Propulsion and mixing 2
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This document summarizes the stages and mechanisms of swallowing and digestion. It describes the voluntary and pharyngeal stages of swallowing, including the soft palate closing the nasal cavity and epiglottis protecting the larynx. In the esophageal stage, food moves through peristalsis into the stomach for storage, mixing, and emptying into the small intestine through the pyloric pump. The small intestine further breaks down food through peristalsis and absorption. The ileocecal valve regulates emptying into the large intestine, where haustral contractions and mass movements slowly propel waste for absorption and storage until defecation.
Propulsion and mixing 2
- 1. Propulsion and Mixing - Dr. Chintan
- 6. Swallowing (Deglutition) - Voluntary Stage of Swallowing - squeezed or rolled posteriorly into the pharynx by pressure of the tongue upward and backward against the palate - Pharyngeal Stage of Swallowing – stimulates epithelial swallowing receptor areas all around the opening of the pharynx - The soft palate is pulled upward to close the posterior nares, to prevent reflux of food into the nasal cavities - The palatopharyngeal folds on each side of the pharynx are pulled medially to approximate each other - form a sagittal slit through which the food must pass into the posterior pharynx
- 7. Pharyngeal Stage - The vocal cords of the larynx are strongly approximated, and the larynx is pulled upward and anteriorly by the neck muscles. - Presence of ligaments prevent upward movement of the epiglottis, cause the epiglottis to swing backward over the opening of the larynx. - Prevent passage of food into the nose and trachea. - The upward movement of the larynx also pulls up and enlarges the opening to the esophagus. - At the same time, the upper 3 to 4 centimeters of the esophageal muscular wall, called the upper esophageal sphincter relaxes, thus allowing food to move easily and freely from the posterior pharynx into the upper esophagus
- 8. Pharyngeal Stage - Between swallows, upper esophageal sphincter remains strongly contracted, thereby preventing air from going into the esophagus during respiration - Once the larynx is raised and the pharyngoesophageal sphincter becomes relaxed, the entire muscular wall of the pharynx contracts, - First in the superior part of the pharynx, then spreading downward over the middle and inferior pharyngeal areas, which propels the food by peristalsis into the esophagus - less than 6 seconds
- 10. Pharyngeal Stage - Impulses are transmitted from posterior mouth and pharynx through the sensory portions of the 5th & 9th nerve into the medulla oblongata – NTS - The successive stages of the swallowing process are then automatically initiated in orderly sequence by neuronal areas of the reticular substance of the medulla and lower portion of the pons. - The areas in the medulla and lower pons that control swallowing are collectively called the deglutition or swallowing center - 5th,9th,10th and 12th cranial nerves
- 11. Pharyngeal Stage - Deglutition apnea - Swallowing is difficult but not impossible when the mouth is open. A normal adult swallows frequently while eating, but swallowing also continues between meals. - The total number of swallows per day is about 600: - 200 while eating and drinking, - 350 while awake without food, - 50 while sleeping. - Some air is unavoidably swallowed in the process of eating and drinking (aerophagia). Some of the swallowed air is regurgitated (belching).
