Message mapping by Dr. Vincent Covello

EPA/600/R-07/027

Effective Risk and Crisis
Communication during Water
Security Emergencies
SUMMARY REPORT OF EPA SPONSORED
MESSAGE MAPPING WORKSHOPS

Ofﬁce of Research and Development
National Homeland Security Research Center

EPA/600/R-07/027
March 2007

Effective Risk and Crisis Communication during Water
Security Emergencies

Summary Report of EPA Sponsored
Message Mapping Workshops
by

Vincent Covello
Center for Risk Communication
New York, NY 10011

Scott Minamyer and Kathy Clayton
U.S. EPA National Homeland Security Research Center
Cincinnati, OH 45268

U.S. EPA Contract No. 68-C-02-067
Work Assignment 4-94
Science Applications International Corporation
Reston, VA 20190

Work Assignment Managers

Kathy Clayton
Threat and Consequence Assessment Division

Scott Minamyer
Water Infrastructure Protection Division

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Disclaimer

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency through its Ofﬁce of Research and Development funded and collaborated in the
research described herein under Contract Number 68-C-02-067 to Science Applications International Corporation. It has been
subjected to the Agency’s peer and administrative review and has been approved for publication as an EPA document. Mention of
trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

ii

Abstract

This report summarizes results from three water security risk communication message mapping workshops conducted by
U.S. EPA’s National Homeland Security Research Center during 2005/2006. It provides information about effective message
development and delivery that could be useful to water sector organizations as they develop their respective risk communication
plans.

Message mapping is a process by which users can predict 95 percent of questions likely to be asked by the media and others
following an incident, prepare clear and concise answers to the questions along with supporting information ahead of time, and
practice effective message delivery before a crisis occurs.

The workshops were facilitated by Dr. Vincent Covello, internationally known crisis communication expert and Director of the
Center for Risk Communication in New York City. Invited workshop participants represented a cross-section of water utilities
from various regions of the United States; local, state, and federal government agencies; emergency response organizations; public
health ofﬁcials; law enforcement agencies; and water sector professional associations.

iii

Contents
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................................................................. vi
1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................................................1-1
EPA Workshops .......................................................................................................................................................................1-1
Risk Communication Plan .......................................................................................................................................................1-1
Workshop Proceedings .............................................................................................................................................................1-2
Report Organization .................................................................................................................................................................1-2
2. Guide to Message Mapping (Authors: Vincent T. Covello, Center for Risk Communication, and Scott Minamyer,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) ................................................................................................................................. 2-1
Background ...........................................................................................................................................................................2-1
What Is Risk Communication? ................................................................................................................................................2-1
Mental Noise: Why Risk Communication Matters During a Crisis ........................................................................................2-1
Message Mapping .................................................................................................................................................................. 2-2
Beneﬁts of Using Message Maps ........................................................................................................................................... 2-2
Uses of Message Maps ........................................................................................................................................................... 2-3
History of Message Maps ...................................................................................................................................................... 2-3
Steps in Developing Message Maps ...................................................................................................................................... 2-3
Step 1. Identify Potential Stakeholders ........................................................................................................................ 2-4
Step 2. Identify Potential Stakeholder Questions ........................................................................................................ 2-4
Step 3. Analyze Questions to Identify Common Sets of Concerns ..............................................................................2-6
Step 4. Develop Key Messages .................................................................................................................................... 2-7
Step 5. Develop Supporting Facts ................................................................................................................................ 2-8
Step 6. Test and Practice Messages ............................................................................................................................. 2-8
Step 7. Deliver Maps Through Appropriate Information Channels ............................................................................. 2-8
Other Resources .......................................................................................................................................................................2-9
3. Message Mapping Workshop Products .................................................................................................................................. 3-1
Scenario 1: Hypothetical Credible Threat Involving Chemical Contamination of a Reservoir ......................................... 3-2
Scenario 2: Hypothetical Physical Attack—Bomb Explosion ............................................................................................ 3-6
Attack—
Scenario 3: Hypothetical Credible Threat ........................................................................................................................ 3-12
Scenario 4: Hypothetical Power Loss Incident ................................................................................................................. 3-17
Scenario 5: Hypothetical Pesticide Contamination Incident ............................................................................................ 3-23
Scenario 6: Hypothetical Intentional Biological Contamination Incident ......................................................................... 3-30
4. Conclusion ...........................................................................................................................................................................4-1
Appendix A: Seven General Rules of Risk Communication ...................................................................................................... A-1
Appendix B: Water Security Message Mapping Workshop Participants ...................................................................................... B-1
Appendix C: References ............................................................................................................................................................... C-1

List of Figures
2-1. Message Map Template .......................................................................................................................................................... 2-2
2-2. Sample Smallpox Message Map Developed by CDC ............................................................................................................ 2-3
2-3. Sample Matrix of Stakeholders and Their Concerns ...............................................................................................................2-6

v

Acknowledgments

The Message Mapping Workshops and this report were developed in close cooperation with the EPA Office of Water, Water
Security Division, Washington, DC.

EPA wishes to acknowledge all of the workshop participants for their significant contributions, expertise, and hard work in
developing the questions and maps contained in this report. Participants and their contact information are listed in Appendix B.

Meg Olberding of the City Manager’s Office, Cincinnati, Ohio, and Bret Atkins of the Ohio Department of Health, Columbus,
Ohio, peer reviewed this report. Other reviewers include Susan Ruggles formerly with the EPA Office of Water, Water Security
Division in Washington DC; Patricia Lamb of the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Utilities in Charlotte, NC; Kerry Kirk Pflugh of the
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection in Trenton, NJ; Scott Decker of the Washington State Department of Health
in Olympia, WA; Raymond Riordan of Riordan Associates in San Ramon, CA; and John Spitler of the Golden State Water
Company in Rancho Cordova, CA.

vi

1. Introduction

Risk Communication

The interactive process of exchanging information and opinion among individuals, groups,
and institutions involving multiple messages about the nature of risk...

– The National Research Council

EPA Workshops
Risk communication skills are imperative for the successful • Describe and designate staff roles and
management of crises. Recent U.S. and global events have responsibilities for different emergency scenarios
resulted in heightened recognition by public officials and
others responsible for crisis management of the need to • Designate who is accountable for leading the
evaluate and refine these skills. Message mapping (described response
in Section 2) has become widely accepted as a method of
preparing ahead of time for crisis communication that will • Designate who is responsible for implementing
be necessary during various types of potential incidents, various actions
including those affecting drinking water and wastewater
utilities. For this reason, the U.S. Environmental Protection • Designate who needs to be consulted during the
Agency (EPA) has sponsored message mapping workshops process
focusing on several categories of water infrastructure crises.
These were conducted in the following locations: • Designate who needs to be informed about what is
taking place
Atlanta, GA March 2-3, 2005
Washington, DC August 17-19, 2005 • Designate who will be the lead spokesperson and
Alexandria, VA February 14-15, 2006 backup for different scenarios

This report presents information from the workshops that • Include procedures for information verification,
could be useful to water sector organizations as they develop clearance, and approval
or improve their respective risk communication plans.
• Include procedures for coordinating with important
stakeholders and partners (for example, with
Risk Communication Plan* other water utilities, health agencies, emergency
responders, law enforcement, elected officials, and
The techniques for developing and delivering effective crisis
state and federal government agencies)
messages described in this report should be considered within
the context of a comprehensive written risk communication
• Include procedures to secure the required human,
plan prepared by the water sector organization in advance.
financial, logistical, and physical support and
Such plans allow for a proactive, quick, and effective
resources (such as people, space, equipment and
response during an emergency since many of the necessary
food) for communication operations during a short,
communication decisions and activities will have already been
medium and prolonged event (24 hours a day, 7 days
decided upon. If carefully designed, a risk communication
a week if needed)
plan can save precious time when an emergency occurs and
enable leaders and spokespersons to focus on particulars of
• Include agreements on releasing information and on
the emergency at hand and the quality, accuracy, and speed of
who releases what, when, and how
their responses.
• Include polices and procedures regarding employee
To show the context of messaging as part of the overall
contacts from the media
plan, the following describes what a comprehensive risk
communication plan should do.
• Outline well thought out communication
contingency plans for various scenarios
*Source: Adapted from Hyer RN, Covello VT. Effective Media
Communication during Public Health Emergencies: A WHO Handbook,
• Include regularly checked and updated media
WHO/CDS/2005.31, World Health Organization, Geneva, 2005 (www.who.
contact lists (including after-hours news desks)
int/csr/resources/publications/WHO_CDS_2005_31/en/)

1-1

Invited workshop participants (see Appendix B) represented
• Include regularly checked and updated partner a cross-section of water utilities from various regions of the
contact lists (day and night) United States; local, state, and federal government agencies;
emergency response organizations; public health officials;
• Outline exercises and drills for testing the law enforcement agencies; and water sector professional
communication plan as part of larger preparedness associations.
and response training
Following an overview of risk communication and message
• Identify subject-matter experts (for example, mapping principles by Dr. Covello, participant work groups
university professors) willing to collaborate during produced several message maps for each of the following six
an emergency, and develop and test contact lists (day hypothetical scenarios:
and night); know their perspectives in advance
(1) Possible chemical contamination of a reservoir
• Identify target audiences (2) Physical attack—bomb explosion
(3) Credible threat—unknown agent and location
• Identify preferred communication channels (for (4) Loss of electrical power impacting water delivery
example, telephone hotlines, radio announcements, systems
news conferences, Web site updates, and faxes) to (5) Pesticide contamination
communicate with the public, key stakeholders and (6) Biological contamination
partners
Products generated by workshop participants include:
• Contain message maps, including holding
statements, core messages, message templates, and ■ A list of stakeholders who will need information during a
message maps with answers to frequently asked water sector crisis
questions
■ A list of anticipated questions or concerns from the
• Contain fact sheets, question-and-answer sheets, public and media for each of the six scenarios
talking points and other supplementary materials for
potential scenarios ■ Message maps for a small subset of anticipated questions
for each scenario
• Contain a signed endorsement of the communication
plan from the agency’s director Report Organization
• Contain procedures for posting/updating information This report is organized into four sections. Section 1,
on a Web site Introduction, provides a brief overview of workshop locations,
proceedings, and scenarios. Section 2, Guide to Message
• Contain task checklists for the first 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 24, Mapping, provides a “how to” guide outlining the background,
and 48 hours benefits, and steps to message mapping. Section 3, Message
Mapping Workshop Products, provides lists of potential
• Contain procedures for evaluating, revising, and questions and a subset of message maps produced for each
updating the communication plan on a regular basis scenario. Section 4, Conclusion, provides a brief discussion
of this and other risk communication tools available from
EPA. Appendix A presents seven best practices for effective
risk communication, Appendix B provides a list of workshop
participants, and Appendix C includes a list of references.
Workshop Proceedings
Dr. Vincent Covello, internationally recognized crisis
communication expert and Director of the Center for Risk
Communication in New York City, facilitated the workshops.
Dr. Covello has consulted for several hundred public and
private sector organizations over the past 30 years, including
the EPA, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),
Department of Defense, Department of Health and Human
Services, and the World Health Organization. He has provided
expert consultations related to such threats as bioterrorism,
West Nile virus, smallpox, SARS, and pandemic flu, and has
authored or edited more than 25 books and 75 articles on crisis
communication.

1-2

2. Guide to Message Mapping
Authors
Vincent T. Covello, Center for Risk Communication
Scott Minamyer, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

“We have only recently come to understand that communications are as critical to outbreak
control as laboratory analyses or epidemiology.”

– Dr. Lee Jong-wook, Director-General,
World Health Organization, September 2004

Background
Under normal circumstances, the elaborate infrastructures and behavior and actions following a crisis incident. Although
mechanisms that protect the nation’s water systems generally much about risk communication involves elements of common
go unnoticed. In the middle of a water security crisis, sense, its principles are supported by a considerable body of
however, such as an attack against a water treatment plant or scientific research as reflected in more than 8,000 articles in
contamination of the drinking water with a naturally occurring peer-reviewed scientific journals, 2,000 published books, and
organism like cryptosporidium, they will be of intense interest. a number of published literature reviews by major scientific
Risk communication during such emergencies will directly organizations such as the National Academy of Sciences.
influence events. Poor risk communication can fan emotions
and undermine public trust and confidence at best, and at Mental Noise: Why Risk Communication
worst, incite high tensions, misinformation, and additional Matters During a Crisis
crises that need to be handled. Good risk communication
can rally support, calm a nervous public, provide needed Mental noise theory, one of the main constructs of risk
information, encourage cooperative behaviors, and potentially communication, indicates that when people are highly
help save lives. upset, they often have difficulty hearing, understanding,
and remembering information. Research shows that mental
Effective risk communication is a key responsibility of water noise can reduce a person’s ability to process information by
utility officials and public information officers in times of crisis. more than 80 percent. This is mostly due to trauma and a
The public, news media, policy-makers, and other stakeholders heightened emotional state during a crisis. Factors that cause
will expect timely and quality information from water utilities, the highest levels of worry, anxiety, and mental noise during a
regulatory agencies, public health officials, and other authorities crisis include but are not limited to perceptions that:
about the situation. A spokesperson who communicates badly
may be perceived as incompetent, uncaring, or dishonest, thus ■ The situation is under the control of others, especially
losing trust. One who communicates well, however, can reach those we do not trust
large numbers of people with clear and credible health, safety, ■ The situation is involuntary
and security messages. ■ The situation is inescapable
■ The crisis is of human origin versus nature
While the specifics of water security crises are difficult to ■ The crisis involves something that is unfamiliar or exotic
predict, risk communication strategies for such events can ■ The crisis threatens a form of injury or death that
be planned before a crisis occurs. Such planning greatly is dreaded
increases the likelihood that communication will further health ■ There is a great deal of uncertainty
and safety interests and contribute positively to emergency ■ Victims include children, pregnant women, or other
response efforts. Well-constructed, practiced, and delivered vulnerable populations
messages will inform the public, reduce misinformation, and ■ There are untrustworthy sources of information
provide a valuable foundation for informed decision making.
The challenge for risk
What Is Risk Communication? communicators is to overcome the
communication barriers created by
Risk communication is a science-based approach for mental noise. Solutions include
communicating effectively and accurately to diverse audiences developing a limited number of key
in situations that are high-concern, high-stress, emotionally messages that are brief, credible,
charged, and/or highly controversial. Its purpose is to enhance and clearly understandable. One of
knowledge and understanding, build trust and credibility, the most powerful tools available to
encourage constructive dialogue, produce appropriate levels risk communicators for this purpose
of concern, and provide guidance on appropriate protective is “message mapping.”

2-1

Message Mapping wide variety of audiences. The three key messages can also
serve singularly or collectively as a media sound bite (a very
Message mapping is a seven-step process by which users can: short comment or phrase suitable for use in a broadcast or
print news story). Sound bites are critical to successful media
■ Predict 95 percent of questions likely to be asked by the interviews. The bottom tier of the message map contains
media and others following an incident supporting information, blocked in groups of three under the
key messages. Supporting messages amplify the key messages
■ Prepare clear and concise answers to the questions along and provide additional facts or details.
with supporting information ahead of time

■ Practice effective message delivery before a crisis occurs Benefits of Using Message Maps
As a strategic tool, a message map affords multiple benefits.
Message maps are viable tools for communicating information It provides a handy reference for water security leaders and
about terrorist attacks and other manmade or natural spokespersons who must respond swiftly to questions on
emergencies. They ensure that risk information has the topics where timeliness and accuracy are critical. Multiple
optimum chance of being heard, understood, and remembered. spokespersons can work from the same message map to ensure
Message maps allow organizations to convey timely, accurate, rapid dissemination of consistent messages across a wide
clear, and credible information. They enable audiences spectrum of communication outlets. Message maps provide
to better understand issues, act constructively upon the a unifying framework for disseminating information about a
information provided, recover more quickly from the stress of wide range of water security issues.
the event, and gain or regain trust in risk managers.
When used consistently, message maps promote multiple partners
The process has been used for some time by outstanding risk “speaking with one voice.” Message maps also minimize
communicators such as Mayor Rudolph Giuliani; most notably chances of “speaker’s regret,” which includes regretting saying
in communicating about the attacks on the World Trade something inappropriate or regretting not saying something
Center in New York City on September 11, 2001. Message that should have been said. A printed copy of the message map
maps present concise, detailed, and hierarchically organized enables spokespeople to “check off ” the talking points they want
responses to anticipated questions or concerns. They are to address during interviews, in order of their importance. This
visual aids that can highlight at a glance the organization’s helps prevent omissions of key facts or misstatements that could
messages for key issues of concern. provoke misunderstandings or controversy.

