Development Powerpoint

Editor's Notes

• #6: Three special methods used in developmental research are the longitudinal design, the cross-sectional design, and the cross-sequential design.
• #7: The cross-sequential design is a research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but are also followed and assessed longitudinally.
• #10: Monozygotic twins are formed when the zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which will develop into a baby identical to the other. When the two masses do not fully separate, conjoined twins occur. Dizygotic twins are formed when the mother’s body releases multiple eggs and at least two are fertilized, or when another ovulation occurs even though the mother has already become pregnant.
• #11: The germinal period is the first 2 weeks of pregnancy in which the dividing mass of cells (blastocyst) moves down the fallopian tube into the uterus. The vital organs and structures of the baby form during the embryonic period, making it a critical one for teratogens to adversely affect the development of those developing organs and structures. During the fetal period, tremendous growth occurs, length and weight increase, and organs continue to become fully functional.
• #14: Four critical areas of adjustment for the newborn are respiration, digestion, circulation, and temperature regulation. Infants are born with reflexes that help the infant survive until more complex learning is possible.
• #15: NOTE TO INSTRUCTORS: You must be logged in to your MyPsychLab account in order to view this video. Description of video: Both the survival and non-survival primitive reflexes are discussed and are demonstrated by Andrea, a newborn. The narrator also discusses the difficulty experienced by pre-term babies because their reflexes may not be well developed, especially with respect to breathing reflexes, temperature regulation, and feeding and swallowing. (Note: This segment includes some scenes of female nudity.)
• #17: NOTE TO INSTRUCTORS: You must be logged in to your MyPsychLab account in order to view this video. Description of video: This is a video about infant vision, including distance and depth perception using the visual cliff.
• #18: Gross- and fine motor skills develop at a fast pace during infancy and early childhood. The motor milestones develop as the infant gains greater voluntary control over the muscles in its body, typically from the top of the body downward. This pattern is seen in the early control of the neck muscles and the much later development of control of the legs and feet.
• #19: Piaget believed that children form mental concepts or schemes as they experience new situations and events. Piaget also believed that children first try to understand new things in terms of schemes they already possess, a process called assimilation. The process of altering or adjusting old schemes to fit new information and experiences is accommodation. Piaget’s stages include the sensorimotor stage of sensory and physical interaction with the world, preoperational thought in which language becomes a tool of exploration, concrete operations in which logical thought becomes possible, and formal operations in which abstract concepts are understood and hypothetical thinking develops.
• #20: Children explore the world using their senses and ability to move. They develop object permanence and the understanding that concepts and mental images represent objects, people, and events.
• #21: Young children can mentally represent and refer to objects and events with words or pictures and they can pretend. However, they can’t conserve, logically reason, or simultaneously consider many characteristics of an object.
• #22: A typical conservation task consists of pouring equal amounts of water into two glasses of the same size and shape. When the water from one of these glasses is poured into a taller, narrower glass, children who cannot yet conserve tend to focus (centrate) on the height of the water in the second glass, assuming that the second glass now has more water than the first one. In the second example, pennies are laid out in two equal lines. When the pennies in the top line are spaced out, the child who cannot yet conserve will centrate on the top line and assume that there are actually more pennies in that line.
• #23: NOTE TO INSTRUCTORS: You must be logged in to your MyPsychLab account in order to view this video. Description of video: An experiment illustrating Piaget’s conservation tasks. Children of different ages demonstrate preoperational thinking with conservation of liquids. Conservation of numbers and practical applications of conservation are also shown using quarters and crackers.
• #24: Children at this stage are able to conserve, reverse their thinking, and classify objects in terms of their many characteristics. They can also think logically and understand analogies but only about concrete events.
• #25: People at this stage can use abstract reasoning about hypothetical events or situations, think about logical possibilities, use abstract analogies, and systematically examine and test hypotheses. Not everyone can eventually reason in all these ways.