- 12. Esophageal Stage - Esophageal Stage of Swallowing - primary peristalsis and secondary peristalsis - Primary peristalsis is simply continuation of the peristaltic wave that begins in the pharynx and spreads into the esophagus during the pharyngeal stage of swallowing - pharynx to the stomach in about 8 to 10 seconds - 5 to 8 seconds, because of the additional effect of gravity
- 13. Esophageal Stage - secondary peristaltic waves result from distention of the esophagus itself by the retained food - continue until all the food has emptied into the Stomach - Afferent – 10th nerve, Efferent – 9th, 10th nerve - The musculature of the pharyngeal wall and upper one third of the esophagus is striated muscle - In the lower two thirds of the esophagus, the musculature is smooth muscle - even after paralysis of the brain stem swallowing reflex, food fed by tube or in some other way into the esophagus still passes readily into the stomach
- 14. Esophageal Stage - Receptive Relaxation of the Stomach - When the esophageal peristaltic wave approaches toward the stomach, a wave of relaxation, transmitted through myenteric inhibitory neurons, precedes the peristalsis - entire stomach and the duodenum become relaxed as peristaltic wave reaches the lower end of the esophagus - prepared ahead of time to receive the food - At the lower end of the esophagus, the esophageal circular muscle functions as a broad lower esophageal sphincter - the gastroesophageal sphincter
- 15. Esophageal Stage - LES normally remains tonically constricted in contrast to the midportion of the esophagus, which normally remains relaxed. - When a peristaltic swallowing wave passes down the esophagus, there is “receptive relaxation” of the LES ahead of the peristaltic wave, which allows easy propulsion of the swallowed food into the stomach. - The stomach secretions are highly acidic and contain many proteolytic enzymes. The esophageal mucosa, except in the lower 1/8th of the esophagus, is not capable of resisting for long the digestive action of gastric secretions
- 16. Esophageal Stage - the tonic constriction of the LES helps to prevent significant reflux of stomach contents into the esophagus except under very abnormal conditions - Another factor that helps to prevent reflux is a valve like mechanism of a short portion of the esophagus that extends slightly into the stomach. - Increased intra abdominal pressure yields the esophagus inward at this point - this valve like closure of the lower esophagus helps to prevent high intra abdominal pressure from forcing stomach contents backward into the esophagus. - Otherwise, every time we walked, coughed, or breathed hard, we might expel stomach acid into the esophagus.
- 19. Functions of the Stomach (1)storage of large quantities of food until the food can be processed in the stomach, duodenum, and lower intestinal tract; (2)mixing of this food with gastric secretions until it forms a semifluid mixture called chyme; (3)slow emptying of the chyme from the stomach into the small intestine at a rate suitable for proper digestion and absorption by the small intestine. (1) the body and (2) the antrum. (1) the “orad” portion, comprising about the first two thirds of the body, (2) the “caudad” portion, comprising the remainder of the body plus the antrum
- 21. Stomach - when food stretches the stomach, a “vagovagal reflex” from the stomach to the brain stem and then back to the stomach reduces the tone in the muscular wall of the body of the stomach - the wall bulges progressively outward, accommodating greater and greater quantities of food up to a limit - 0.8 to 1.5 liters - The pressure in the stomach remains low until this limit is approached - As long as food is in the stomach, weak peristaltic constrictor waves, called mixing waves, begin in the mid to upper portions of the stomach wall and move toward the antrum about once every 15 to 20 seconds - BER
- 22. Stomach - As the constrictor waves progress from the body of the stomach into the antrum, they become more intense, some becoming extremely intense - providing powerful peristaltic action (Spike) potential–driven constrictor rings that force the antral contents under higher and higher pressure toward the pylorus - the moving peristaltic constrictive ring, combined with upstream squeezing action, called “retropulsion,” is an exceedingly important mixing mechanism in the stomach
- 23. Stomach - After food in the stomach has become thoroughly mixed with the stomach secretions, the resulting mixture that passes down the gut is called chyme - semifluid or paste - Hunger contractions are most intense in young, healthy people - mild pain in the pit of the stomach, called hunger pangs - Hunger pangs usually do not begin until 12 to 24 hours after the last ingestion of food
- 25. Stomach Emptying - Most of the time, the rhythmical stomach contractions are weak and function mainly to cause mixing of food and gastric secretions - For some time, strong peristaltic, very tight ring like constrictions that can cause stomach emptying - These intense peristaltic contractions often create 50 to 70 centimeters of water pressure, which is about six times as powerful as the usual mixing type of peristaltic waves. - When pyloric tone is normal, each strong peristaltic wave forces up to several milliliters of chyme into the Duodenum - “pyloric pump.”