As shown in the template in Figure 2-1, the top portion Message mapping permits organizations to develop messages
of a message map identifies the intended audience, the in advance for potential emergencies and crises, such as a
spokesperson, and the specific question or concern the map terrorist attack. Message maps can be tailored to the specifics
is intended to address. The next layer of the message map of the event when the crisis occurs. Once developed, the
contains three key messages in response to the question. Key effectiveness of message maps can be tested through focus
messages are intended to address the information needs of a groups and practice.

Message Map
Audience/Stakeholder: ____________________________
Spokesperson: _____________________________________

Question or Concern: _____________________________________________________

Key Message 1
■ Supporting Information 1-1

Key Message 2

Key Message 3

Figure 2-1. Message Map Template.

2-2

Uses of Message Maps in the risk communication process, anticipation of stakeholder
questions and concerns before they are raised, internal and
Message maps can be used for effectively sharing information external partnering in the development of messages, and
in news conferences, media interviews, stakeholder a vetted central repository of clear, concise, and accurate
information exchanges, public meetings, Web sites, telephone information for the major types of emergency events.
hotline scripts, and fact sheets.
Steps in Developing Message Maps
History of Message Maps
There are seven steps involved in the message mapping
Message maps were developed by Dr. Vincent Covello in the process. These include: (1) identifying stakeholders, (2)
early 1990s as a specialized tool for communicating effectively identifying stakeholder questions, (3) analyzing the questions
in high-stress, high-concern, or emotionally charged to identify the underlying concerns, (4) developing key
situations. Message mapping was first adopted as a public messages, (5) developing supporting facts for the key
health tool in the aftermath of the U.S. anthrax attacks in the messages, (6) testing and practicing messages, and (7)
fall of 2001. Early in 2002, the CDC conducted an intensive delivering maps through the appropriate information channels.
message mapping session focused on the communication
challenges posed by a potential smallpox attack. A product of
this workshop was several hundred smallpox message maps.
Figure 2-2 (below) provides one example.

Since 2002, agencies at the national, regional, state, and
local levels have conducted dozens of message mapping
workshops focused on a wide variety of emergency events.
For example, emergency events that have already been
mapped include bioterrorism, pandemic influenza, exposure
to anthrax, smallpox, plague, botulism, viral hemorrhagic
fevers, tularemia, and radiation. EPA has conducted message
mapping workshops focusing on water sector incidents; crises
involving indoor facilities such as buildings, schools, or
arenas; and decontamination following an incident.

Several important outcomes have resulted from these mapping
efforts. These include identification of key stakeholders early

Message Map Example

Stakeholder: General Public
Spokesperson: Public Health Official

Question or Concern: How contagious is smallpox?

Key Message 1: Smallpox spreads slowly compared to many other diseases.
■ People are infectious only when the rash appears.
■ Smallpox typically requires hours of face-to-face contact.
■ There are no carriers without symptoms.

Key Message 2: This allows time to trace those who have come in contact with the disease.
■ The incubation period for the disease is 10-14 days.
■ Resources are available for tracing contacts.
■ Finding people who have been exposed and vaccinating them has proved successful in the past.

Key Message 3: Those who have been traced can be vaccinated to prevent illness.
■ People who have never been vaccinated are the most important to vaccinate.
■ Adults who were vaccinated as children may still have some immunity.
■ Adequate vaccine is on hand.

Figure 2-2. Sample Smallpox Message Map Developed by CDC.

2-3

Step 1. Identify Potential Stakeholders ■ security personnel
■ service and maintenance personnel
The first step in message mapping is to identify potential ■ suppliers/vendors
stakeholders for a selected issue or topic, such as a terrorist ■ tourists or business travelers and their relatives
attack against a water treatment plant or the discovery of a ■ union officials and labor advocates
contaminant in the water system. Stakeholders include the ■ veterinarians
public at large as well as all interested, affected, or influential ■ victims
parties (local, state, and federal; including law enforcement, ■ victims’ families
public health, and elected officials). ■ water utility employees
Every emergency event involves a distinctive set of
As part of this first step of message mapping, stakeholders can
stakeholders. Each stakeholder may have a different set of
be further distinguished and categorized according to: (1) their
questions and concerns that may be voiced. The following is
potential to affect outcomes; (2) their credibility among other
a list (in alphabetical order) of potential stakeholders for a
stakeholders; and (3) whether they are likely to be apathetic,
water security emergency identified by EPA Message Mapping
neutral, supportive, non-supportive, adversarial, or undecided
Workshop participants. This list is intended to provide
regarding issues on the table.
examples of potential stakeholders. Individual water utilities
or other water sector organizations may choose to include
It is important to note that maps need not be developed for
additional or different stakeholders in their respective risk
every stakeholder group on the list. Providing information to
communication plans than those in this list.
the media, for example, will get information to many of the
other stakeholders listed. Additionally, the same messages can
■ advisory panels
be used for multiple stakeholders.
■ business leaders and business community
■ consultants
■ contractors Step 2. Identify Potential Stakeholder Questions
■ disabled populations The second step is to identify as complete a list of potential
■ educational leaders and educational community questions and concerns for each stakeholder group as possible.
■ elderly populations Questions and concerns typically fall into three categories:
■ emergency response personnel
■ employees of other responding organizations ■ Overarching Questions: for example, “What do people
■ environmental officials need to know?”
■ ethnic populations
■ families of emergency responders, law enforcement ■ Informational Questions: for example, “When will the
personnel, hospital personnel, and health agency water be safe to use?”
employees
■ fire department personnel ■ Challenging Questions: for example, “Why should we
■ government agencies trust what you are telling us?”
■ homebound populations
■ homeless people The questions can be further refined by grouping them
■ hospital personnel according to themes (for example, whether the incident
■ illiterate populations involves chemical, biological, physical, or radiological agents;
■ institutionalized populations the likely organization responsible for answering the questions;
■ law enforcement personnel certainty or uncertainty that the event has occurred; and the
■ legal professionals level of protective actions).
■ local residents who are out of town and their relatives
■ media, print and electronic How to Develop Lists of Questions
■ military leaders
■ minority populations Lists of specific stakeholder questions and concerns can be
■ non-English speaking groups generated through research, including:
■ non-governmental organizations
■ other water utilities ■ Media content analysis (print and broadcast)
■ physicians, nurses, paramedics, and other ■ Analysis of web site material
healthcare personnel ■ Document review, including public meeting records,
■ politicians/legislators/elected officials public hearing records, and legislative transcripts
■ professional societies ■ Reviews of complaint logs, hotline logs, toll-free number
■ public-at-large logs, and media logs
■ public-at-risk ■ Focused interviews with subject matter experts
■ public health officials ■ Facilitated workshops or discussion sessions with
■ religious groups individuals intimately familiar with the issues
■ scientific leaders and scientific community ■ Focus groups
■ Surveys

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The 77 Most Frequently Asked Questions by Media Who else is involved in the response?
Following Crisis Incidents
Why did this happen?
Recent research conducted by the Center for Risk What was the cause?
Communication and other groups indicates that questions and
concerns raised by stakeholders in emergency situations can Did you have any forewarning that this might
happen?
be identified in advance using the techniques described above.
For example, the following is a list of the 77 most frequently Why wasn’t this prevented from happening?
asked questions by journalists during a crisis. The list was Could this have been avoided?
generated by researching a large database of questions posed How could this have been avoided?
by journalists at news conferences immediately following a What else can go wrong?
disaster and distilling the larger list into 77 questions. This is
an excellent resource for identifying potential questions for If you are not sure of the cause, what is your
which message maps should be developed. best guess?
Who caused this to happen?
What is your name and title?
Who is to blame?
What are your job responsibilities?
Do you think those involved handled the
What are your qualifications? situation well enough? What more could/should
Can you tell us what happened? those who handled the situation have done?
When did it happen? When did your response to this begin?
Where did it happen? When were you notified that something had
Who was harmed? happened?
How many people were harmed? Did you and other organizations disclose
information promptly? Have you and other
Are those that were harmed getting help? organizations been transparent?
How certain are you about this information? Who is conducting the investigation? Will the
How are those who were harmed getting help? outcome be reported to the public?
Is the situation under control? What are you going to do after the investigation?
How certain are you that the situation is under What have you found out so far?
control? Why was more not done to prevent this from
Is there any immediate danger? happening?
What is being done in response to what What is your personal opinion?
happened? What are you telling your own family?
Who is in charge? Are all those involved in agreement?
What can we expect next? Are people over-reacting?
What are you advising people to do? What Which laws are applicable?
can people do to protect themselves and their
families – now and in the future – from harm? Has anyone broken the law?
How long will it be before the situation returns How certain are you about whether laws have
to normal? been broken?
What help has been requested or offered from Has anyone made mistakes?
others? How certain are you that mistakes have not been
What responses have you received? made?
Can you be specific about the types of harm Have you told us everything you know?
that occurred? What are you not telling us?
What are the names of those that were harmed? What effects will this have on the people
Can we talk to them? involved?
How much damage occurred? What precautionary measures were taken?
What other damage may have occurred? Do you accept responsibility for what
happened?
How certain are you about damages? Has this ever happened before?
How much damage do you expect? Can this happen elsewhere?
What are you doing now?
What is the worst-case scenario?

2-5

What lessons were learned? ■ Human Health Concerns
- one’s own
Were those lessons implemented? Are they
being implemented now? - children
- parents
What can be done now to prevent this from - friends and family
happening again? What steps need to be taken to - elderly persons
avoid a similar event? - expectant mothers
What would you like to say to those who have - special populations
been harmed and to their families? - others
Is there any continuing danger? ■ Irreversibility
Are people out of danger? Are people safe? Will
■ Legal/Regulatory
there be inconvenience to employees or to the ■ Listening/Caring/Empathy
public? ■ Openness/Transparency/Access to Information
■ Options/Alternatives
How much will all this cost? ■ Organizational (for example, who’s in charge)
Are you able and willing to pay the costs? ■ Quality of Life
Who else will pay the costs? ■ Safety
When will we ﬁnd out more?
■ Trust
■ Unfamiliarity
Have these steps already been taken? If not, why ■ Voluntariness
not?
Why should we trust you? Once common concerns are listed and analyzed, a useful next
What does this all mean? step is to construct a matrix (Figure 2-3) that contains a list
of stakeholders on one axis and a list of stakeholder questions
and concerns on the other axis. Within the boxes of the
Step 3. Analyze Questions to Identify matrix, stakeholder questions and concerns can be designated
Common Sets of Concerns as: (1) high concern; (2) medium concern; (3) low concern; (4)
not applicable. One of the most important uses of the resulting
The third step in message map construction is to matrix is as a resource allocation guide. Boxes that have the
analyze the lists of questions to identify common sets highest number of entries or are of the highest concern should
of concerns in order to focus on the most salient issues. be the ﬁrst addressed.
Case studies indicate that questions can typically be
categorized into 15 to 25 overarching areas of concern. Concerns
The following is a sample list, in alphabetical order,

Duration/Recovery

Listening/Caring
of categories of concern that could be considered for

Equity/Fairness
Organizational

Accountability
Quality of Life

Unfamiliarity
Information

a water security event. This list is intended to provide

Economic
Human

Control
Safety

examples of potential categories of concern. Individual
health

Basic

Other
Trust

organizations may choose to use additional or different Stakeholders

categories than contained in this listing. Public-At-Large

Public-At-Risk
■ Accountability (who is responsible)
■ Basic Informational – Who, What, Where, When, Victims

Why, How
■ Changes in the Status Quo Victims’
Families
■ Control (who is in charge) Media
■ Duration/Recovery/Decontamination
■ Ecological/Environmental Water Utility
Personnel
■ Economic
■ Effects on Children/Future Generations/Elderly Public Health
Personnel
■ Equity/Fairness Emergency
■ Ethics/Morality Response
Personnel
■ Expertise Law
Enforcement
■ Honesty Personnel
Goverment
Agencies

Special Needs
Population

Other

Figure 2-3. Sample Matrix of Stakeholders and Their
Concerns.

2-6

Step 4. Develop Key Messages An example of the CCO template was the response offered
by Mayor Giuliani in New York City following the terrorist
The fourth step in message mapping is to develop key
attacks on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001. At
messages in response to each stakeholder question or concern.
the first news conference following the collapse of the second
Key messages should be based on what the target audience
Tower, the Mayor said: “The number of casualties is more than
most needs to know or most wants to know.
any of us can bear ultimately.” He delivered his messages with
the perfect balance of compassion, conviction, and optimism.
Key messages can most effectively be developed through
brainstorming sessions with a message mapping team. The
message mapping team typically consists of subject matter Additional Key Message Templates and Principles
experts, communication specialists, policy/legal/management Professional risk communicators have developed several
experts, and a facilitator. The brainstorming sessions produce additional templates for developing effective messages,
message narratives, usually in the form of complete sentences. including the following:
These sentences are then entered as key messages onto the
message map template. Rule of 3: In high-stress situations, people can process only
three messages at a time instead of the seven they could
Construction of the message map key messages should be normally process. This is why message maps have three key
guided by theories and principles of risk communication, messages.
including mental noise discussed previously. Studies recently
conducted by the Center for Risk Communication, for Primacy/Recency: Spokespersons should state the most
example, indicate that it is crucial for key messages to be important messages first and last. In high-stress situations, listeners
concisely stated if they are offered to the news media as sound tend to remember that which they hear first and last. Messages in
bites or quotes. Based on an analysis of 10 years of print and the middle of a list are often not heard or remembered.
media coverage of emergencies and crises in the United States:
Average Grade Level Minus 4 (AGL- 4): During crises,
■ The average length of a sound bite in the print media messages should be at the average grade level of the intended
is 27 words audience, minus four. For example, message maps produced
for populations in industrialized nations during crises are typically
■ The average duration of a sound bite in the broadcast constructed to be easily understood by an adult with a 6th to 8th
media is nine seconds grade education, instead of the normal 10th to 12th grade level.
■ The average number of messages reported in both the Triple T Model: When time permits, present the full message
print and broadcast media is three map using the repetitive structure found in the “Tell me, Tell
me more, Tell me again model,” or “Triple T Model”: (1) Tell
■ Quotes most likely to be used as sound bites contained people what you are going to tell them in summary form, i.e.,
compassion, conviction, and optimism. the three key messages; (2) Tell them more, i.e., the supporting
information; (3) Tell people again what you told them in
With this in mind, the key messages should be organized into summary form, i.e., repeat the three key messages. The greater
sound bites with a total of three bullets containing a maximum the extent to which messages are repeated and heard through
of 27 words (combined) that can be spoken in nine seconds. various channels, the less likely it is that mental noise will
Each of the three bullets should be supported by three interfere with the ability to comprehend messages.
additional supporting facts, as described in Step Five. Avoid
long explanations. Adherence to the 27 words/9 second/3 Negative Dominance (1N = 3P): According to risk
message limitation, or 27/9/3 template, helps ensure that communication theory, people tend to focus more on the
spokespersons are quoted accurately and completely in media negative than on the positive in emotionally charged situations.
interviews. For this reason, it is important to balance negative key
messages with positive, constructive, or solution-oriented
It is often appropriate to provide a brief preamble to the key messages; offering three positive messages for every
message map or key messages that indicates authentic one negative. Also, it is important to avoid unnecessary,
empathy and compassion, which are crucial factors in indefensible, or non-productive uses of absolutes and of the
establishing trust in high-concern, high-stress situations. The words “no,” “not,” ”never,” “nothing,” or “none.”
greater the extent to which individuals and organizations
are perceived to be genuinely empathic, the less likely it is Anticipate, Prepare, Practice (APP): Spokespersons should
that mental noise will interfere with the audience’s ability to anticipate questions, prepare answers, and practice delivery
comprehend messages. This is referred to as the Compassion, ahead of time (never wing it).
Conviction, and Optimism (CCO) template in risk
communication. This preamble does not count in the 27/9/3
message.

