Asma Said 03 lecture outline

Chapter 3 Lecture
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cosmic Perspective
Seventh Edition
The Science of
Astronomy

3.1 The Ancient Roots of Science
• Our goals for learning:
– In what ways do all humans use scientific
thinking?
– How is modern science rooted in ancient
astronomy?

In what ways do all humans use scientific
thinking?
• Scientific thinking is based on everyday ideas of
observation and trial-and-error experiments.

How is modern science rooted in ancient
astronomy?
• Many of our current systems had their roots in
the achievements of ancient astronomy
– Daily timekeeping
– Tracking the seasons
– Calendar
– Monitoring lunar cycles
– Monitoring planets and stars
– Predicting eclipses
– And more…

astronomy?
• Ancient people of central Africa (6500 BC) could
predict seasons from the orientation of the
crescent Moon.

astronomy?
• Days of week were named for the Sun, Moon,
and visible planets.

astronomy?
• Egyptian obelisk:
Shadows tell
time of day.

astronomy?
• England: Stonehenge (completed around 1550
B.C.)

astronomy?
• England: Stonehenge (1550 B.C.)

• Mexico: Model of the Templo Mayor
astronomy?

astronomy?
• New Mexico: Anasazi kiva aligned north-south

• SW United States: "Sun Dagger" marks summer solstice
astronomy?

astronomy?
• Scotland: 4,000-year-old stone circle; Moon rises
as shown here every 18.6 years.

astronomy?
• Peru: Lines and patterns, some aligned with stars.

• Macchu Pichu, Peru: Structures aligned with solstices.
astronomy?

astronomy?
• South Pacific: Polynesians were very skilled in art of
celestial navigation.

astronomy?
• France: Cave paintings from 18,000 B.C. may
suggest knowledge of lunar phases (29 dots)

Bone or tortoise shell inscription from the 14th century BC.
"On the Xinwei day the new star dwindled."
"On the Jisi
day, the 7th
day of the
month, a big
new star
appeared in
the company
of the Ho
star."
astronomy?
• China: Earliest known records of supernova
explosions (1400 B.C.)

What have we learned?
• In what ways do all humans use scientific
thinking?
– Scientific thinking involves the same type of
trial and error thinking that we use in our
everyday live, but in a carefully organized way.
• How is modern science rooted in ancient
astronomy?
– Many of our modern timekeeping systems
have ancient roots

3.2 Ancient Greek Science
– Why does modern science trace its roots
to the Greeks?
– How did the Greeks explain planetary
motion?

• Artist's reconstruction of the Library of Alexandria.
3.2 Ancient Greek Science

• Greeks were the first
people known to make
models of nature.
• They tried to explain
patterns in nature
without resorting to myth
or the supernatural.
Greek geocentric model (c. 400 B.C.)
Why does modern science trace its roots to
the Greeks?

Special Topic: Eratosthenes Measures
Earth (c. 240 B.C.)
Measurements:
Syene to Alexandria
distance ≈ 5000 stadia
angle = 7°
Calculate circumference of Earth:
7/360 × (circum. Earth) = 5000 stadia
⇒ circum. Earth = 5000 × 360/7 stadia ≈ 250,000 stadia
Compare to modern value (≈ 40,100 km):
Greek stadium ≈ 1/6 km ⇒ 250,000 stadia ≈ 42,000 km

How did the Greeks explain planetary
motion?
• Underpinnings of the Greek geocentric model:
– Earth at the center of the universe
– Heavens must be "perfect": Objects moving
on perfect spheres or in perfect circles.

But this made it difficult to explain apparent
retrograde motion of planets…
• Review: Over a period of 10 weeks, Mars
appears to stop, back up, then go forward again.

Ptolemy
• The most sophisticated
geocentric model was that of
Ptolemy (A.D. 100-170) —
the Ptolemaic model:
– Sufficiently accurate to
remain in use for 1,500
years.
– Arabic translation of
Ptolemy's work named
Almagest ("the greatest
compilation")

• So how does the Ptolemaic model explain
retrograde motion?
Planets really do go backward in this model..

Thought Question
Which of the following is NOT a fundamental difference
between the geocentric and Sun-centered models of the
solar system?
A. Earth is stationary in the geocentric model but moves
around Sun in Sun-centered model.
B. Retrograde motion is real (planets really go backward) in
geocentric model but only apparent (planets don't really
turn around) in Sun-centered model.
C. Stellar parallax is expected in the Sun-centered model
but not in the Earth-centered model.
D. The geocentric model is useless for predicting planetary
positions in the sky, while even the earliest Sun-centered
models worked almost perfectly.