- 26. Stomach Emptying - The pyloric circular muscle remains slightly tonically contracted almost all the time – thick walled - pyloric sphincter - the pylorus usually is open for water and other fluids to empty from the stomach into the duodenum - prevents passage of food particles until they have become mixed in the chyme to almost fluid consistency - Increased food volume in the stomach promotes increased emptying from the stomach - stretching of the stomach wall elicit local myenteric reflexes in the wall that greatly ↑ activity of the pyloric pump and at the same time inhibit the pyloric sphincter – no role of pressure
- 27. Stomach Emptying - Gastrin enhance the activity of the pyloric pump - Enterogastric inhibitory reflexes from duodenum strongly inhibit the “pyloric pump” propulsive contractions, and increase the tone of the pyloric sphincter - 1. The degree of distention of the duodenum - 2. The presence of any degree of irritation of the duodenal mucosa - 3. The degree of acidity of the duodenal chyme - 4. The degree of osmolality of the chyme - 5. The presence of certain breakdown products in the chyme, proteins and to a lesser extent of fats
- 28. Stomach Emptying - On entering the duodenum, the fats extract several different hormones from the duodenal and jejunal epithelium, by binding with “receptors” on the epithelial cells - hormones are carried by way of the blood to the stomach, where they inhibit the pyloric pump and at the same time increase the strength of contraction of the pyloric sphincter - cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) - The rate at which the stomach empties into the duodenum depends on the type of food ingested. Food rich in carbohydrate leaves the stomach in a few hours. Protein-rich food leaves more slowly, and emptying is slowest after a meal containing fat – fat and alcohol
- 29. Small Intestine - Mixing movements – segmentation – also helps propulsion - Propulsive – peristaltic - velocity of 0.5 to 2.0 cm/sec, - faster in the proximal intestine and slower in the terminal intestine - very weak and usually die out after traveling only 3 to 5 cm - Net movement 1 cm/min - 3 to 5 hours are required for passage of chyme from the pylorus to the ileocecal valve
- 30. Small Intestine - Peristaltic activity of the small intestine is greatly increased after a meal - by the beginning entry of chyme into the duodenum causing stretch of the duodenal wall - gastroenteric reflex that is initiated by distention of the stomach and conducted principally through the myenteric plexus from the stomach down along the wall of the small intestine. - gastrin, CCK, insulin, motilin, and serotonin, all of which enhance intestinal motility - secretin and glucagon inhibit small intestinal motility
- 31. Small Intestine - The function of the peristaltic waves in the small intestine is not only to cause progression of chyme toward the ileocecal valve but also to spread out the chyme along the intestinal mucosa - On reaching the ileocecal valve, the chyme is sometimes blocked for several hours until the person eats another meal; - gastroileal reflex intensifies peristalsis in the ileum and forces the remaining chyme through the ileocecal valve into the cecum of the large intestine
- 32. Small Intestine - Although peristalsis in the small intestine is normally weak, intense irritation of the intestinal mucosa, as occurs in some severe cases of infectious diarrhea, can cause both powerful and rapid peristalsis, called the peristaltic rush - nervous reflexes that involve the ANS and brain stem and partly by intrinsic enhancement of the myenteric plexus reflexes - The powerful peristaltic contractions travel long distances in the small intestine within minutes, sweeping the contents of the intestine into the colon - relieve the small intestine of irritative chyme and excessive distention
- 33. Ileocecal Valve - prevent backflow of fecal contents from the colon into the small intestine - the ileocecal valve protrudes into the lumen of the cecum and therefore is forcefully closed when excess pressure builds up in the cecum - thickened circular muscle - the ileocecal sphincter - remains mildly constricted and slows emptying of ileal contents into the cecum - immediately after a meal, a gastroileal reflex intensifies peristalsis in the ileum
- 34. Ileocecal Valve - Resistance to emptying at the ileocecal valve prolongs the stay of chyme in the ileum and thereby facilitates absorption. - Normally, only 1500 to 2000 milliliters of chyme empty into the cecum each day - When the cecum is distended, contraction of the ileocecal sphincter becomes intensified and ileal peristalsis is inhibited - When a person has an inflamed appendix, the irritation of this vestigial remnant of the cecum can cause such intense spasm of the ileocecal sphincter and partial paralysis of the ileum
- 36. Movements of the Colon (1)Absorption of water and electrolytes from the chyme to form solid feces (2)storage of fecal matter until it can be expelled. - The proximal half of the colon is concerned principally with absorption and the distal half with storage. - Because intense colon wall movements are not required for these functions, the movements of the colon are normally very sluggish.