2-7

Cite Third Parties: Spokespersons should cite third parties or In the event of a significant threat or water security
sources that would be perceived as credible by the receiving incident, the water utility will work collaboratively with
audience. The greater the extent to which messages are other responsible agencies in managing the response and
supported and corroborated by credible third party sources, the communicating risk. Depending on the type of incident,
greater the trust and the less likely it is that mental noise will this may include local government officials; state and local
interfere with the ability to comprehend messages. public health departments; the state water primacy agency;
emergency responders; law enforcement; and pertinent
Address Risk Perceptions: Key messages and supporting federal agencies. Coordination among the partner agencies in
information should address emotionally charged factors selecting the appropriate spokespersons and delivering clear
that influence the way people perceive risks, such as lack and consistent messages across organizations will enhance
of control, dread, unfamiliarity, uncertainty, and effects on communication effectiveness. Having experts available from
children. Research indicates that the greater the extent to the various organizations to verify information or answer
which risk perception factors are addressed in messaging, the questions pertaining to their areas of responsibilities will also
less likely that mental noise will interfere with the ability to increase credibility when delivering messages.
comprehend messages.
As mentioned previously, once developed, message maps
Use Graphics and Other Visual Aids: The use of graphics, can be used to structure news conferences, media interviews,
visual aids, analogies, and narratives (e.g., personal stories) information forums and exchanges, public meetings, web sites,
can increase an individual’s ability to hear, understand, and telephone hotline scripts, and fact sheets or brochures focused
recall a message by more than 50 percent. Moreover, because on frequently asked questions.
visual aids are processed by a different part of the brain
than word messages, they present the opportunity to provide Trust Factors for Effective Delivery
information that can be processed in addition to the 27/9/3
messages. Trust factors are extremely critical for effectively delivering
messages during a crisis incident. Under non-stressful
circumstances, people base opinions regarding the
Step 5. Develop Supporting Facts
trustworthiness of a spokesperson largely on competence and
The fifth step in message map construction is to develop three expertise. During a crisis, however, factors that most influence
supporting facts, information, or proofs for each of the three whether or not people trust the speaker change primarily to
bullets in the 27/9/3 key message. The same principles that perceptions of empathy and trust. Will Rogers, the famous
guide key message construction guide the development of American humorist of the 1930s, put it well when he said
supporting information. “When people are stressed and upset, they want to know that
you care before they care about what you know.”
Step 6. Test and Practice Messages
Research indicates that during a crisis, listeners will base their
The sixth step is to conduct systematic message testing using opinion of the trustworthiness of a speaker on the following:
standardized testing procedures. Message testing should
begin by asking subject matter experts who are not directly
involved in the original message mapping process to validate
the accuracy of information contained in the message maps.
Message testing should then be done with individuals or groups
who have the characteristics to serve as surrogates for key internal
and external target audiences and with partner organizations. Listening/Caring/Empathy
Sharing and testing messages with partners promotes message
consistency and coordination across organizations. 50%

Step 7. Deliver Maps Through Appropriate
Information Channels Honesty/ Dedication/
The seventh and final step is to plan for the delivery of the Openess Commitment
prepared message maps through: (1) trained spokespersons, 15-20% 15-20%
(2) trusted individuals or organizations, and (3) chosen Competence/
communication channels.
Expertise
15-20%

2-8

It is important to note that during crises, people judge the 3. Guarantee Template: Spokespersons should use this
messenger before the message and they base their judgment in template when asked to guarantee an event or outcome:
terms of trust, forming their impressions within the first
9 to 30 seconds. Trust is judged primarily through actions, Steps
body language, and verbal communication. In Western ■ Indicate that the question is about the future

culture, non-verbal cues that communicate when a speaker ■ Indicate that the past/present predict the future

is attentive and empathetic include maintaining eye contact, ■ Bridge to known facts, processes or actions

keeping hands above the waist and visible, and maintaining
body posture that signals that the speaker is listening such as Example: (1) “You’ve asked me for a guarantee, to promise
standing straight or leaning slightly toward the audience while something about the future; (2) The best way I know to talk
sitting. Other non-verbal factors that have an influence include about the future is to talk about what we know from the past
dress, appearance, and voice inflection. and the present; (3) And what we know is ...” OR
“What I can guarantee [assure; promise; tell you] is ...”
Crisis Message Delivery Templates
4. “What If” Template: Spokespersons should use this when
The following five templates will assist in effective message asked a “what if, what might happen” question:
delivery during crisis situations.
Steps:
1. Bridging Templates: Spokespersons should use statements ■ Repeat the question (without negatives)
such as the following to return to the key points or to redirect ■ Bridge to “what is”
the communication when the discussion moves off course: ■ State what is known factually

■ “However, what is more important to look at is ...” Example: (1) “You’ve asked me what might happen if ...; (2) I
■ “However, the real issue here is ...” believe there is value to talk about what is, what we know now;
■ “And what’s most important to remember is ...” (3) And what we know is ...”
■ “With this in mind, if we take a look back ...”
■ “If we take a broader perspective, ...” 5. False Allegation Template: Spokespersons should use
■ “Let me put all this in perspective by saying ...” this when responding to a hostile question, false allegation, or
■ “Before we continue, let me take a step back and criticism.
repeat that ...”
■ “This is an important point because ...” Steps
■ “What this all boils down to is ...” ■ Repeat/paraphrase the question without repeating the
■ “What matters most in this situation is ...” negative; repeat instead the opposite; the underlying
■ “Let me just add to this that ...” value, or use more neutral language
■ “I think it would be more correct to say ...” ■ Indicate that the issue is important
■ “In this context, it is essential that I note ...” ■ Indicate what has been done or will be done to address the
■ “Another thing to remember is ...” issue
■ “Before we leave the subject, let me add that ...”
■ “And that reminds me ...” Example: (1) “You’ve raised a serious question about “x;”
■ “While...is important, it is also important to remember ...” (2) “x” is important to me; (3) We have done the following to
■ “It’s true that...but it is also true that ...” address “x.”
2. IDK (I Don’t Know) Template: Spokespersons should use
this approach when they do not know the answer to a question, Other Resources
cannot answer, or are not the best source for the answer: Appendix A presents seven best practices for effective risk
communication. Other resources are available in the literature
Steps and on the web. Appendix C lists a selection of references
■ Repeat the question (without negatives)
used in developing this report.
■ Say “I wish I could answer;” or “My ability to answer is

limited;” or “I don’t know” (less preferred)
■ Say why you cannot answer
■ Give a followup with a deadline (for media question)
■ Bridge to what you can say

Example: (1) “You’ve asked me about...; (2) I wish I could
answer; (3) We’re still looking into it; (4) I expect to be able to
tell you more by ...; (5) What I can tell you is...”

2-9

3. Message Mapping Workshop Products

As mentioned in Section 1, six hypothetical scenarios dealing
with water infrastructure crisis incidents were developed
for the EPA Message Mapping Workshops and presented to
participants. These include incidents involving the following:

1. Potential chemical contamination of a reservoir
2. Physical attack/bomb explosion
3. A credible threat involving an unknown agent and location
4. The loss of electrical power impacting water delivery
systems
5. Pesticide contamination
6. Biological contamination

For each of the scenarios, work groups brainstormed to
develop lists of anticipated questions and example message
maps for a selected subset of the anticipated questions. Workshop Subject Matter Experts Collaborate to Develop
Work groups included five to seven subject matter experts Message Maps.
representing various sized water utilities, public health,
emergency response, law enforcement, water sector
professional organizations, and local/state/federal water
agencies; public information officers and other communication
specialists; and policy and management experts.

Stage of Crisis Designation NOTE
Work group members recognized that the focus of risk Because of the limited time available during the
communication may change as a given crisis situation workshops, the groups focused on developing a small
unfolds. The various stages of an incident, as defined in EPA’s subset of message maps for potential questions that may
Response Protocol Toolbox (http://www.epa.gov/safewater/), be asked by the media. The maps have been reviewed by
include the following: technical experts but not tested as indicated in Step 6 of
the message mapping process.
Possible: An incident is considered feasible under the
circumstances

Credible: Evidence is available indicating that an incident
could have occurred
IMPORTANT
Confirmed: Analysis and other evidence verifies that an
incident has occurred Questions and message maps included in this report are
intended to serve as examples water sector organizations
Remediation and Recovery: Stage begins after an incident has can refer to while developing questions and maps as part
been contained. of their own crisis communication planning.

The message maps included in this section list the stage of the Organizations should use the message mapping process
incident at which workshop participants intended the maps to described in Section 2 to identify their own respective
be delivered. key stakeholders, compile lists of pertinent anticipated
questions, and develop messages they would most likely
Scenarios, Questions, and Message Maps need to deliver under various crisis situations they may
confront.
Descriptions of the six individual scenarios, along with lists
of potential questions and a set of message maps developed
for each, are provided below. The summaries of the scenarios
presented are intentionally brief and general in nature for
security purposes. They are intended to provide the broad
context under which the questions and maps were developed.

3-1

The following scenarios represent hypothetical narratives and Is the distribution system contaminated and, if so, how much
in no way represent EPA intelligence or opinion related to of it?
events perceived as the most probable to occur.
Is this an isolated incident?
Scenario 1: Hypothetical Credible Threat Should people be worried about our drinking water?
Involving Chemical Contamination of a Was this a terrorist attack?
Reservoir What about people’s pets?
Summary of Scenario: Security guards at a local country What are the symptoms of [insert chemical agent] exposure?
club noticed two people driving a golf cart along the club
fence line in the middle of the night. The fence where the What are you doing about the situation now?
people were spotted separates the country club from a drinking What could you have done to prevent this?
water reservoir. At daybreak, the golf course’s grounds crew
notifies security that they have found several empty plastic What should people do if they think they have been
five-gallon containers in the area where the intruders were exposed?
spotted and that there are dead squirrels in this area. The What should people do to protect children and the elderly?
police find the cart used by the intruders in the club service
What should people know about [insert chemical agent]
lot. Hazardous materials responders are called in and their
poisoning?
equipment indicates the presence of [insert nerve agent] in the
containers by the fence. The incident is in the credible stage What type of security do you have in place to protect the
since it has not been verified that the water supply has been reservoir?
contaminated. What will happen to wildlife, such as geese, that live on the
reservoir?
Hypothetical Credible Threat Involving Chemical
Contamination of a Reservoir Questions What would you like people to know?
(alphabetical order) Where can people in the contaminated area get water from
now until after cleanup?
Refer also to the list of 77 most frequently asked questions in
Section 2 of this report. Where should the reporters go, or call, to find updated
information?
Are people safe who live near the reservoir? Who else is working with you to deal with the crisis?
Are you worried about how bad this could get? Who are most at risk if they have been exposed to
contaminated water?
Can people drink the water?
Who is in charge right now?
Can people use the water at all and, if so, for what?
Who is responsible for contaminating the water?
Can you adequately treat those who have been exposed?
Will the reservoir be drained?
Can you clean the distribution system to make it safe again
and, if so, how?
Can you guarantee that the water in areas outside of the Message Maps
contamination zone is safe to drink?
For this scenario, workshop participants developed maps for
Can you guarantee that this will not happen again? the following questions (see maps on following pages):
Can you provide specifics about the potential water
contamination incident? 1. Can you provide specifics about the potential water
contamination incident?
Has this happened anywhere before? 2. What are you doing about the situation right now?
Have you called experts trained in safely dealing with [insert 3. Should people be worried about the drinking water?
chemical agent] to assist? 4. Who are most at risk if they have been exposed to
contaminated water?
How do you know what to do? 5. What are the symptoms of exposure?
How long will the [insert impacted area] remain closed?
How many people have been harmed or killed?
How much will it cost to clean the system?
How will you know when the water is safe after cleanup?

3-2

Credible Threat Involving Chemical Contamination of a Reservoir Message Map 1

Audience/Stakeholder: Public/Media
Spokesperson: Water Utility, City Manager, or Police
Stage of Crisis: __ Possible X Credible __ Confirmed __ Remediation/Recovery

Question: Can you provide specifics about the potential water contamination incident?

Containers with [insert agent name] residue were found near the water reservoir at [insert location].
■ [Insert chemical agent name] is a chemical affecting the central nervous system.
■ Law enforcement and health officials have begun a full investigation.
■ Law enforcement and public health will be providing continuous updates on the investigation. [Refer to law enforcement
and public health].

We are testing the entire water system for [insert chemical agent name].
■ The water utility is sampling the water in the reservoir and throughout the system.
■ They are following testing procedures recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
■ We will provide updates as results become available.

People should not use the water until the investigation is complete.
■ Bottled water should be used for drinking, cooking, and bathing.
■ Water distribution points will be set up at [insert location] by [insert time].
■ People should call [insert number] or go to [insert Web site name] for additional information.


Spokesperson: Water Utility, City Manager, Mayor, Public Health, and/or EMA Director

Question: What are you doing about the situation right now?

We are advising people in [insert area] not to drink or use the water until further notice.
■ We are providing bottled water to people in the impacted area.
■ We have set up distribution centers throughout the affected area at [insert locations], and they are open [insert times].
■ Call [insert number] for additional information about [insert chemical name] or visit the city’s Web site at [insert Web
address] for the most up-to-date information about the situation.

We are testing the entire system.
■ Testing will verify whether [insert chemical agent name] is present in the water.
■ We are sampling and testing water throughout the water distribution system.
■ We are following testing procedures recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

We are coordinating our emergency response actions with partner agencies.
■ Our federal partners include the Environmental Protection Agency, the FBI, the Department of Homeland Security, and the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
■ Our partners at the state and local level include the state health department, the police, local hospitals, and local
healthcare providers.
■ We will have updates for the media as we get more information.

3-3


Spokesperson: Water Utility, City Manager, Mayor, Public Health, and/or EMA Director

Question: Should people be worried about the drinking water?

We are concerned about any threat to our water system.
■ We are working closely with public health and others to minimize any potential harm.
■ We have experts on staff trained to respond to events such as this.
■ We are using all available resources to protect public health.

We are testing the water system for the presence of [insert chemical name].
■ We are testing the water in the reservoir and all associated distribution points.
■ We have highly qualiﬁed people taking samples.
■ We are following testing procedures recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

We ask you be alert and stay tuned for updates.
■ People should call [insert number] or go to [insert Web site name] for more information.
■ People should stay tuned to local radio or television.
■ Until we know more, people in the impacted area [insert area] should use an alternative supply of water.


Spokesperson: Public Health, City Manager, and/or Mayor

Question: Who are most at risk if they have been exposed to contaminated water?

Children, the elderly, and others with weaker immune systems are most at-risk.
■ Children have less developed body defenses.
■ The elderly and people with diseases such as HIV/AIDS or hepatitis may have weakened immune systems.
■ Such individuals should take extra precautions.

At-risk persons should avoid contact with tap water.
■ Parents should not prepare infant formula or cook food using the water.
■ Children and the elderly should not drink beverages prepared with the water.
■ Bottled water will be distributed at [insert locations and times].