Thought Question
Which of the following is NOT a fundamental difference
between the geocentric and Sun-centered models of the
solar system?
A. Earth is stationary in the geocentric model but moves
around Sun in Sun-centered model.
B. Retrograde motion is real (planets really go backward) in
geocentric model but only apparent (planets don't really
turn around) in Sun-centered model.
C. Stellar parallax is expected in the Sun-centered model
but not in the Earth-centered model.
D. The geocentric model is useless for predicting
planetary positions in the sky, while even the earliest
Sun-centered models worked almost perfectly.

How was Greek knowledge preserved
through history?
• The Muslim world preserved and enhanced the
knowledge they received from the Greeks.
• Al-Mamun's House of Wisdom in Baghdad was a
great center of learning around A.D. 800.
• With the fall of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453,
Eastern scholars headed west to Europe,
carrying knowledge that helped ignite the
European Renaissance.

• Why does modern science trace its roots to
the Greeks?
– They developed models of nature and
emphasized that the predictions of models
should agree with observations.
• How did the Greeks explain planetary motion?
– The Ptolemaic model had each planet move on
a small circle whose center moves around
Earth on a larger circle.

3.3 The Copernican Revolution
– How did Copernicus, Tycho, and Kepler
challenge the Earth-centered model?
– What are Kepler's three laws of planetary
motion?
– How did Galileo solidify the Copernican
revolution?

• Proposed a Sun-centered model
(published 1543)
• Used model to determine layout of
solar system (planetary distances
in AU) But . . .
• The model was no more accurate
than the Ptolemaic model in
predicting planetary positions,
because it still used perfect circles.
Copernicus (1473−1543)
How did Copernicus, Tycho, and Kepler

Tycho Brahe (1546−1601)
• Compiled the most accurate
(one arcminute) naked eye
measurements ever made of
planetary positions.
• Still could not detect stellar
parallax, and thus still thought
Earth must be at center of solar
system (but recognized that other
planets go around Sun).
• Hired Kepler, who used Tycho's
observations to discover the truth
about planetary motion.

Johannes Kepler
(1571−1630)
• Kepler first tried to match Tycho's
observations with circular orbits
• But an 8-arcminute discrepancy
led him eventually to ellipses.
• "If I had believed that we could
ignore these eight minutes [of
arc], I would have patched up my
hypothesis accordingly. But,
since it was not permissible to
ignore, those eight minutes
pointed the road to a complete
reformation in astronomy."

What is an ellipse?
An ellipse looks like an elongated circle.

What are Kepler's three laws of planetary
motion?
• Kepler's First Law: The orbit of each planet
around the Sun is an ellipse with the Sun at one
focus.

This means that a planet travels faster when it is nearer to
the Sun and slower when it is farther from the Sun.
motion?
• Kepler's Second Law: As a planet moves
around its orbit, it sweeps out equal areas in
equal times.

motion?

Kepler's Third Law
• More distant planets orbit the Sun at slower
average speeds, obeying the relationship
p2
= a3
p = orbital period in years
a = avg. distance from Sun in AU

Kepler's Third Law
• Graphical version of Kepler's Third Law

Thought Question
An asteroid orbits the Sun at an average distance
a = 4 AU. How long does it take to orbit the Sun?
A. 4 years
B. 8 years
C. 16 years
D. 64 years
Hint: Remember that p2
= a3

Thought Question
An asteroid orbits the Sun at an average distance
a = 4 AU. How long does it take to orbit the Sun?
A. 4 years
B. 8 years
C. 16 years
D. 64 years
We need to find p so that p2
= a3
.
Since a = 4, a3
= 43
= 64.
Therefore, p = 8, p2
= 82
= 64.

Galileo overcame major objections
to the Copernican view. Three key
objections rooted in Aristotelian
view were:
1. Earth could not be moving
because objects in air would be
left behind.
2. Non-circular orbits are not
"perfect" as heavens should be.
3. If Earth were really orbiting
Sun, we'd detect stellar
parallax.
How did Galileo solidify the Copernican
revolution?
Galileo (1564−1642)

Overcoming the first objection (nature of
motion):
• Galileo's experiments showed that objects in air
would stay with Earth as it moves.
– Aristotle thought that all objects naturally
come to rest.
– Galileo showed that objects will stay in motion
unless a force acts to slow them down
(Newton's first law of motion).

