: • MAC I, MAC II; MICROSAT – single plane of 6 small satellites • Use crosslinks between LEOs to relay the messages – Iridium took this approach • Implement lots of ground sites for coverage – Globalstar took this approach • Many environmental & scientific satellites are in LEO orbit due to their sensor requirements and must communicate in one of two main ways: – Store telemetry and mission data as needed • Burst telemetry and mission data down and receive commands when their ground station(s) come into view – Use the Tracking & Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) as a GEO relay Overview 1, I-41 2/11/2011
  • 43. Spacecraft Velocity Depends on Orbit Altitude • The linear velocity of a spacecraft in circular orbit can be found from the circumference of the orbit and the orbital period: v = 2π(re+h)/T = 631.35/(re+h)1/2 • So, for a 300 km orbit, v = 7.73 km/sec • For a GEO orbit, (re+h= 42,223 km), v = 3.07 km/sec • The velocity of a spacecraft in an elliptical orbit at perigee can be higher than the velocity of a spacecraft in the lowest circular orbit, or as high as ~ 10 km/sec Overview 1, I-42 2/11/2011
  • 45. Geosynchronous Satellite Orbit Altitude From Kepler’s Law: T = [2π /(GMe )1/2](re + h)3/2 where re is the earth’s radius, h is the satellite altitude, and GMe = 398,600.4418 km2/s2 (typically designated as µ) Thus for a satellite whose orbital period is equal to 1 sidereal day (23 hours, 59 minutes, 4 seconds, or 86,344 sec) re + h = 42,223 km or 23,093 nm, or 26,242 sm Thus the altitude of a Geosynchronous satellite is h = 42,223 km – 6378 km = 35845 km or h = 23,093 nm - 3444 nm = 19,649 nm or h = 26,242 sm – 3963 sm = 22,279 sm Overview 1, I-44 2/11/2011
  • 46. “3-Ball” GEO Constellation and its Geometric Coverage But spacecraft antenna footprints will determine actual coverage Overview 1, I-45 2/11/2011
  • 47. Potential GEO Coverage Varies Slightly with Terminal’s Elevation Angle Overview 1, I-46 2/11/2011
  • 48. Perturbations from the Ideal GEO Orbit • There are three major perturbations (plus other smaller influences) that require expenditure of ∆v for station-keeping: • Gravitational action of the moon and the sun • Earth’s triaxiality (non-sphericality) • Solar radiation pressure • The major perturbation is the precession of the orbital plane causing it to increase over 26 years to about 150 before returning back to 00 • Inclination can increase at about 0.850 initially • “Gravity wells” exist due to the ellipticity of the equator that would affect a GEO E-W station-keeping that should be corrected: • A GEO would tend to move toward one of the two stable points at: – 75.30 E and 104.70 W (Himalayas and Rockies) • A GEO would tend to move away from one of the two unstable points at: – 165.30 E and 14.70 W (Marshall Islands and Portugal) • Station-keeping fuel necessary to maintain the assigned longitude and to minimize inclination angle of the orbital plane can add 10-40% to the dry mass of a GEO; fuel is measured in units of change in velocity, ∆v. • N-S station-keeping requires ∆v ~50 m/s per year; E-W up to 2 m/s per year • Some satellites have also been launched with ion-thrusters Overview 1, I-47 2/11/2011
  • 49. “Figure 8” Movement of a GEO Satellite • If a GEO’s orbital plane has an inclination angle with respect to the equatorial plane equatorial plane ≠ 0, then its subsatellite point on the earth’s surface, traces out a figure 8 pattern on the earth’s surface: • The figure 8 repeats every 24 hours • The N-S dimension of the figure 8 increases as the inclination increases • The sun and moon would cause an uncorrected GEO to increase up to ~150 inclination • Example Figure 8 ground trace of the nadir point: Overview 1, I-48 2/11/2011