At-risk persons with symptoms should call 911 or go to the nearest emergency room.
■ Early symptoms include [insert symptoms].
■ A child or elderly person who has been exposed should not be encouraged to vomit.
■ A child or elderly person who has been exposed should not be given liquids.

3-4


Spokesperson: Public Health

Question: What are the symptoms of exposure?

The extent of health effects depends on the extent of exposure.
■ People may not know they were exposed because [insert chemical agent name] has no taste or odor.
■ People exposed to a low or moderate dose may experience symptoms within seconds to hours of exposure such as runny
nose, blurred vision, excessive sweating, chest tightness, rapid breathing, confusion, headache, or nausea.
■ Exposure to large doses by any route may result in loss of consciousness, convulsions, paralysis, or respiratory failure
possibly leading to death.

Antidotes are available.
■ Treatment consists of removing [insert chemical agent name] from the body as soon as possible and providing supportive
medical care in a hospital setting.
■ Antidotes are available for [insert chemical agent name].
■ They are most useful if given as soon as possible after exposure.

Mild or moderately exposed people usually recover completely.
■ These types of chemical agents have not been associated with neurological problems lasting more than one to two weeks
after the exposure.
■ Severely exposed people are not likely to survive.

NOTE: A message map for each agent can be prepared regarding symptoms, treatment, and other health effects. CDC fact
sheets, at http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/, provide the health effects for various speciﬁc agents.

3-5

Scenario 2: Hypothetical Physical What about people who already used the water for other
Attack—Bomb Explosion purposes?
Summary of Scenario: A terrorist group drives a suicide What are the alternate sources of water?
truck bomb directly through security fencing surrounding What are the dangers for those close to the scene of the
the water treatment plant. The truck bomb detonates upon incident?
impact, causing significant damage and rupturing chlorine
gas canisters within the plant, causing a chlorine leak. The What are the dangers of the chlorine release?
incident is at the confirmed stage. What are the dangers to vulnerable populations, such as
the elderly, children, pregnant women, and those with weak
Hypothetical Physical Attack Questions immune systems?
(alphabetical order)
What are the long-term effects of exposure to chlorine?
Refer also to the list of 77 most frequently asked questions in
What are the possible health effects of exposure following
Section 2 of this report.
the bomb explosion?
What are the sample analysis results?
Are any other water systems impacted?
What are the symptoms of exposure to chlorine?
Are people in the impacted areas safe?
What are you doing about the bomb explosion at the water
Can people have contact with the water? treatment plant right now?
Can people use the water for drinking? What are you doing to fix the water system?
Can people use the water for washing, bathing, irrigation, What are you doing to protect our water?
and other purposes?
What do people need to know about this incident as it relates
Could this have been prevented from happening? to our water supply?
Do people need potassium iodide tablets? What do people need to know and do in order to protect
Do people need to wash their pets’ fur? themselves from contaminated water?
Has anyone died? What do you want people to do now about the chlorine gas
Have you called for assistance? release?

Have you sampled the water? What happened?

How can people get more information? What impact will this have on people’s plumbing systems?

How did the attackers do it? What is the danger of being exposed to the chlorine?

How large an area has been affected? What is the danger of breathing the air?

How long will people be without water? What is the danger of drinking the water?

How many people are at risk? What is the danger of using the water for other purposes?

How much will it cost to fix? What is the state of the treatment plant?

How will a person know if they have been exposed? What is the worst case – how bad could things get?

How will low-income people get bottled water? What precautions should responders take to be safe?

How will people who are sick or disabled get bottled water? What should people do to protect themselves from the
chlorine release?
How will you clean up the water?
What should people do who are located downwind of the
How will you deal with contamination in people’s appliances cloud?
(water heater or ice maker)?
What should people do who are unable to evacuate?
How will you deal with contamination in people’s plumbing
systems? When will the situation be brought back to normal?

Is anyone sick? When will the water be safe to use?

Is bottled water available? Where can people get safe water?

Is the situation under control? Where do people get alternate sources of water?

Is there enough bottled water? Which way is the chlorine cloud going?

Is this an isolated incident? Who caused the incident?

Should people evacuate or stay inside? Who is at the greatest risk?

What about people who already drank the water? Who is to blame?

3-6

Who will pay the costs? 1. What do people need to know about this incident as it
relates to the water supply?
Why did they do it? 2. What are you doing about the bomb explosion at the water
Why should we believe you? treatment plant right now?
3. What are you doing to fix the water system?
Will home treatment devices work? 4. How long will we be without water?
Will people get sick or die? 5. What is the state of the water treatment plant?
6. Is the situation under control?
Will the cloud residue that falls in my yard be dangerous? 7. Will you be able to supply water to emergency services,
Will water bills go up? hospitals, nursing homes, and other critical facilities?
8. What do you want people to do now about the chlorine
Will you be able to supply water to emergency services,
gas release?
hospitals, nursing homes, and other critical facilities?
9. What are the possible health effects of exposure
to chlorine?
Message Maps 10. What do people need to know and do to protect
For this scenario, workshop participants developed maps for the themselves from contaminated water?
following questions (see maps below and on following pages):

Physical Attack Message Map 1

Spokesperson: Water Utility, City Manager, and/or Mayor
Stage of Crisis: __ Possible __Credible X Confirmed __ Remediation/Recovery

Question: What do people need to know about this incident as it relates to the water supply?

There has been a bomb attack at the [insert name] treatment plant located at [insert location].
■ There were casualties as a result of the attack and we will provide more information when we have it.
■ The plant has been heavily damaged and will be inoperable for an unspecified period of time.
■ The explosion caused a chlorine leak affecting an area of the city [define boundaries].

We ask you not to use the water at this time.
■ The water could be contaminated, so people should not drink the water.
■ The loss of the treatment plant means the only supply source for our city is not available.
■ We need to conserve water now in the system for emergencies—such as fire fighting.

We will provide information as soon as possible on the distribution of emergency water supplies.
■ We have contingency plans to establish emergency water supplies for the entire affected area.
■ People should stay tuned to radio or TV for information on where water will be supplied.
■ We will continue to keep people informed through the media.



Question: What are you doing about the bomb explosion at the water treatment plant right now?

We are coordinating several activities to assess the impact, restore service, and provide safe alternative
drinking water.
■ Because of the attack, the water may be unsafe to drink or use so people should only use alternative water supplies.
■ We recommend that people avoid drinking and using the water until further notice.
■ We need to conserve water now in the system for emergencies—such as fire fighting.

Teams specialized in handling hazardous materials are assessing the damage.
■ The treatment plant and surrounding area have been isolated.
■ The treatment plant has been shut down.
■ Water supply lines and other facilities are being inspected.

We are currently making arrangements for alternate drinking water supplies.
■ Free bottled water will be provided at various locations throughout the impacted area starting this afternoon.
■ Please call [insert number] or visit the Web site at [insert Web address] for distribution site locations.
■ Additional public announcements will be made as more information becomes available.

3-7


Spokesperson: Water Utility and/or City Manager or Mayor

Question: What are you doing to fix the water system?

We are assessing the blast damage to the system in order to begin repair.
■ Some parts are clearly destroyed.
■ Some parts of the treatment plant may be damaged beyond use.
■ Much may be useable.

We are determining whether the distribution system has been contaminated.
■ We are testing water in the distribution system and storage tanks.
■ We will have results for most things in a couple of days.
■ We will tell you more as soon as we know.

We are coordinating response efforts with the emergency operations center.
■ Technical experts are on site and in the field to determine the scope of impact.
■ After an initial determination of impact, we will implement a plan of action.
■ Local, state, and federal experts continue to actively work on a solution to the problem.


Spokesperson: Water Utility, City Manager, Mayor, and/or EMA Director

Question: How long will people be without water?

Crews are working very hard to determine the extent of damage to quickly and safely restore water service.
■ Local, state, and federal teams are in the field actively inspecting and assessing the system.
■ This is an ongoing inspection and will continue until the system is fully restored.
■ We will provide an update on water restoration at [insert time] this afternoon.

Drinking water is being supplied at designated sites in the affected area.
■ We have a coordinated effort to provide drinking water to serve those affected.
■ Water is available at points of distribution as listed on [insert Web site] and announced on radio and TV.
■ Please call [insert 800-number] for additional information.

Drinking water will be provided until the problem can be resolved.
■ People should avoid drinking and using tap water until further notice to prevent contamination.
■ People should only use alternative water supplies for all uses.
■ People should use alternative water supplies for pets.

3-8



Question: What is the state of the water treatment plant?

The water treatment plant is currently inoperable.
■ We are working to determine when we can safely re-enter the plant to assess damage.
■ Law enforcement has confirmed that a truck bomb caused the damage.
■ Chlorine gas canisters within the plant ruptured and have leaked chlorine.

Local, state, and federal teams are in the field actively inspecting and assessing the system.
■ These teams are working very hard to determine the extent of damage and quickly and safely restore water service.
■ This is an ongoing inspection and will continue until the system is fully restored.
■ We will provide an update on the status of the water treatment plant at [insert time] this afternoon.

Since the water is no longer being treated, it may be contaminated.
■ We are asking the public not to drink the water.
■ This includes any water remaining in water pipes or faucets.
■ The “do not use order” will remain in effect until tests confirm that the water is safe to use.


Spokesperson: Water Utility, City Manager, EMA Director, and/or Mayor

Question: Is the situation under control?

Emergency response plans at the local, state, and federal levels are in effect.
■ Our emergency response plan contains procedures for responding to a bomb attack.
■ We are working closely with our emergency response partners, including law enforcement and public health.
■ An emergency operations center has been opened to better coordinate resources and response efforts.

We are conducting an assessment to determine the impact.
■ We are checking tanks and water lines for damage and contamination.
■ We are taking water samples at points throughout the system to test for possible contamination.
■ We expect to have additional information to share with you in the next few hours.

We are working to provide water to our customers.
■ Current supplies of bottled water will be distributed at [insert locations].
■ Additional supplies of bottled water are enroute from other locations.
■ The plan for providing emergency supplies for critical facilities, such as hospitals, has been activated.

3-9


Spokesperson: Fire, City Manager, Mayor, EMA Director, and/or Police

Question: Will you be able to supply water to emergency services, hospitals, nursing homes, and other critical facilities?

We are supporting critical facilities that provide basic emergency services.
■ We have notified schools, daycare centers, and other critical facilities.
■ We have notified food manufacturing facilities.
■ We have notified hospitals, nursing homes, and other health care facilities.

We have worked with hospitals to prepare for water emergencies.
■ Hospitals in our area maintain a back-up water supply.
■ Hospitals are currently using these back-up water supplies.
■ When water service is being restored, hospitals will have high priority.

We have activated the State Fire Response Plan to immediately request needed emergency resources.
■ Pump stations should be able to provide enough water for firefighting.
■ The fire department has contingency plans to handle loss of water supply.
■ Specialist teams are assessing the contamination risk of using the water to fight fires.


Spokesperson: Fire, City Manager, Mayor, EMA Director, and/or Police

Question: What do you want people to do now about the chlorine gas release?

The chlorine release has been stopped.
■ The bomb damage to the chlorine canisters was not extensive.
■ The chlorine gas released was easy to track because of the color and odor.
■ Our best information available indicates that the chlorine gas has dispersed to insignificant levels.

The chlorine release affected only a small portion of the community [use map to show boundaries].
■ The affected population has been advised to stay inside.
■ Emergency response personnel continue to advise residents.
■ The gas release will have no lasting effects on the impacted area.

Those in the area of the release should remain indoors.
■ We are asking residents in the [identify area] area to remain indoors for a little longer.
■ We will make an announcement when it is safe for residents in this area to go outdoors again.
■ If additional information is needed, please contact the emergency hotline at [insert number].

3-10



Question: What are the possible health effects of exposure to chlorine?

The extent of health effects depends on the extent of exposure.
■ Symptoms include coughing, chest tightness, blurred vision, nausea, or blisters on the skin.
■ Other symptoms are difficulty breathing or fluid in the lungs.
■ Having symptoms does not necessarily mean that a person has been exposed.

No antidote exists for chlorine exposure.
■ Treatment consists of removing the chlorine from the body as soon as possible and providing supportive medical care in a
hospital setting.

Long-term health effects rarely occur.
■ Long-term complications from chlorine exposure are not found in people who survive a sudden exposure.
■ However, in some cases, complications such as pneumonia may occur during therapy.
■ Chronic bronchitis may develop in people who develop pneumonia during therapy.


Spokesperson: Fire, City Manager, Mayor, EMA Director, Public Health, and/or Police

Question: What do people need to know and do to protect themselves from contaminated water?

People should use alternative water supplies until further notice.
■ Do not drink the water until further notice.
■ Avoid using water for pets, laundry, bathing, and other household purposes until further notice.
■ Avoid using water for washing cars, watering lawns, or other outdoor purposes until further notice.

Samples are being analyzed to determine if the water has been affected.
■ We will continue to collect and test water samples.
■ We will have results from the latest round of tests available at [insert time].
■ We will provide an update at our next scheduled briefing at [insert time and place].

If you have health concerns, contact your health care provider.
■ Urine sampling can show whether you have been contaminated.
■ Your health care provider can advise you about urine sampling.
■ Additional information is posted on our Web site at [insert Web address], or call the hotline at [insert number].

3-11

Scenario 3: Hypothetical Credible Threat How sure are you that the water is safe right now?
Summary of Scenario: The water utility received a threat How was the threat made (e.g., letter or call)?
note indicating that terrorists had contaminated the water. The
note does not specify the risk agent, time, or exact location. How will people know if their water is contaminated?
Law enforcement has, however, identified the threat as How will you alert the public if you find something
“credible and possible.” The incident has not been confirmed is wrong?
as an actual attack at this point.
How will you know when or if an attack has occurred?
Hypothetical Credible Threat Questions If a person feels ill, who should they contact?
(alphabetical order) Is it a credible threat? If so, what makes it credible?
Refer also to the list of 77 most frequently asked questions in Is the water safe right now?
Is there any evidence the water system has been
compromised?
Are people in danger?
Is there anything else people should know?
Are there plans to turn off the water?
Should people boil the water?
Are you testing for everything that could cause harm?
Should people stop using the water?
Can people use the water?
Should the public be afraid?
Can you confirm that there has been a threat to the
water supply? Was the threat directed specifically at the water system?

Do people need to buy bottled water? Was the threat specific as to the nature of harm?

Do the police have any leads? What are the most likely places for an attack?

Do you have in-line monitoring? What does it show? What are the results from your preliminary tests?

Do you think the threat is real? What are you doing now to ensure that the water is safe?

Have any other systems received similar notes? What are you doing to inform the public?

Have there been any reports of any unusual patterns What are you telling your own family?
of sickness? What can the public do to help?
Have there been any similar threats to other water systems? What can you tell us about the safety of the water system
If so, what happened? right now?
Have you activated your emergency response plan? If not, What can you tell us about the threat to the water supply?
why not?
What contaminants are you looking for in your sampling?
Have you added extra security?
What exactly did the note say?
Have you called for assistance?
What have you learned from previous threats such as this?
Have you called in the FBI?
What is the nature of the threat?
Have you had any unusual events?
What is the worst case scenario?
Have you notified critical institutions, such as hospitals,
What other agencies are involved?
schools, and nursing homes?
What will your response be if the threat is real?
Have you sampled the water?
When did law enforcement learn of the threat?
Have you tested the system?
When were you notified of the threat?
Have your facilities been shut down?
Where was the note found?
How are you responding to the threat?
Who made the threat?
How can people protect themselves?
Who’s in charge?
How can you tell if the system has been compromised?
Why is our water system so vulnerable to this type of threat?
How effective is your security?

3-12

Message Maps 3. How will you know when or if an attack has occurred?
For this scenario, workshop participants developed message 4. What will your response be if the threat is real to
maps for the following questions (see maps below and on the water?
following pages): 5. How are you responding to the threat?
6. What are you doing now to ensure that the water is safe?
1. What can you tell us about the threat to the water supply? 7. Why is our water system so vulnerable to this type
2. What can you tell us about the safety of the water system of threat?
right now?