• #26: Vygotsky believed that children learn best when being helped by a more highly skilled peer or adult in a process called scaffolding. The zone of proximal development is the difference between the mental age of tasks the child performs without help and those the child can perform with help.
• #27: Although some language is learned through imitation and reinforcement, infants may possess a language acquisition device that governs the learning of language during infancy and early childhood.
• #28: The three basic infant temperaments are easy (regular, adaptable, and happy), difficult (irregular, nonadaptable, and irritable), and slow to warm up (need to adjust gradually to change).
• #29: The four types of attachment are secure, avoidant (unattached), ambivalent (insecurely attached), and disorganized–disoriented (insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected). Harlow’s classic research with infant rhesus monkeys demonstrated the importance of contact comfort in the attachment process, contradicting the earlier view that attachment was merely a function of associating the mother with the delivery of food.
• #30: Erikson believed that development occurred in a series of eight stages, with the first four of these stages occurring in infancy and childhood Each of Erikson’s stages is an emotional crisis, or a kind of turning point, in personality, and the crisis in each stage must be successfully met for normal, healthy psychological development.
• #31: In trust versus mistrust, the infant must gain a sense of predictability and trust in caregivers or risk developing a mistrustful nature.
• #32: In autonomy versus shame and doubt the toddler needs to become physically independent.
• #33: In initiative versus guilt, the preschool child is developing emotional and psychological independence.
• #34: In industry versus inferiority, school-age children are gaining competence and developing self-esteem.
• #37: Puberty is a period of about 4 years during which the sexual organs and systems fully mature and during which secondary sex characteristics such as body hair, breasts, menstruation, deepening voices, and the growth spurt occur. The personal fable is a type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm. The imaginary audience is a type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent’s thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are.
• #39: Gilligan suggested that Kohlberg’s ideas applied more to males.
• #40: NOTE TO INSTRUCTORS: You must be logged in to your MyPsychLab account in order to view this video. Description of video: Children respond to a hypothetical moral dilemma
• #41: In Erikson’s identity versus role confusion crisis, the job of the adolescent is to achieve a consistent sense of self from among all the roles, values, and futures open to him or her.
• #44: The 20s are the peak of physical health; in the 30s the signs of aging become more visible, and in the 40s visual problems may occur, weight may increase, strength may decrease, and height begins to decrease. Women experience a physical decline in the reproductive system called the climacteric, ending at about age 50 with menopause, when a woman’s estrogen levels are at zero and her reproductive capabilities are at an end. Men go through andropause, a less dramatic change in testosterone and other male hormones, beginning in the 40s. Many health problems such as high blood pressure, skin cancers, and arthritis begin in middle age, with the most common causes of death in middle age being heart disease, cancer, and stroke.  
• #45: NOTE TO INSTRUCTORS: You must be logged in to your MyPsychLab account in order to view this video. Description of video: A wife and husband both in their early 40s are interviewed about the physical changes they have experienced as they have entered the stage of middle adulthood. They discuss changes in physical health and stamina, the need to prepare better for physical exercise, the physical symptoms they experience that are associated with aging, the changes they observe in their appearance, and their general attitudes about maintaining physical health during the middle adult years.
• #46: Erikson’s crisis of young adulthood is intimacy versus isolation, in which the young adult must establish an intimate relationship, usually with a mate.
• #47: The crisis of middle adulthood is generativity versus stagnation, in which the task of the middle-aged adult is to help the next generation through its crises, either by parenting, mentoring, or a career that leaves some legacy to the next generation.
• #48: Erikson’s final crisis is ego integrity versus despair, in which an older adult must come to terms with mortality.
• #49: Research strongly indicates that remaining active and involved results in the most positive adjustment to aging. The cellular-clock theory is based on the idea that cells only have so many times that they can reproduce; once that limit is reached, damaged cells begin to accumulate. The wear-and-tear theory of physical aging states that as time goes by, repeated use and abuse of the body’s tissues cause it to be unable to repair all the damage. The free-radical theory states that oxygen molecules with an unstable electron move around the cell, damaging cell structures as they go.