Overcoming the second objection (heavenly
perfection):
• Tycho's observations of
comet and supernova
already challenged this
idea.
• Using his telescope,
Galileo saw:
– Sunspots on Sun
("imperfections")
– Mountains and valleys
on the Moon (proving it
is not a perfect sphere)

Overcoming the third objection (parallax):
• Tycho thought he had measured stellar
distances, so lack of parallax seemed to rule out
an orbiting Earth.
• Galileo showed stars must be much farther than
Tycho thought — in part by using his telescope
to see the Milky Way is countless individual
stars.
 If stars were much farther away, then lack of
detectable parallax was no longer so troubling.

• Galileo also saw four
moons orbiting Jupiter,
proving that not all
objects orbit Earth.

• Galileo's observations of phases of Venus
proved that it orbits the Sun and not Earth.

• The Catholic Church ordered Galileo to recant
his claim that Earth orbits the Sun in 1633.
• His book on the subject was removed from the
Church's index of banned books in 1824.
• Galileo was formally vindicated by the Church in
1992.

• How did Copernicus, Tycho and Kepler challenge the
Earth-centered idea?
– Copernicus created a sun-centered model; Tycho
provided the data needed to improve this model;
Kepler found a model that fit Tycho's data.
• What are Kepler's three laws of planetary motion?
– 1. The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the Sun
at one focus.
– 2. As a planet moves around its orbit it sweeps out
equal areas in equal times.
– 3. More distant planets orbit the Sun at slower
average speeds: p2
= a3
.

• What was Galileo's role in solidifying the
Copernican revolution?
– His experiments and observations overcame
the remaining objections to the Sun-centered
solar system model.

3.4 The Nature of Science
– How can we distinguish science from
nonscience?
– What is a scientific theory?

How can we distinguish science from non-
science?
• Defining science can be surprisingly difficult.
• Science from the Latin scientia, meaning
"knowledge."
• But not all knowledge comes from science.

The idealized scientific
method
• Based on proposing
and testing hypotheses
• hypothesis = educated
guess
How can we distinguish science from non-
science?

• But science rarely proceeds in this idealized
way. For example:
– Sometimes we start by "just looking" then
coming up with possible explanations.
– Sometimes we follow our intuition rather than
a particular line of evidence.

Hallmark of Science: #1
• Modern science seeks explanations for observed
phenomena that rely solely on natural causes.
• (A scientific model cannot include divine
intervention)

• Science progresses through the creation and
testing of models of nature that explain the
observations as simply as possible.
(Simplicity = "Occam's razor")

• A scientific model must make testable
predictions about natural phenomena that would
force us to revise or abandon the model if the
predictions do not agree with observations.

What is a scientific theory?
• The word theory has a different meaning in
science than in everyday life.
• In science, a theory is NOT the same as a
hypothesis, rather:
• A scientific theory must:
– Explain a wide variety of observations with a
few simple principles, AND
– Must be supported by a large, compelling
body of evidence.
– Must NOT have failed any crucial test of its
validity.

Thought Question
Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection meets all
the criteria of a scientific theory. This means:
A. Scientific opinion is about evenly split as to whether
evolution really happened.
B. Scientific opinion runs about 90% in favor of the theory
of evolution and about 10% opposed.
C. After more than 100 years of testing, Darwin's theory
stands stronger than ever, having successfully met
every scientific challenge to its validity.
D. There is no longer any doubt that the theory of evolution
is absolutely true.

• How can we distinguish science from non-
science?
– Science: seeks explanations that rely solely
on natural causes; progresses through the
creation and testing of models of nature;
models must make testable predictions
• What is a scientific theory?
– A model that explains a wide variety of
observations in terms of a few general
principles and that has survived repeated and
varied testing

3.5 Astrology
– How is astrology different from astronomy?
– Does astrology have any scientific validity?

How is astrology different from astronomy?
• Astronomy is a science focused on learning
about how stars, planets, and other celestial
objects work.
• Astrology is a search for hidden influences on
human lives based on the positions of planets
and stars in the sky.

Does astrology have any scientific validity?
• Scientific tests have
shown that
astrological
predictions are no
more accurate than
we should expect
from pure chance.

• How is astrology different from astronomy?
– Astronomy is the scientific study of the
universe and the celestial objects within it.
– Astrology assumes that the positions of
celestial objects influence human events.
• Does astrology have any scientific validity?
– Scientific tests show that the predictions of
astrology are no more accurate than pure
chance.

Asma Said 03 lecture outline

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