Credible Threat Message Map 1

Spokesperson: Water Utility

Question: What can you tell us about the threat to the water supply?

A written note was received threatening the water supply and law enforcement believes the threat to be
credible.
■ The written threat was received this morning in the water utility’s normal mail delivery.
■ The writers of the note threatened to contaminate the water system, but did not specify where or what kind of contaminant
would be used.
■ We have initiated our threat response procedures and protocols.

We have implemented our emergency response plan.
■ We immediately contacted local law enforcement after we received this threat.
■ We are informed by the police that they believe this threat is credible and needs to be addressed.
■ They are currently conducting an investigation to determine who may have sent this note.

At this time, we have not detected any contamination.
■ We are inspecting facilities for breaches and monitoring for contamination within the system.
■ We are collecting information to determine any water system impacts.
■ We will provide more information as it becomes available.


Question: What can you tell us about the safety of the water system right now?

The threat is considered credible.
■ We immediately activated our emergency response plan.
■ We are working closely with law enforcement, the health department, emergency response organizations, and local
ofﬁcials.
■ We are in communication with critical institutions, including hospitals, schools, and nursing homes.

We are investigating the situation with the support of partner agencies.
■ We have increased security at key locations by working with local law enforcement.
■ We will provide the media updates as information becomes available.
■ We are asking the public for their assistance by reporting any suspicious activities to law enforcement authorities at
[insert telephone number].

Our initial inspection indicates that the system is secure.
■ We have inspected the water treatment plant, pump stations, and tanks.
■ Water samples have been tested from throughout the system.
■ We will continue to conduct inspections and take samples.

3-13



Question: How will you know when or if an attack has occurred?

Hopefully, we will be able to prevent or minimize the impact of an attack.
■ We have security personnel patrolling our system.
■ We have alerted the public to be vigilant and report suspicious activities.
■ Law enforcement and the FBI are following the threat leads.

We have ongoing water quality testing throughout our system.
■ We are using a number of microbiological tests for harmful biological agents.
■ We are conducting broad testing for chemical contaminants and other indicators.
■ We have laboratories on standby to analyze anything unusual we discover.

We are closely monitoring operations.
■ We are looking for unusual changes in things we normally monitor, such as dissolved oxygen levels.
■ We are tracking disinfection and other distribution system water quality markers.
■ We have also increased levels of disinfectants as an additional protection.



Question: What will your response be if the threat is real to the water?

Protecting public health is our top priority, so we take all credible threats seriously.
■ We are working closely with our partners in public health.
■ We are working closely with our partners in law enforcement.
■ We are working closely with critical institutions, including the ﬁre department, hospitals, and schools.

We have already activated our emergency response plan.
■ We are working with local, state, and federal emergency response agencies.
■ We have alerted agencies that have alternative sources of water about the situation.
■ Utility personnel have been placed on alert.

Water use may be restricted.
■ Bottled drinking water will be supplied if needed.
■ Water will be available at designated distribution sites.
■ People can obtain additional information from our Web site [insert Web site] or toll-free number [insert number].

3-14



Question: How are you responding to the threat?

We have taken all reasonable measures to ensure the safety of the water system.
■ Our staff is trained and has practiced applying security measures.
■ For security reasons, specific measures we have taken must remain confidential.
■ We are conducting security activities jointly with law enforcement at the local, state, and federal levels.

Initial testing shows no signs of contamination.
■ Our staff is well trained in conducting inspections and monitoring.
■ Our staff is well trained in taking water samples.
■ Samples have been sent to state and federal laboratories for additional testing.

We will continually monitor the safety of the system.
■ We have asked hospitals to be alert for unusual patterns of illness.
■ We have asked our partners in public health to be alert for unusual patterns of illness.
■ We have asked our partners in law enforcement to provide additional security.



Question: What are you doing now to ensure that the water is safe?

At this time, we have no evidence that any event has occurred.
■ Law enforcement believes that the threat is credible.
■ We take any threat to the water system seriously.
■ The investigation is ongoing.

We have activated our emergency response plan.
■ As part of our emergency response plan, we are collaborating with emergency response agencies.
■ We are working closely with other local and state officials, including public health.
■ We have alerted agencies that supply emergency water supplies, emergency analytical staff, and laboratories.

We have increased our inspection, monitoring, and sampling activities.
■ We have elevated our security level.
■ We are conducting additional inspection, monitoring, and sampling activities.
■ We encourage people to report any suspicious activity by calling [insert number].

3-15



Question: Why is our water system so vulnerable to this type of threat?

Our system has hundreds of miles of pipeline and thousands of connections.
■ The water utility supplies water to [insert names] Counties in [insert state] and [insert names] Counties in [insert state].
■ In order to provide service to this area, there are numerous connections to the system.
■ These connections include such things as hydrants, water meters, and transmission lines.

We have a comprehensive emergency response plan for handling crisis events.
■ We conduct drills and exercises on a regular basis to test our emergency response plan.
■ We partner with local ofﬁcials in monitoring and sampling.
■ Our plan will remain activated until the threat has been cleared.

Since the attacks of 9/11, we have worked vigorously to enhance system security.
■ We have inspection, monitoring, sampling, and testing programs to protect the system.
■ We work closely with the police and have an active neighborhood water watch program.
■ Our employees go through extensive training for various security scenarios.

3-16

Scenario 4: Hypothetical Power Loss What happens if the power is not back up in
Incident [insert number] days?
Summary of Scenario: There has been a loss of power, due What if you need generator power for longer than [insert
to a major storm, that has impacted the water distribution number] hours?
system for a water utility. Half of the water utility’s pumps What is the water utility doing to address this problem?
are currently running on back-up power and the remaining
pump stations were damaged or destroyed by the storm and What is the worst-case scenario?
are inoperable. The power utility estimates a minimum of three What precautions should people take with the water during
days before power will be restored. Back-up generators will the power outage?
provide power for approximately 36 hours. The incident is at
the conﬁrmed stage. What should people know about the situation regarding the
water supply?
Hypothetical Power Loss Questions What was the cause of the power outage?
(alphabetical order) What will you do to better prepare for events of this nature
Refer also to the list of 77 most frequently asked questions in in the future?
Section 2 of this report. When were you notiﬁed something happened?
Who will provide water and how will it be distributed?
Are other local utilities (power and water) helping?
Why are you mandating conservation?
Can water be brought in from other communities?
Why doesn’t the utility have more than [insert number of
Can you guarantee that normal water service will resume hours] supply of power?
once the power comes back on?
Will people’s water bills increase?
Could you do more to help the situation?
Has any of the water been contaminated?
Has the power utility isolated the source(s) of the problem? Message Maps

Have you prepared for the worst-case scenario? For this scenario, workshop participants developed message
maps for the following questions (see maps on the following
How could you have prevented this effect on the pages):
distribution system?
How do people know if their area is affected? 1. How long can the water utility provide water using the
back-up generators?
How do you know the water is safe to drink? 2. Can water be brought in from other communities?
How long can the water utility provide water using the back- 3. Have you prepared for the worst-case scenario?
up generators? 4. Can you guarantee normal water service will resume
when power comes back on?
How long until the pump stations are repaired? 5. What should people know about the situation regarding
How much damage to the water system do you expect? the water supply?
6. What is the water utility doing to address the problem?
How will the damaged roads impact your repair efforts?
7. Why are you mandating conservation?
How will you know the water is safe when the power comes 8. What can you tell us about the situation?
back on? 9. How will you know the water is safe when the power
Is it safe to drink, cook, and bathe? comes back on?
The weather is still bad; what happens if we get hit by
another storm?
Was anyone harmed?
What does voluntary conservation mean?

3-17

Power Loss Message Map 1


Question: How long can the water utility provide water using the back-up generators?

Our generators will enable us to provide water for 36 hours.
■ Our generators are functioning properly.
■ Our generators are designed to provide back-up power if there is a power outage.
■ We can operate at 100 percent capacity using our generators.

We will resume normal operations when full power is restored.
■ Treated water will be available soon after power is restored.
■ We will use all available resources to resume operations as quickly as possible.
■ Water will be safe to drink when normal operations resume.

People can help by conserving water.
■ Conservation efforts will help extend the time water is available.
■ People should not store water until the system is back to normal.
■ People should stay tuned to local radio stations for updates.



Question: Can water be brought in from other communities?

We are in contact with nearby water utilities.
■ We are conducting an inventory of water available from other sources.
■ We are reviewing various water transportation options.
■ We are reviewing various water storage options.

The state health department is helping in this effort.
■ We have a state health ofﬁcial on site at the utility.
■ The state health department has provided us additional resources.
■ We are jointly reviewing the state emergency plan in case of need.

We expect to have reserve water on-site within [insert time].
■ [insert number] water tankers are currently on their way from [insert location and supplier].
■ We are identifying locations to distribute water to our customers.
■ [Insert number] more water tankers are on the way.

3-18



Question: Have you prepared for the worst-case scenario?

Our back-up system is designed to provide safe water for [insert time period].
■ We are committed to providing safe water to the community.
■ We are able to provide water from several sources.
■ Through conservation and cooperation, the effects of the power outage can be minimized.

We are evaluating the need for additional resources.
■ We are working with other agencies to maintain water service to our customers.
■ We are activating our own reserve resources.
■ A special task force is determining if additional resources are needed.

State, regional, and federal support is available if needed.
■ We have cooperative agreements with other agencies to help in times of need.
■ We have made arrangements to receive support from other organizations.



Question: Can you guarantee normal water service will resume when power comes back on?

Water service is dependent upon electricity.
■ All available resources have been committed to the recovery effort.
■ Back-up generators will operate for [insert time].
■ We have partnership agreements with other utilities to provide reserve water if needed.

We are working to minimize impacts on our customers.
■ We have requested that our customers conserve water as much as possible.
■ We are working with the local and state health departments to make sure hospitals and facilities have the water they need.
■ We are coordinating our efforts with the ﬁre department to ensure that ﬁre protection is maintained.

Normal water service should resume soon after power is restored.
■ We are coordinating our efforts with the power company.
■ Once electricity is restored, it typically takes [insert time] for normal water service to resume.
■ We will provide updates through the media, our Web site at [insert address], and our telephone hotline at [insert number].

3-19



Question: What should people know about the situation regarding the water supply?

The power outage has affected operations of the water system.
■ We are operating undamaged pump stations using emergency generators that will provide back-up power for only [insert
time period].
■ We estimate that there is [insert time period here] supply in the system with conservation measures.
■ The power utility estimates that it will take [insert time period here] to restore service.

The limited water supply available until power is restored must be conserved for emergency services.
■ Emergency services include fire suppression and health care facilities.
■ We are working with other support agencies to ensure hospital and fire supplies remain available.

We are implementing mandatory water use restrictions.
■ Water use should be limited to personal hygiene, cooking and health care.
■ We are making arrangements for alternate supply sources of water, if needed.
■ We will communicate updates through the media, our Web site at [insert address], and our telephone hotline at [insert
number].



Question: What is the water utility doing to address the problem?

We are following procedures specified in our response plan.
■ We have an emergency response plan for this type of situation.
■ Our plan calls for mandatory conservation to maintain critical services.
■ We will modify operations as necessary to maintain water quality.

We are coordinating our response efforts with other organizations.
■ We are working closely with the power company.
■ We are working with the local and state emergency response agencies to provide alternate supply sources.
■ We are working with the health department to ensure the safety of the water.

We will resume normal operations soon after power is restored.
■ Response crews are working around the clock.
■ We expect to resume normal operations within [insert time] after power is restored.
■ We will work with public health to continue water testing after service is restored.

3-20



Question: Why are you mandating conservation?

Without power sources, there is no way to add more water to the system.
■ Electric pumps are used to refill tanks and reservoirs.
■ Without the ability to refill, supplies could be exhausted.
■ Previous outages elsewhere have demonstrated that we should prepare for the power not being restored in time.

Some water needs are more pressing than others.
■ Conservation is important to meet the needs of firefighters.
■ Conservation is important to meet the needs of health care facilities.
■ Household use other than for drinking can be temporarily reduced.

Conservation can help meet these needs as long as possible.
■ Under normal use, we anticipate depletion of supplies in as little as one day.
■ Under normal cases, people use about 100 gallons but drink only about half a gallon of water per day.
■ Conservation can substantially lengthen the time we can go without new water.



Question: What can you tell us about the situation?

A storm came through the area [insert when storm hit].
■ The storm caused damage to the power system.
■ The power outage affected all parts of the community.
■ The power company estimates that power will be restored in [insert time].

We can operate on generators for [insert time period].
■ Our generators are reliable and run on gasoline.
■ Several pumps were damaged but we have enough pumps to operate the system.
■ Our generators were automatically triggered resulting in no loss of service for the time being.

We will resume normal operations soon after power is restored.
■ Response crews are working around the clock.
■ We expect to resume normal operations within [insert time] after power is restored.
■ We will work with public health to continue water testing after service is restored.

3-21



Question: How will you know the water is safe when the power comes back on?

We run many tests to ensure water safety.
■ Our experts are experienced in water analysis.
■ All analyses will be performed according to standard EPA methods.
■ State and federal approved labs are prepared to help us with conﬁrming water safety.

Our emergency plans cover restoring the system.
■ Water will be treated to meet federal standards.
■ Our work crews are experienced with restoring service following other types of disruptions, such as pump failures and
main breaks.
■ Plans meet or exceed industry standards and local, state and federal requirements.

We will let you know when the water is safe.
■ Your safety is our ﬁrst priority.
■ Once power is restored, we will work as hard as possible to restore the water quickly.
■ We will provide updates through the media, our Web site [insert Web address] and our telephone hotline at [insert number].

3-22

Scenario 5: Hypothetical Pesticide What else can go wrong?
Contamination Incident What impact will this contamination have on the plumbing
Summary of Scenario: The water utility is receiving several and water heaters in people’s homes?
taste and odor complaints about the water. In addition, the What is [insert pesticide], how is it used, and what impact
local health department and 911 are receiving calls about the does it have on people who drink it?
water making residents ill. In response to the complaints, the
water utility collected and analyzed numerous samples. The What is the extent of the damage to the water supply?
laboratory analysis indicated that [insert pesticide name] is What is the water utility doing now about the pesticide
present in the drinking water; however, the source and extent contamination?
of contamination is unknown. The incident is in the confirmed
stage. What is wrong with the water?
What kind of treatment is necessary for people who have
Hypothetical Pesticide Contamination Incident been exposed to contaminated water?
Questions (alphabetical order) What should people do if they washed clothes with the
Refer also to the list of 77 most frequently asked questions in contaminated water?
Section 2 of this report. What should people do now for safe water?
What should people do to protect children and the elderly?
Can people drink the water?
What will happen to people who have drunk contaminated
Can people use the water for their pets? water?
Can people use the water on their lawns? What will happen to the people exposed to the pesticide?
Can the water be used for firefighting? When did this happen?
Can you clean the distribution system to make it safe again? When will the water be safe to use?
Could this have been prevented? When will you provide updates?
Do you accept responsibility for what happened? Where do people in the impacted areas get water?
How are you going to clean the system? Who is in charge?
How did this happen? Who is responsible? Who is to blame?
How do you normally know that the water is safe to drink? Who will decide that the water is safe to use after cleanup?
How long will it be until people can use the water again? Why wasn’t this prevented?
How many people are affected? Will the water contamination affect neighboring
How many people may have been contaminated? communities?
How much will this cost to clean up? Will it result in higher Will this incident result in higher water bills?
water bills?
How will you know that the water is safe to drink? Message Maps

If people cannot drink or touch the water, is there anything For this scenario, workshop participants developed message
people can do with it? maps for the following questions (see maps on the following
pages):
Once it is cleaned, how will you know the water system is
safe? 1. What can you tell us about the water contamination?
Was this a terrorist attack? 2. What is the water utility doing now about the
pesticide contamination?
What are the symptoms of exposure? 3. How many people may have been contaminated?
What are you doing about the situation? 4. What are the symptoms of exposure?
5. What should people do to protect children and
What are you doing to help businesses affected by the the elderly?
situation? 6. If people cannot drink or touch the water, is there anything
What are your qualifications for handling this kind of people can do with it?
situation? 7. What should people do now for water?
8. Do you accept responsibility for what happened?
What can residents do to help?
9. How are you going to clean the system?
What can you tell us about the water contamination? 10. Once it is cleaned, how will you know if the water
What do you most want people to know about the situation? system is safe?
11. How do you normally know the water is safe
to drink?
3-23

Pesticide Contamination Incident Message Map 1

Spokesperson: City Manager and/or Mayor

Question: What can you tell us about the water contamination?