- 38. Mixing Movements — Haustrations - large circular constrictions occur in the large intestine. At each of these constrictions, about 2.5 centimeters of the circular muscle contracts - the longitudinal muscle of the colon, which is aggregated into three longitudinal strips called the teniae coli, contracts - These combined contractions of the circular and longitudinal strips of muscle cause the unstimulated portion of the large intestine to bulge outward into bag like sacs called haustrations.
- 40. Haustrations - Each haustration usually reaches peak intensity in about 30 seconds and then disappears during the next 60 seconds. - They also at times move slowly toward the anus during contraction, especially in the cecum and ascending colon, and thereby provide a minor amount of forward propulsion of the colonic contents. - After another few minutes, new haustral contractions occur in other areas nearby - all the fecal material is gradually exposed to the mucosal surface of the large intestine, and fluid and dissolved substances are progressively absorbed - only 80 to 200 milliliters of feces are expelled each day
- 41. Propulsive — Mass Movements - Much of the propulsion in the cecum and ascending colon results from the slow but persistent haustral contractions, requiring as many as 8 to 15 hours to move - From the cecum to the sigmoid, mass movements can, for many minutes at a time, take over the propulsive role. These movements usually occur only 1 to 3 times each day - First, a constrictive ring occurs in response to a distended or irritated point in the colon, usually in the transverse colon - Then, rapidly, the 20 or more centimeters of colon distal to the constrictive ring lose their haustrations and instead contract as a unit, propelling the fecal material in this segment further down the colon
- 42. Mass Movements - The contraction develops progressively more force for about 30 seconds, and relaxation occurs during the next 2 to 3 minutes. - Then, another mass movement occurs, this time perhaps farther along the colon. A series of mass movements usually persists for 10 to 30 minutes. - Then they stop but return about 8 to 10 hours later. - When they have forced a mass of feces into the rectum, the desire for defecation is felt
- 43. Mass Movements - Appearance of mass movements after meals is facilitated by gastrocolic and duodenocolic reflexes - result from distention of the stomach and duodenum - transmitted by way of the ANS - Irritation in the colon can also initiate intense mass movements - a person who has an ulcerated condition of the colon mucosa (ulcerative colitis) frequently has mass movements that persist almost all the time
- 44. Defecation - Most of the time, the rectum is empty of feces - weak functional sphincter exists about 20 centimeters from the anus at the juncture between the sigmoid colon and the rectum. - There is also a sharp angulation here that contributes additional resistance to filling of the rectum. - When a mass movement forces feces into the rectum, the desire for defecation occurs immediately, including reflex contraction of the rectum and relaxation of the anal sphincters. - Internal & External (Voluntary, striated, pudendal nerve) sphincters
- 45. Defecation Reflexes - When feces enter the rectum, distention of the rectal wall initiates afferent signals that spread through the myenteric plexus to initiate peristaltic waves in the descending colon, sigmoid, and rectum, forcing feces toward the anus - As the peristaltic wave approaches the anus, the internal anal sphincter is relaxed by inhibitory signals from the myenteric plexus; - if the external anal sphincter is also consciously, voluntarily relaxed at the same time, defecation occurs - Parasympathetic defecation reflex that involves the sacral segments of the spinal cord – pelvic nerves – enhance intrinsic myenteric reflex
- 47. Defecation Reflexes - Defecation signals entering the spinal cord initiate other effects, - such as taking a deep breath, closure of the glottis, and contraction of the abdominal wall muscles to force the fecal contents of the colon downward - and at the same time cause the pelvic floor to relax downward and pull outward on the anal ring to evaginate the feces - people who often inhibit their natural reflexes are likely to become severely constipated – automatic emptying
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