  • 50. Inclined Orbit Operations • Since station-keeping fuel is the major determinant of normal spacecraft operational life, one approach to extending the operations of a GEO is to: – Reduce expenditure of station-keeping fuel by not correcting (very often) for orbital inclination angle and allow figure 8 movement to increase – Allow inclination angles up to 3-50 or more – Use of the patented “Comsat Maneuver” made Inclined Orbit Operations feasible by compensating for footprint movement with changing motion of the spacecraft • Major drawback is that earth station antennas (with narrow beamwidths) would be required to track the satellite’s movement – However the slow Figure 8 movement over a 24 hour period can be tracked by relatively inexpensive tracking systems Overview 1, I-49 2/11/2011
  • 51. Orbital Debris Overview 1, I-50 2/11/2011
  • 52. One Representation of Only the Largest Space Objects Overview 1, I-51 2/11/2011
  • 53. Overview of the Orbital Debris Problem • Since Sputnik there have been ~ 5000 space missions • Number of debris fragments > 1 cm size estimated to be > 500,000 • Total objects now officially cataloged by the DoD is ~ 34,000, of which ~ 13,000 are still in orbit + ~ 5,000 that are being tracked but not cataloged – The unpredicted collision of Iridium 33 and COSMOS 2251 in February 2009 resulted in the addition of > 1500 large (> 10 cm) pieces of debris • Concentrated near 800 km but extending from 200-1700 km • Approximately 1300 objects are satellites but only ~ 800 have fuel and can be moved if necessary to avoid a collision • Space Surveillance Network can track objects larger than ~ 10 cm in LEO orbit up to ~ 2000 km altitude – 10 cm debris at 5-7 km/sec can do terrific damage – The next generation Space Fence is required to track up to 200,000 objects in LEO orbit vs. current Space Fence tracking of 20,000 objects • Other sensors can do much better than 10 cm but are not available full time – E.g., NASA Solar System Radar at Goldstone (70m) can detect mm-size debris in LEO orbit • At GEO, the minimum estimated size routinely tracked is ~ 70 cm Overview 1, I-52 2/11/2011
  • 54. Histogram of Cataloged Objects as of 5 June 2009 Overview 1, I-53 2/11/2011
  • 55. US Government Guidelines for Disposal • Operational lifetime limited to 25 years • Spacecraft or upper stage must be disposed of by one of three methods: – LEO Orbits: Atmospheric Reentry Option • Maneuver to orbit in which, using conservative projections for solar activity, atmospheric drag will limit lifetime to < 25 years after completion of mission; risk of human casualty should be < 1 in 10,000 – “Storage” Orbit • Between LEO and MEO: Maneuver to an orbit with perigee altitude above 2000 km and apogee altitude below 19,700 km ( 500 km below semi-synchronous, e.g., where GPS is) • Between MEO and GEO: Maneuver to an orbit with perigee altitude above 20,700 km and apogee altitude below 35,300 km (500 km above semi-synchronous and 500 km below synchronous altitude – GEO: See next slide • Direct Retrieval: Unlikely with current technology Overview 1, I-54 2/11/2011
  • 56. Inter-agency Space Debris Coordination (IADC) Committee Guidelines on GEO Disposal • A GEO should retain enough fuel to be maneuvered into an orbit above the GEO protected region fulfilling the following two conditions: – A minimum increase in perigee altitude of 235 km + (1000 x CR x A/m), where CR is the solar radiation pressure coefficient A/m is aspect area to dry mass ratio (m2/kg-1) 235 km is the sum of : 200 km (upper altitude of GEO protected region) & 35 km (max. descent of re-orbited s/c due to luni- solar & geopotential perturbations) – An eccentricity of ≤ 0.003 (added in 2007) • Bottom line: 300 km above nominal GEO altitude is typically used • In addition: Operators should passivate all spacecraft stored energy sources: – Chemical: vent chemicals, burn excess fuels, relieve pressure vessels – Electrical: discharge batteries Overview 1, I-55 2/11/2011
  • 57. To learn more please attend ATI course Advanced Satellite Communications Systems Please post your comments and questions to our blog: http://www.aticourses.com/blog/ Sign-up for ATI's monthly Course Schedule Updates : http://www.aticourses.com/email_signup_page.html