We have conﬁrmed the presence of a pesticide in the drinking water.
■ The pesticide is [insert name of pesticide], which is used for [insert use].
■ Levels of the pesticide are above recommended drinking water standards.
■ The drinking water in the following locations has been affected [insert locations].

An investigation is underway to determine the source and amount of the pesticide.
■ We are taking samples and conducting tests throughout the system.
■ Public health and hospitals are tracking and treating those who are ill.
■ Law enforcement is investigating the cause.

Effective immediately, people should not use the water.
■ People and pets should not drink the water.
■ People should not use the water to bathe, shower, or wash.
■ Alternative sources of drinking water will be made available at the following locations [insert locations and show map].



Question: What is the water utility doing now about the pesticide contamination?

We are testing water quality throughout the system.
■ We are taking samples at various locations.
■ [Insert laboratory name] is testing those samples.
■ The results of these tests will determine our next steps.

We have begun recovery operations.
■ Our recovery operations are being coordinated with local, state, and federal agencies.
■ The CDC and other public health experts are advising us on potential health effects.
■ The US Environmental Protection Agency and other experts are advising us on how to clean the system.

Effective immediately, people should not use the water.
■ People should not drink the water.
■ Alternative sources of drinking water will be made available at the following locations [insert locations].

3-24



Question: How many people may have been contaminated?

We are assessing the number of people who might be affected.
■ Health ofﬁcials are tracking calls and complaints.
■ Samples have been sent to state laboratories for testing.
■ Results of the tests will help us better determine affected areas.

We are working closely with local hospitals.
■ Hospitals are prepared to provide treatment.
■ Hospitals are also providing medical advice.
■ The CDC is providing advice to us and the hospitals.

We are coordinating our response efforts with other organizations.
■ In special cases, we will make door-to-door visits.
■ Hospitals and nursing homes will receive priority attention.
■ Other communities have offered resources and support.



Question: What are the symptoms of exposure?

Symptoms depend on exposure.
■ Because of the unusual smell and taste, most people will not drink the water.
■ Because of the small amounts of pesticide involved, most people will not breathe amounts large enough to cause harm.
■ Skin penetration is unlikely unless there has been prolonged contact with the water.

The pesticide can enter the body through drinking, breathing, or skin contact.
■ Exposure is typically not life threatening.
■ Most people who have been exposed and have symptoms will fully recover.
■ The biggest concern is exposure by drinking a large amount of contaminated water.

There are many symptoms.
■ People who drank more than a quart of the water may experience nausea, an upset stomach, and vomiting.
■ People who are experiencing symptoms should not be encouraged to vomit.
■ Call 911 immediately or go to an emergency room if you have symptoms.

3-25



Question: What should people do to protect children and the elderly?

Children and the elderly need special protection.
■ Children and the elderly are more vulnerable to illness than other populations.
■ Children are more vulnerable because they have less developed body defenses.
■ The elderly are more vulnerable because they may have weakened immune systems.

Children and the elderly should be especially careful not to contact the water.
■ Children and the elderly should not bathe using the water.
■ Children and the elderly should not swim in the water.
■ Children and the elderly should not wash dishes using the water or use dishes washed in the water.

Children and the elderly should be especially careful not to drink the water.
■ Children and elderly should drink only bottled water.
■ Children and the elderly should not drink beverages prepared with the water.
■ Parents should not prepare infant formula using the water.



Question: If people cannot drink or touch the water, is there anything people can do with it?

Our primary concern is the pesticide entering the body through drinking.
■ People should not drink the water or cook with it. Boiling does not remove a pesticide.
■ People should not drink beverages prepared with the water or make infant formula.
■ People should keep children and pets away from the water.

People can water their plants, gardens, and lawns with the water.
■ People should wear gloves to prevent skin contact with the water when using a hose.
■ Avoid breathing aerosolized water from sprinklers.
■ Avoid creating run-off that could contaminate the sewer system.

Skin contact should be avoided, especially if contact is prolonged.
■ People should not use the water for washing dishes.
■ People should not use the water to take baths or showers.
■ It is okay to ﬂush toilets.

3-26



Question: What should people do now for water?

At this time, people should not use the water.
■ People should not drink the water.
■ Boiling the water will not make it safe.

We will provide regular updates on our testing.
■ Updates are available on our Web site [insert Web site].
■ Updates will be broadcast through local radio and TV.
■ Updates are available from our information line at [insert number].

People from affected areas should drink only bottled water.
■ Free bottled water will be available at the following locations [insert location] at [insert times].
■ Bottled water should be used for cooking and other uses.
■ Bottled water should be used for pets.


Spokesperson: City Manager

Question: Do you accept responsibility for what happened?

Our most immediate concern is the safety of the water.
■ We are working to identify impacted areas.
■ We are working to minimize the spread of the pesticide in the system.
■ Our goal is to restore normal service throughout the system as quickly and safely as possible.

We will help determine the cause of the incident.
■ It is possible that the contamination was unintentional.
■ We are working closely with law enforcement as they conduct their investigation of the incident.
■ The investigation should identify the source of contamination.

We are responsible for making changes in our operations, if needed.
■ After the incident has been addressed, standard procedure is to review our emergency response plan and make any
necessary changes to improve it.
■ We will review the actions we took following the discovery of the pesticide.
■ We will know more once the investigation is complete.

3-27



Question: How are you going to clean the system?

We are evaluating which parts of the distribution system need to be cleaned.
■ We will take samples from throughout the distribution system.
■ We will analyze the samples to determine where pesticide is present in the system
■ We will also use water-flow models to determine which parts are affected.

We will use flushing and other cleaning methods as applicable.
■ We are consulting with experts at federal, state, and local agencies.
■ We will select methods that are safe and effective for dealing with pesticides.
■ We will select cleaning methods that will enable us to meet regulatory requirements for this pesticide.

We will selectively replace pipes if needed.
■ We will replace pipes based on results from the testing program.
■ Replacement pipes are readily available.
■ We have extensive experience replacing pipes.



Question: Once it is cleaned up, how will you know if the water system is safe?

Testing will confirm the absence of harmful levels.
■ We will collect water samples at multiple locations along the distribution system.
■ Samples will be tested for [insert pesticide name] at laboratories.
■ The tests are highly accurate in detecting the pesticide.

Federal and state agencies determine what level is considered safe.
■ The water system will not be put back into service until the contamination is reduced below this level.
■ This cleanup level is based on protecting human health against long-term effects for all age groups.
■ The public health department will verify that levels are safe.

We will continue testing to ensure that levels remain safe.
■ We will monitor for elevated levels of the pesticide.
■ We will report any problems and take necessary actions.
■ Water users should report any unusual odors, coloration, or other problems by calling our hotline at [insert number].

3-28



Question: How do you normally know the water is safe to drink?

We continuously test the water for safety.
■ The law requires us to check water safety daily.
■ We continually meet or do better than water quality standards set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Testing is done in partnership with the local health department.
■ The water utility and the local health department have experts on staff with specialized knowledge of testing procedures.
■ Our experts test the water daily.

We will inform you when testing shows that the water is safe to drink and use.
■ We will provide updates through the media.
■ We also post updates on water quality on our Web site at [insert Web address].
■ People can also call our telephone hotline for updates at [insert number].

3-29

Scenario 6: Hypothetical Intentional How do people know if they have been harmed?
Biological Contamination Incident How do people treat water in their homes?
Summary of Scenario: The event is first discovered when a How far has the contaminated water spread?
high number of residents from a neighborhood visit local drug
stores, doctor offices, and emergency rooms complaining of How long did it take for you to find it?
gastrointestinal symptoms. Law enforcement discovers that How long has the contaminant been in the water?
someone has introduced a bacterial agent into the distribution
system. The incident is at the confirmed stage. How long will it be until people can use the water?
How many people are ill?
Hypothetical Intentional Biological Attack Questions How or where can people in the affected area get safe water?
(alphabetical order) How will low-income people get bottled water?
Refer also to the list of 77 most frequently asked questions in How will people know if they have been exposed?
How will people who are sick or disabled get bottled water?

Are any other water systems impacted? If people leave the area to stay with relatives, will the people
they visit get sick?
Are people going to get sick?
Is it safe to drink the water?
Are there any health effects associated with the use
of chlorine? Is the contamination contained?

Are there long-term effects of exposure? Is the contamination harmful to special populations (e.g.,
children, the elderly, people who have weak immune systems
Can it happen again? and pregnant women)?
Can people stay in the area? Is the situation under control?
Can people use the water at all (bathing, washing dishes, Is there enough bottled water?
making coffee)?
Is this a terrorist act?
Can people use water from their water heaters?
What about people’s kids?
Can the fire department use the water to fight fires?
What about people’s pets?
Can the illness spread?
What about the water supply to hospital and nursing homes?
Can you guarantee that the sampling/testing will detect all
cases of contamination? What are the health effects associated with exposure to
[insert biological agent]?
Do you know exactly where the contaminant is within the
drinking water system? What are the results from the sampling/testing?

Does the contaminant react differently when heated—such What are you advising people to do?
as when the water is used to fight fires? What are you doing to fix it?
Has anyone died? What are you doing to prevent this in the future?
Has this happened before – here or elsewhere? What are you doing to stop the spread of the contaminant?
Have people been drinking contaminated water? What are you not telling us?
Have the perpetrators been caught? What are your qualifications to handle the situation?
Have you sampled/tested all the water? What can we expect next?
How can people decontaminate their appliances (such as the What can you tell us about this contamination event?
water heater or ice maker)?
What cautions should people take to be safe?
How can you be sure this won’t happen again?
What do people do if they are sick?
How contagious is the illness caused by the affected water?
What do people do if they think their homes are
How did public health find out that there is contamination? contaminated?
How did the city find out that there is contamination? What do you not know yet?
How did the terrorists do it? What effect will this have on water bills?
How did they get the biological agent? What effects will this have on the plumbing systems of
How did this happen? people in the impacted areas?

3-30

What is the worst case – how bad could things get? Message Maps

What steps are being taken to make sure this will not For this scenario, workshop participants developed message
happen again? maps for the following questions (see maps below and on
following pages):
When can people drink the water?
When did you find out it was a terrorist act? 1. What happened?
2. What can you tell us about this contamination event?
When is the system going to be fixed? 3. Do you know exactly where the contaminant is within the
Where can people get more information? drinking water system?
4. How did public health find out there was contamination?
Where do people go for medical attention? 5. Can people in the affected area use the water at all
Where will people in the impacted areas get water? (bathing, washing dishes, making coffee)?
Who did it? 6. What are the health effects associated with exposure to
[insert biological agent]?
Who is at greatest risk? 7. How did the city find out there was contamination?
Who is going to pay to fix the problem? 8. How or where can people in the affected area get
safe water?
Who is in charge of the investigation? 9. How did this happen?
Who is in charge of the overall response?
Who is taking care of the problem – law enforcement, public
health, the utility?
Who is to blame?
Why should we believe you?
Why wasn’t it prevented?
Will people be able to drink the water?
Will people be able to use the water for other than drinking
purposes?
Will people be allowed to stay in the area?

Biological Attack Message Map 1


Question: What happened?

Terrorists contaminated part of the water system with [insert biological agent].
■ People have reported gastrointestinal illness.
■ [Insert biological agent] causes nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, but it is generally not life threatening.
■ If you are experiencing symptoms, please seek immediate medical attention.

We have contained the contamination [insert map showing system and indicating affected area].
■ The affected area has been isolated from the rest of the water system.
■ Sampling for additional contaminants is currently being performed.
■ Additional public announcements will be made as more information becomes available.

We recommend people living in this area [insert boundaries] boil their water.
■ Bring your water to a rolling boil for [insert number] minutes and let cool before drinking.
■ Fact sheets and other information are available on the following Web site [insert Web site] or at our toll-free telephone line
[insert telephone number].
■ Alternative drinking water is available at [insert address of location].

3-31



Question: What can you tell us about this contamination event?

There has been an intentional contamination of the water system.
■ We are currently working with local law enforcement and the FBI in response to this event.
■ We know the location of the point of introduction [insert location], and are currently working to define the area affected.
■ We are also working to sample our entire system for indication of other areas that may be contaminated.

Most people infected with this bacterium will have mild to moderate illness.
■ [Insert biological agent] infection can cause diarrhea and vomiting.
■ The very young and old, and people with weakened immune systems are typically most at risk.
■ If people are having symptoms, they should consult their physicians.

We have issued a “do not use” notice in response.
■ “Do Not Use” means do not use the water for drinking, bathing, or cooking. It is safe to flush toilets.
■ We are recommending the use of alternative sources (such as bottled water) until we lift the “do not use” notice.
■ We are working to contain and clean up this contamination and will provide more information as soon as it becomes
available.



Question: Do you know exactly where the contaminant is within the drinking water system?

We know the source of the contamination.
■ The police and FBI have identified a location in the [insert name] neighborhood where the contaminant was introduced.
■ The police are currently treating this contamination event as an act of terrorism.
■ Evidence collected at the scene confirms that the source of the water contamination came from this location.

We are currently working to clearly define the area affected.
■ We are sampling and analyzing the water system around that location.
■ We are looking at the water distribution system to specifically define the affected area.
■ Sample results can be expected from the laboratory within 48 hours.

At this time, illness has been reported only in this area [insert boundaries].
■ In addition to the localized sampling, we are sampling throughout the system for evidence of contamination.
■ Preliminary water quality testing indicates that this contamination has not spread throughout the system.
■ If you have questions as to whether or not you may be affected by this event, please call our 24 hour hotline at [insert
number].

3-32



Question: How did public health find out there was contamination?

RODS – our public health surveillance system – showed a higher than normal number of illnesses in the
community.
■ The Real-time Outbreak Disease Surveillance (RODS) system examines emergency department data from area hospitals
and over-the-counter drug sales.
■ Recent RODS data has shown an increase in the number of emergency room patients with diarrhea and GI symptoms.
■ RODS data has also shown an increase in the sale of over-the-counter anti-diarrheal medications from local drug stores.

Water samples were collected by the water utility.
■ Samples were collected within the impacted areas.
■ Samples were collected throughout the distribution system.
■ Additional sampling and analysis will be conducted as needed.

Further investigation indicates that the public water system is the likely source.
■ The health department interviewed patients to investigate the cause of their illness.
■ Clinical laboratory tests supported the diagnosis.
■ The health department worked with the water department to verify the cases occurred within the water department’s
service area.



Question: Can people in the affected area use the water at all (bathing, washing dishes, making coffee)?

If you live in the affected area (see map), your water may still contain [insert biological agent].
■ This bacterium can cause illness when people come in direct contact with it.
■ The “do not use” notice is based on taking a conservative stance to protect against any resulting illness.
■ The protection of public health and safety is the basis for all aspects of this advisory and response.

This should not affect fire fighting.
■ The fire department has informed us that they will continue to use this water as needed to fight fires.
■ Bacteriological contamination of this type does not prohibit its use for firefighting purposes.
■ Fire protection will continue during the emergency.

People should avoid direct contact with this water at this time.
■ People in this area are advised to not drink, cook, bathe, give to pets, or otherwise use the water where personal contact
may occur.
■ We are working as quickly as possible to resolve this issue and restore full use of the drinking water system in the affected
areas.
■ We will inform you of any change in the use advisory.

3-33



Question: What are the health effects associated with exposure to [Insert biological agent]

[Insert agent] is a bacteria that affects the gastrointestinal system.
■ Frequent hand washing will help control the spread of [insert agent].
■ The water utility has treated the water with higher but safe levels of chlorine to kill the [insert agent].
■ Use alcohol-based hand cleaners until the water is safe to drink.

Symptoms will generally last for 7 – 10 days.
■ Primary symptoms include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.
■ People with symptoms should contact their health care providers for treatment information.
■ People can call the public health hotline at [insert number] for more information about [insert biological contaminant].

[Insert agent] does not typically cause long-term health effects.
■ [Insert agent] is generally not life threatening.
■ The most vulnerable groups include small children, the elderly, and people with weak immune systems.
■ [Insert biological contaminant] infection is treatable by [insert treatment].

NOTE: A message map for each agent can be prepared regarding symptoms, treatment, and other health effects. CDC fact
sheets, at http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/, provide the health effects for various specific agents.



Question: How did the city find out there was contamination?

Hospital reports from [insert names of hospitals] indicate higher numbers of cases of ill patients than
normal.
■ [Insert number] hospitals have reported a total of [insert number] cases during a [insert number]-day period.
■ The number of hospital patients with gastrointestinal symptoms is well above normal.
■ The reports were provided to the health department as part of the community’s medical tracking system.

The health department identified [insert biological contaminant] in the water system as the cause.
■ The health department conducted interviews with ill patients to determine the cause.
■ The health department’s investigation also included laboratory tests.
■ The health department contacted the water authorities and indicated there may be a waterborne problem.

The water utility reports [insert biological contaminant] in samples collected from the water system.
■ The water utility initiated testing after notification from the health department.
■ The water utility is identifying impacted areas.
■ The water utility will continue to sample and test the water, and we will keep you posted.

3-34



Question: How or where can people in the affected area get safe water?

Water is being made available to households in the affected area [insert boundaries].
■ The city is setting up distribution centers for the affected area.
■ We are able to distribute [insert number] gallons of water per person.
■ Disabled or other individuals who cannot get to a distribution center should call [insert number] for assistance.

Hospitals in the affected area will have supplies of safe drinking water.
■ The water utility has arranged for the provision of water treatment units for the hospital system.
■ People should not go to a hospital for their household’s supply of emergency water.
■ Health clinics in the area are also receiving supplies of emergency drinking water.

Please follow the “do not use” drinking water order.
■ People are not to use the water for cooking, bathing, or any other personal contact uses, including for pets.
■ Ongoing samples of the water system are being taken.
■ We will let you know when the water is again safe to use.


Spokesperson: Law Enforcement

Question: How did this happen?

A terrorist group has claimed responsibility.
■ Police found a note at [insert location].
■ The group who left the note is on the FBI watch list.
■ The investigation to ﬁnd the perpetrators is ongoing.

Terrorists introduced the bacteria into the location’s plumbing system.
■ Police found equipment at the location.
■ Laboratory results verify traces of [insert bacterial agent] in containers near the equipment.
■ Initial tests by the water utility conﬁrm traces of [insert bacterial agent] in the water system in the vicinity of this location.

Authorities have found the contamination source.
■ Residents reported suspicious activities in and around this location.
■ Equipment at the location is consistent with this kind of attack
■ Fact sheets related to [insert biological agent] bacteria were found as well.

3-35

4. Conclusion

Successful implementation of the guidelines for developing The United States Environmental Protection Agency’s National
and delivering message maps presented in this report will Homeland Security Research Center (NHSRC) has researched
improve the effectiveness of risk communication during the state of the science in risk communication and produced a
crisis situations. Amid the uncertainty and high stress set of tools and reference materials to assist those responsible
of such events, good risk communication will minimize for providing information during emergency events.
negative impacts of fear and concern, increase knowledge
and understanding, enhance trust and credibility, encourage In addition to conducting message mapping workshops and
appropriate behaviors, and potentially help save lives. publishing this report, NHSRC has conducted a National
Water Security Risk Communication Symposium
As with many other activities, good risk communication (proceedings available on CD) and produced a DVD video
requires anticipation, preparation, and practice. This involves presentation of basic principles of crisis communication by Dr.
anticipating scenarios requiring risk communication, preparing Vincent Covello. Please visit the Web site at http://www.epa.
key messages, and practicing delivery in advance of crisis gov/nhsrc for more information.
events. Preparing for effective risk communication is an
ongoing process that should be an integral component of
overall crisis response planning.

4-1

Appendix A

Seven General Rules of Risk Communication
The following are seven best practices for effective risk communication developed by Dr. Vincent Covello.

1. Accept and involve stakeholders as 3. Be truthful, honest, frank, and open
legitimate partners ■ If an answer is unknown or uncertain, express willingness
■ Demonstrate respect for those affected by risk to get back to the questioner with a response within an
management decisions by involving people early, before agreed-upon deadline
important decisions are made
■ Disclose risk information as soon as possible
■ Include in the decision-making process the broad range of (emphasizing appropriate reservations about reliability);
factors involved in determining public perceptions of risk, fill information vacuums
concern, and outrage
■ Do not minimize or exaggerate the level of risk; do not
■ Involve all parties that have an interest or a stake in the over reassure
risk in question
■ Make corrections quickly if errors are made
■ Use a wide range of communication channels to engage
and involve people ■ If in doubt, lean toward sharing more information, not
less – or people may think something significant is being
■ Adhere to highest ethical standards: recognize that people hidden or withheld
hold you professionally and ethically accountable
■ Discuss data and information uncertainties, strengths
■ Strive for win-win outcomes and weaknesses – including the ones identified by other
credible sources
2. Listen to people
■ Identify worst-case estimates as such, and cite ranges of
■ Do not make assumptions about what people know, think risk estimates when appropriate
or want done about risks
■ Do not speculate, especially about worst cases
■ Take the time before taking action to find out what people
are thinking: use techniques such as interviews, facilitated 4. Coordinate, collaborate, and partner with other
discussion groups, information exchanges, availability
credible sources
sessions, advisory groups, toll-free numbers, and surveys
■ Take the time to coordinate all inter-organizational and
■ Let all parties who have an interest or a stake in the issue intra-organizational communications
be heard
■ Devote effort and resources to the slow, hard work of
■ Let people know that what they said has been understood building bridges, partnerships, and alliances with other
and what actions will follow organizations

■ Identify with your audience and try empathetically to put ■ Use credible and authoritative intermediaries between you
yourself in their place and your target audience

■ Acknowledge the validity of people’s emotions ■ Consult with others to determine who is best able to take
the lead in responding to questions or concerns about
■ Emphasize communication channels that encourage risks: establish and document agreements
listening, feedback, participation, and dialogue
■ Do not attack those with higher perceived credibility
■ Recognize that competing agendas, symbolic meanings,
and broader social, cultural, economic, or political ■ Cite credible sources that believe what you believe;
considerations often exist and complicate the task of risk issue communications together with, or through, other
communication trustworthy sources

A-1

5. Meet the needs of the media ■ Avoid distant, abstract, unfeeling language about harm,
deaths, injuries, and illnesses
■ Be accessible to reporters; respect their deadlines
■ Acknowledge and respond (in words, gestures, and
■ Prepare a limited number of key messages in advance
actions) to emotions that people express, such as anxiety,
of media interactions; take control of the interview and
fear, anger, outrage, and helplessness
repeat or bridge to your key messages several times
■ Acknowledge and respond to the distinctions that the
■ Provide information tailored to the needs of each type of
public views as important in evaluating risks
media, such as sound bites and visuals for television
■ Use risk comparisons to help put risks in perspective;
■ Provide background materials on complex risk issues
avoid comparisons that ignore distinctions people
consider important
■ Say only those things that you are willing to have repeated
by the media: everything you say is on the record ■ Identify specific actions that people can take to protect
themselves and to maintain control of the situation at hand
■ Keep interviews short: agree with the reporter in advance
about the specific topic of the interview and stick to this ■ Be sensitive to local norms, such as speech and dress
topic during the interview
■ Strive for brevity, but respect a person’s desire for
■ Always tell the truth
information and offer to provide needed information
within a specified period of time
■ If you do not know the answer to a question, focus on
what you do know and tell the reporter what actions you ■ Always try to include a discussion of actions that are
will take to get an answer
underway or can be taken
■ Stay on message; bridge to important messages ■ Promise only that which can be delivered, then
follow through
■ Be aware of, and respond effectively to media pitfalls and
trap questions
7. Plan thoroughly and carefully
■ Avoid saying “no comment” ■ Begin with clear, explicit objectives – such as providing
information, establishing trust, encouraging appropriate
■ Follow up on stories with praise or criticism, as warranted actions, stimulating emergency response, or involving
stakeholders in dialogue, partnerships, and joint problem
■ Work to establish long-term relationships of trust with solving
specific editors and reporters
■ Identify important stakeholders and subgroups within the
6. Speak clearly and with compassion audience – respect diversity and design communications
for specific stakeholders
■ Use clear, non-technical language appropriate to the target
audience ■ Recruit spokespersons with effective presentation and
personal interaction skills
■ Use graphics and other pictorial material to clarify
messages ■ Train staff – including technical staff – in basic,
intermediate, and advanced risk and crisis communication
■ Avoid embarrassing people
skills: recognize and reward outstanding performance
■ Respect the unique communication needs of special and ■ Anticipate questions and issues
diverse audiences
■ Prepare and pretest messages
■ Understand that trust is earned – do not ask or expect to
be trusted by the public ■ Carefully evaluate risk communication efforts and learn
from mistakes
■ Express genuine empathy; acknowledge, and say, that any
illness, injury, or death is a tragedy and to be avoided ■ Share what you have learned with others
■ Personalize risk data: use stories, narratives, examples,
and anecdotes that make technical data come alive

A-2

Appendix B

Water Security Message Mapping Workshop Participants

Brad Addison Laurie Blake
Assistant Branch Chief Epidemiologist
Georgia DNR, Drinking Water Compliance Program, Water Ohio Department of Health
Resources Branch, Environmental Protection Division 246 North High Street, PO Box 118
2 Martin Luther King Jr. Dr. SE Columbus, OH 43215-0118
Suite 1362 East Phone: 614-752-8451
Atlanta, GA 30334-9000 Email: laurie.blake@odh.ohio.gov
Phone: 404-651-5155
Email: brad_addison@dnr.state.ga.us Dominic Boccelli
Environmental Engineer
Steve Allgeier U.S. EPA, National Homeland Security
Water Sentinel Implementation Coordinator Research Center (NHSRC), Water
U.S. EPA, Office of Ground Water and Infrastructure Protection Division (WIPD)
Drinking Water (OGWDW) 26 West Martin Luther King Drive
26 West Martin Luther King Drive Cincinnati, OH 45268
Cincinnati, OH 45268 Phone: 513-569-7654
Phone: 513-596-7131 Email: boccelli.dominic@epa.gov
Email: allgeier.steve@epa.gov
Erica Brown
Verna Arnette Director Regulatory Affairs
Senior Engineer Association of Metropolitan Water Agencies (AMWA)
Greater Cincinnati Water Works (GCWW) 1620 I Street, NW, Suite 500
5651 Kellogg Avenue Washington, DC 20006
Cincinnati, OH 45228 Phone: 202-331-2820
Phone: 513-624-5624 Email: brown@amwa.net
Email: verna.arnette@cincinnati-oh.gov
Jennifer Browne
Bret Atkins U.S. EPA Superfund
Public Information Officer 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Ohio Department of Health Washington, DC 20460
246 North High Street Phone: 703-603-8922
Columbus, OH 43215 Email: browne.jennifer@epa.gov
Phone: 614-644-8562
Email: bret.atkins@odh.ohio.gov Darcy M. Burke
Executive Director, California Nevada Division
Jeanne M. Bailey American Water Works Association
Public Affairs Officer 10574 Acacia St., Suite D6
Fairfax Water Rancho Cucamonga, CA 91730
8570 Executive Park Ave. Phone: 909-481-7200
Fairfax, VA 22031 Email: dburke@ca-nv-awwa.org
Phone: 703-289-6291
Email: jbailey@fairfaxwater.org Patty Burke
Senior Administrative Specialist
Paul Bennett Greater Cincinnati Water Works (GCWW)
Director - Security Planning for DEP Police 4747 Spring Grove Avenue
New York City Department of Environmental Protection Cincinnati, OH 45232
465 Columbus Ave. Phone: 513-591-7973
Valhalla, NY 10595 Email: patty.burke@cincinnati-oh.gov
Phone: 914-773-4512
Email: paulb@dep.nyc.gov

B-1

Kurt Byrd Ed Dadosky
Police Lieutenant, Executive Officer/PIO District Chief
Cincinnati Police Department Cincinnati Fire Department
310 Ezzard Charles Drive 2000 Radcliff Drive
Cincinnati, OH 45124 Cincinnati, OH 45204
Phone: 513-352-3519 Phone: 513-263-8060
Email: kurt.byrd@cincinnati-oh.gov Email: edward.dadosky@cincinnati-oh.gov

Bill Clark Scott Damon
Association of Metropolitan Water Agencies (AMWA) Health Education & Communication Specialist
1620 I Street, NW, Suite 500 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
Washington, DC 20006 Air Pollution & Respiratory Health Branch
Phone: 202-331-2820 MS E17, 1600 Clifton Rd.
Atlanta, GA 30333
Kathy Clayton Phone: 404-498-1825
U.S. EPA, National Homeland Security Research Email: scd3@cdc.gov
Center (NHSRC), Threat and Consequence Assessment
Division (TCAD) Chrissy Dangel
26 West Martin Luther King Drive Installation Restoration Branch
Cincinnati, OH 45268 Environmental Security AC/S
Phone: 513-569-7046 MCB Camp Pendleton
Email: clayton.kathy-ci@epa.gov Phone: (760) 725-0247
Email: Chrissy.Dangel@USMC.MIL
Shanna Collie
Formerly with Tetra Tech EMI Sandra Davis
Director, Emergency Management Solutions
Kimberly Cooper CH2M Hill
Director, External Communications and Corporate 1100 12th Avenue, NE, Suite 400
Responsibility Coordinator Bellevue, WA 98004
American Water Phone: 425-503-3462
1025 Laurel Oak Road Email: sandra.davis@CH2M.com
Voorhees, NJ 08043
Phone: 856-346-8207 Scott Decker
Email: kimberly.cooper@amwater.com Security Coordinator
Washington State Department of Health,
Faye Cossins Office of Drinking Water
Senior Administrative Assistant PO Box 47822
Greater Cincinnati Water Works (GCWW) Olympia, WA 98504-7822
4747 Spring Grove Avenue Phone: 360-236-3162
Cincinnati, OH 45232 Email: scott.decker@doh.wa.gov
Phone: 513-231-5048
Email: faye.cossins@cincinnati-oh.gov Steven A. Dennis
Environmental Compliance Officer / Emergency Services
Lon A. Couillard Supervisor
Water Quality Manager Alameda County Water District
City of Milwaukee, Milwaukee Water Works 43885 South Grimmer Boulevard, PO Box 5110
Linnwood Water Treatment Plant Fremont, CA 94537
3000 N. Lincoln Memorial Dr. Phone: 510-668-6530
Milwaukee, WI 53211 Email: steve.dennis@acwd.com
Phone: 414-286-2226
Email: lcouil@mpw.net John Dunham
Senior Environmental Safety Specialist
Vincent Covello Cincinnati Health Department
Director 3101 Burnet Avenue
Center for Risk Communication Cincinnati, OH 45229
29 Washington Square West, Suite 2A Phone: 513-357-7207
New York, NY 10011 Email: john.dunham@cincinnati-oh.gov
Phone: 646-654-1679
Email: vincentcovello@ix.netcom.com

B-2

James Elder David Hartman
Water Consultant Assistant Superintendent Water Quality and Treatment
11328 Woodbrook Lane Greater Cincinnati Water Works (GCWW)
Reston, VA 20194 5651 Kellogg Avenue
Phone: 703-904-9528 Cincinnati, OH 45228
Phone: 513-624-5659
Steven Englender Email: david.hartman@cincinnati-oh.gov
Director, Epidemiology and Public Health
Emergency Preparedness Elizabeth Hedrick
Cincinnati Health Department Chemist
3101 Burnet Avenue U.S. EPA, Water Security Division (WSD)
Cincinnati, OH 45229 26 West Martin Luther King Drive
Phone: 513-357-7208 Cincinnati, OH 45268
Email: steven.englender@cincinnati-oh.gov Phone: 513-569-7296
Email: hedrick.elizabeth@epa.gov
Stuart Freudberg
Director, Environmental Programs Rick Hiers
Metropolitan Washington Council of Technical Assistance Provider
Governments (MWCOG) Southeast Rural Community Assistance Project, Inc.
777 North Capitol Street, NE, Suite 300 540 St. Andrews Rd., Suite 114
Washington, DC 20002 Columbia, SC 29210
Phone: 202-962-3340 Phone: 803-414-6450 (cell)
Email: sfreudberg@mwcog.org Email: rhiers@sercap.org

Kevin Garrahan John Hoornbeek
U.S. EPA, National Homeland Security Research Training Director
Center (NHSRC) National Environmental Services Center,
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW West Virginia University
Washington, DC 20460 P.O. Box 6064
Phone: 202-564-3336 Morgantown, WV 26506-6064
Email: garrahan.kevin@epa.gov Phone: 304-293-4191 or 800-624-8301
Email: jhoornbe@mail.wvu.edu
Robert Glenn
Chief, Readiness and Response Branch Jack Jacobs
Ohio Emergency Management Agency Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC) (Corporate)
2885 West Dublin-Granville Road 2100 East Grand Avenue
Columbus, OH 43235 El Segundo, CA 90245
Phone: 614-799-3889 Phone: 310-615-0311
Email: rglenn@dps.state.oh.us
Bruce Johnson
Gregory Gwaltney Deputy Director
Environmental Scientist Tucson Water
U.S. EPA 310 W. Alameda, 3rd Floor
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Tucson, AZ 85701
Mail Code 4601-M Phone: 520-791-2666
Washington, DC 20460 Email: Bruce.Johnson@tucsonaz.gov
Phone: 202-564-2340
Email: gregory.gwaltney@epa.gov Tara Johnson
U.S. EPA, Ofﬁce of Water (OW), Water Security
Tiffaney Hardy Division (WSD)
Assistant to the Director 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
City of Cincinnati, Department of Public Services Washington, DC 20460
805 Central Avenue Phone: 202-564-6186
Cincinnati, OH 45240 Email: johnson.tara@epa.gov
Phone: 513-352-5498
Email: tiffaney.hardy@cincinnati-oh.gov

B-3

Kathleen Judd Sheri Lewis
PNNL/Battelle Johns Hopkins University
PO Box 999 / BSRC National Security Technology Department
Richland, WA 99352 Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory
Email: kathleen.judd@pnl.gov 11100 Johns Hopkins Road
Laurel, MD 20723
Peter Jutro Phone: 240-228-7604
Deputy Director, National Homeland Security Email: sheri.lewis@jhuapl.edu
Research Center
U.S. EPA, National Homeland Security Research Joe Lombardo
Center (NHSRC) Johns Hopkins University
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW National Security Technology Department
Washington, DC 20460 Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory
Phone: 202-564-3331 11100 Johns Hopkins Road
Email: jutro.peter@epa.gov Laurel, MD 20723

Colm Kenny Kathy Lordo
Environmental Scientist Assistant Health Commissioner
Formerly with U.S. EPA, Office of Water (OW), Hamilton County General Health District
Water Security Division (WSD) 250 William Howard Taft Road, 2nd Floor
Kerry Kirk Pflugh Phone: 513-946-7801
Manager Email: kathy.lordo@hamilton-co.org
Office of Watershed Education, Estuaries and Monitoring,
Division of Watershed Management, New Jersey Department Bary Lusby
of Environmental Protection Operations Manager
401 E. State St., PO Box 418 Hamilton County Emergency Management/
Trenton, NJ 08625 Homeland Security
Phone: 609-633-7242 2000 Radcliff Drive
Email: kerry.pflugh@dep.state.nj.us Cincinnati, OH 45204
Phone: 513-263-8206
Natalie Koch Email: bary.lusby@hamilton-co.org
National Decontamination Team
U.S. EPA Bruce A. Macler
26 West Martin Luther King Drive National Microbial Risk Assessment Expert
Cincinnati, OH 45268 US EPA Region 9
Phone: 513-487-2422 75 Hawthorne St., WTR-6
Email: koch.natalie@epa.gov San Francisco, CA 94105
Phone: 415-972-3569
Eric Koglin Email: macler.bruce@epa.gov
Physical Scientist
U.S. EPA, National Homeland Security Research Matthew Magnuson
Center (NHSRC) Research Chemist
PO Box 93478 U.S. EPA, Office of Research and Development (ORD),
Las Vegas, NV 89193-3478 National Homeland Security Research Center (NHSRC),
Phone: 702-798-2332 Water Infrastructure Protection Division (WIPD)
Email: koglin.eric@epa.gov 26 West Martin Luther King Drive
Patricia Lamb Phone: 513-569-7321
Utilities Safety and Health Manager Email: magnuson.matthew@epa.gov
Charlotte-Mecklenburg Utilities
5100 Brookshire Blvd. Jeanelle Martinez
Charlotte, NC 28216 U.S. EPA, National Decontamination Team
Phone: 704-391-5061 26 West Martin Luther King Drive
Email: plamb@ci.charlotte.nc.us Cincinnati, OH 45268
Phone: 513-487-2428
Bruce Larson Email: martinez.jeanelle@epa.gov
American Water
1025 Laurel Oak Road
Voorhees, NJ 08043

B-4

Jayne Michaud Jeff Pieper
U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Assistant Superintendent, Distribution Division
Response (OSWER) Greater Cincinnati Water Works (GCWW)
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW 4747 Spring Grove Avenue
Washington, DC 20460 Cincinnati, OH 45232
Phone: 703-603-8847 Phone: 513-591-7908
Email: michaud.jayne@epa.gov Email: jeff.pieper@cincinnati-oh.gov

Scott Minamyer Brad Poole
Environmental Scientist Tucson Citizen
U.S. EPA, National Homeland Security Research PO Box 26767
Center (NHSRC) Tucson, AZ 85726-6767
26 West Martin Luther King Drive Phone: 520-573-4561
Cincinnati, OH 45268 Email: bpoole@tucsoncitizen.com
Phone: 513-569-7175
Email: minamyer.scott@epa.gov Jessica Pulz
Water Security Division
Kim Morgan Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water
Task Manager Consequence Management U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC) 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr.
6101 Stevenson Avenue Cincinnati, OH 45268
Alexandria, VA 22304 Phone: 513.569.7918
Phone: 571-723-2999 Email: pulz.jessica@epa.gov
Email: kmorgan27@csc.com
Ray Riordan
Zohreh Movahed Certified Emergency Manager
Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC)
14501 Sweitzer Lane 2662 Marsh Drive
Laurel, MD 20707 San Ramon, CA 94583
Phone: 301-206-9772 Phone: 925-830-9019
Email: rayriordan@comcast.net
Debbie Newberry
U.S. EPA, Office of Water (OW), Alan Roberson
Water Security Division (WSD) American Water Works Association (AWWA)
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW 6666 West Quincy Avenue
Washington, DC 20460 Denver, CO 80235
Phone: 202-564-1415 303-794-7711
Email: newberry.debbie@epa.gov
Tom Rockaway
Meg Olberding University of Louisville
Public Information Officer/City Manager’s Office Phone: 502-852-3272
City of Cincinnati Email: tom.rockaway@louisville.edu
801 Plum Street
Cincinnati, OH 45202 David Ropeik
Phone: 513-352-5358 Communications Director
Email: meg.olberding@cincinnati-oh.gov Harvard School of Public Health
718 Huntington Ave., 2nd Floor, Room 202
Holly Parada Boston, MA 02115
Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority Phone: 617-432-6011
441 Smithfield Street Email: dropeik@hsph.harvard.edu
Pittsburgh, PA 15222
Phone: 412-255-2423 Susan Ruggles
U.S. EPA, Office of Water (OW), Water Security
Dan Petersen Division (WSD)
U.S. EPA, National Risk Management 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Research Laboratory (NRMRL) Washington, DC 20460
26 West Martin Luther King Drive
Phone: 513-569-7831
Email: petersen.dan@epa.gov

B-5

Jerry Scott Robert Troxel
Senior Project Manager Critical Infrastructure Planner
Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC) Ohio Homeland Security
6101 Stevenson Avenue 1970 West Broad Street
Alexandria, VA 22304 Columbus, OH 43223
Phone: 703-461-2421 Phone: 740-707-2235
Email: gscott26@csc.com Email: rctroxel@dps.state.oh.us

Irwin Silverstein Janet Ward
AAAS Science & Technology Policy Fellow (2004-2006) Public Information Manager
Formerly with the U.S. EPA, Water Security Division (WSD) City of Atlanta,
Washington, DC Department of Watershed Management
55 Trinity Ave. SW, Suite 5400
Ashley Smith Atlanta, GA 30303
Formerly with the U.S. EPA, Water Security Division (WSD) Phone: 404-330-6620
Washington, DC Email: jward@atlantaga.gov

Ted Stanich Christian Westbrook
Senior Intelligence Advisor/NJTTF, Homeland Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority
Security Program 441 Smithﬁeld Street
U.S. EPA, Ofﬁce of Criminal Enforcement, Forensics, and Pittsburgh, PA 15222
Training Phone: 412-255-2423
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Mail Code 2231A John Whitler
Washington, DC 20004 Environmental Protection Specialist
Phone: 202-564-5484 U.S. EPA, Water Security Division (WSD)
Email: stanich.ted@epa.gov 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue
Mail Code 4601M
Stanley States Washington, DC 20460
Water Quality Manager Phone: 202-564-1929
Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority Email: whitler.john@epa.gov
900 Freeport Road
Pittsburgh, PA 15238 Paul Wright
Phone: 412-782-7553 Fire Chief
Email: sstates@pgh2o.com City of Montgomery
10150 Montgomery Road
James Sullivan Montgomery, OH 45242
General Counsel Phone: 513-985-1639
Water Environment Federation Email: pwright@ci.montgomery.oh.us
601 Wythe
Alexandria, VA 22314 Kelvin D. Yamada
Phone: 703-684-2436 Emergency Coordinator
Email: JSullivan@wef.org California Department of Health Services, Drinking Water
Program,
Scott L. Szalkiewicz Technical Program Branch
Division Program Unit Supervisor 1616 Capitol Ave., MS 7416
Connecticut Dept. of Public Health, Drinking Water Division PO Box 977413
410 Capital Ave. Sacramento, CA 95899-7413
Hartford, CT 06134-0308 Phone: 916-552-9999
Phone: 860-509-7333 Email: Kyamada@dhs.ca.gov
Email: scott.szalkiewicz@po.state.ct.us

Timothy Tillery
Safety/Security Administrator
Suburban Water Systems
1211 E. Center Court Dr.
Covina, CA 91724-3603
Phone: 626-543-2549
Email: ttillery@suburbanwatersystems.com

B-6

Appendix C

References
Bennett P, Calman K, eds. Risk Communication and Public Johnson BB, Covello VT. The Social and Cultural
Health. New York (NY): Oxford University Press; 1999. Construction of Risk: Essays on Risk Selection and
Perception. D. Reidel Publishing; 1987.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Emergency Risk
Communication: CDCynergy (CD ROM). Atlanta (GA): Lum MR, Tinker TL. A primer on health risk communication
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2004. principles and practices. Washington (DC): Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry (US); 1994. Available from:
Chess C, Hance BJ, Sandman PM. Planning Dialogue with US Government Printing Ofﬁce, Washington (DC); HE
Communities: A Risk Communication Workbook. New 20.502:97024783.
Brunswick (NJ): Rutgers University, Cook College,
Environmental Media Communication Research Program; Mebane F, Temin S, and Parvanta C F. Communicating anthrax
1989. in 2001: A comparison of CDC information and print media
accounts. Journal of Health Communication, 2003: 8, 50-82.
Covello VT. Best Practice in Public Health Risk and Crisis
Communication. Journal of Health Communication, 2003:8, Morgan G, Fischhoff B. Risk communication: A Mental
1-5. Models Approach. Cambridge University Press; 2001.

Covello VT, Allen F. Seven Cardinal Rules of Risk Mullin S. The anthrax attacks in New York City: The “Giuliani
Communication. Washington (DC): Environmental Protection press conference model” and other communication strategies
Agency (US); 1988. that helped. Journal of Health Communication, 2003: 8, 15-16.

Covello VT, McCallum DB, Pavlova MT, eds. Effective risk National Research Council. Improving Risk Communication.
communication: the role and responsibility of government and Committee on Risk Perception and Risk Communication.
nongovernment organizations. New York (NY): Plenum;1989. Washington (DC): National Academy Press; 1989.

Covello VT, Peters R G, Wojtecki JG, and Hyde RC. National Research Council. Understanding Risk: Informing
Risk communication, the West Nile virus epidemic, and Decisions in a Democratic Society. Washington, (DC):
bioterrorism: Responding to the communication challenges National Academy Press; 1996.
posed by the intentional or unintentional release of a pathogen
in an urban setting. Journal of Urban Health, 2001; 78, 382- Peters RG, Covello VT, McCallum DB. The determinants of
391. trust and credibility in environmental risk communication: An
empirical study. Risk Analysis, 1997: 17(1):43-54.
Covello VT, Sandman PM. Risk communication:
Evolution and revolution. In: Wolbarst A, ed. Solutions to Renn O, Levine D. Credibility and Trust in Risk
an Environment in Peril. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins communication in RE Kasperson and PJM Stallen,
University Press; 2001:164-178. eds. Communicating Risks to the Public: International
Perspectives. Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1991.
Davies CJ, Covello VT, Allen FW, eds. Risk communication:
proceedings of the national conference. Washington (DC): The Sandman PM. Hazard versus outrage in the public perception
Conservation Foundation; 1987. of risk. In: Covello VT, McCallum DB, Pavlova MT, eds.
Effective Risk communication: The Role and Responsibility of
Fischhoff B, Slovic P, Lichtenstein L, Read S, Combs B. How Government and Non-government Organizations. New York
safe is safe enough? A psychometric study of attitudes towards (NY): Plenum Press; 1989:45-49.
technological risks and beneﬁts. Policy Sciences, 1978: 9:127-
152. Slovic P. Informing and educating the public about risk. Risk
Analysis, 1986 Dec; 6(4):403-15.
Hyer RN, Covello VT. Effective Media Communication during
Public Health Emergencies: A WHO Handbook. WHO/ Tinker TL, Silberberg PG. An evaluation primer on health risk
CDS/2005.31, World Health Organization, Geneva, 2005 communication programs and outcomes. Washington (DC):
(www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/WHO_CDS_2005_ Department of Health and Human Service (US); 1997.
31/en/).
World Health Organization. Communication Guidelines for
Jamieson KH, Lammie K, Warlde C, and Krutt S. Questions Disease Outbreaks, WHO Expert Consultation on Outbreak
about hypotheticals and details in reporting on anthrax. Communications, 21-23 September, Singapore, 2004.
Journal of Health Communication, 2003: 8, 121-131.

C-1

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