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08_electronics.ppt

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The document provides an overview of basic electronics concepts including: - Basic circuit analysis including Ohm's law, resistors and capacitors in series/parallel, and voltage dividers. - Power supplies and voltage regulation including diode bridges, smoothing capacitors, zener regulators, and voltage regulator ICs. - Semiconductor devices like diodes, LEDs, and transistors and their usage in rectification, switching, and amplification applications. - Concepts of impedance, output impedance, and buffering are discussed in the context of driving loads from power supplies and transistors.

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Electronics Overview Basic Circuits, Power Supplies, Transistors, Cable Impedance diode bridge
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 2 Basic Circuit Analysis • What we won’t do: – common electronics-class things: RLC, filters, detailed analysis • What we will do: – set out basic relations – look at a few examples of fundamental importance (mostly resistive circuits) – look at diodes, voltage regulation, transistors – discuss impedances (cable, output, etc.)
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 3 The Basic Relations • V is voltage (volts: V); I is current (amps: A); R is resistance (ohms: ); C is capacitance (farads: F); L is inductance (henrys: H) • Ohm’s Law: V = IR; V = ; V = L(dI/dt) • Power: P = IV = V2/R = I2R • Resistors and inductors in series add • Capacitors in parallel add • Resistors and inductors in parallel, and capacitors in series add according to:
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 4 Example: Voltage divider • Voltage dividers are a classic way to set a voltage • Works on the principle that all charge flowing through the first resistor goes through the second – so V  R-value – provided any load at output is negligible: otherwise some current goes there too • So Vout = V(R2/(R1 + R2)) • R2 here is a variable resistor, or potentiometer, or “pot” – typically three terminals: R12 is fixed, tap slides along to vary R13 and R23, though R13 + R23 = R12 always 1 2 3 R1 R2 V Vout
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 5 Real Batteries: Output Impedance • A power supply (battery) is characterized by a voltage (V) and an output impedance (R) – sometimes called source impedance • Hooking up to load: Rload, we form a voltage divider, so that the voltage applied by the battery terminal is actually Vout = V(Rload/(R+Rload)) – thus the smaller R is, the “stiffer” the power supply – when Vout sags with higher load current, we call this “droop” • Example: If 10.0 V power supply droops by 1% (0.1 V) when loaded to 1 Amp (10  load): – internal resistance is 0.1  – called output impedance or source impedance – may vary with load, though (not a real resistor) V R D-cell example: 6A out of 1.5 V battery indicates 0.25  output impedance
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 6 Power Supplies and Regulation • A power supply typically starts with a transformer – to knock down the 340 V peak-to-peak (120 V AC) to something reasonable/manageable • We will be using a center-tap transformer – (A’  B’) = (winding ratio)(A  B) • when A > B, so is A’ > B’ – geometry of center tap (CT) guarantees it is midway between A’ and B’ (frequently tie this to ground so that A’ = B’) – note that secondary side floats: no ground reference built-in A B A’ CT B’ AC input AC output
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 7 Diodes • Diodes are essentially one-way current gates • Symbolized by: • Current vs. voltage graphs: V I V I V I V I 0.6 V plain resistor diode idealized diode WAY idealized diode no current flows current flows the direction the arrow points in the diode symbol is the direction that current will flow acts just like a wire (will support arbitrary current) provided that voltage is positive
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 8 Diode Makeup • Diodes are made of semiconductors (usually silicon) • Essentially a stack of p-doped and n-doped silicon to form a p-n junction – doping means deliberate impurities that contribute extra electrons (n-doped) or “holes” for electrons (p-doped) • Transistors are n-p-n or p-n-p arrangements of semiconductors p-type n-type
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 9 LEDs: Light-Emitting Diodes • Main difference is material is more exotic than silicon used in ordinary diodes/transistors – typically 2-volt drop instead of 0.6 V drop • When electron flows through LED, loses energy by emitting a photon of light rather than vibrating lattice (heat) • LED efficiency is 30% (compare to incandescent bulb at 10%) • Must supply current-limiting resistor in series: – figure on 2 V drop across LED; aim for 1–10 mA of current
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 10 Getting DC back out of AC • AC provides a means for us to distribute electrical power, but most devices actually want DC – bulbs, toasters, heaters, fans don’t care: plug straight in – sophisticated devices care because they have diodes and transistors that require a certain polarity • rather than oscillating polarity derived from AC • this is why battery orientation matters in most electronics • Use diodes to “rectify” AC signal • Simplest (half-wave) rectifier uses one diode: AC source load input voltage voltage seen by load diode only conducts when input voltage is positive
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 11 Doing Better: Full-wave Diode Bridge • The diode in the rectifying circuit simply prevented the negative swing of voltage from conducting – but this wastes half the available cycle – also very irregular (bumpy): far from a “good” DC source • By using four diodes, you can recover the negative swing: A C B D AC source load input voltage voltage seen by load B & C conduct A & D conduct
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 12 Full-Wave Dual-Supply • By grounding the center tap, we have two opposite AC sources – the diode bridge now presents + and  voltages relative to ground – each can be separately smoothed/regulated – cutting out diodes A and D makes a half-wave rectifier A C B D AC source + load  load voltages seen by loads can buy pre-packaged diode bridges
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 13 Smoothing out the Bumps • Still a bumpy ride, but we can smooth this out with a capacitor – capacitors have capacity for storing charge – acts like a reservoir to supply current during low spots – voltage regulator smoothes out remaining ripple A C B D AC source load capacitor
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 14 How smooth is smooth? • An RC circuit has a time constant  = RC – because dV/dt = I/C, and I = V/R  dV/dt = V/RC – so V is V0exp(t/) • Any exponential function starts out with slope = Amplitude/ • So if you want < 10% ripple over 120 Hz (8.3 ms) timescale… – must have  = RC > 83 ms – if R = 100 , C > 830 F R C V 
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 15 Regulating the Voltage • The unregulated, ripply voltage may not be at the value you want – depends on transformer, etc. – suppose you want 15.0 V • You could use a voltage divider to set the voltage • But it would droop under load – output impedance  R1 || R2 – need to have very small R1, R2 to make “stiff” – the divider will draw a lot of current – perhaps straining the source – power expended in divider >> power in load • Not a “real” solution • Important note: a “big load” means a small resistor value: 1  demands more current than 1 M 1 2 3 R1 R2 Vin Vout Rload
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 16 The Zener Regulator • Zener diodes break down at some reverse voltage – can buy at specific breakdown voltages – as long as some current goes through zener, it’ll work – good for rough regulation • Conditions for working: – let’s maintain some minimal current, Iz through zener (say a few mA) – then (Vin  Vout)/R1 = Iz + Vout/Rload sets the requirement on R1 – because presumably all else is known – if load current increases too much, zener shuts off (node drops below breakdown) and you just have a voltage divider with the load R1 Z Vin Vout = Vz Rload zener voltage high slope is what makes the zener a decent voltage regulator
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 17 Voltage Regulator IC • Can trim down ripply voltage to precise, rock-steady value • Now things get complicated! – We are now in the realm of integrated circuits (ICs) • ICs are whole circuits in small packages • ICs contain resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, etc. note zeners
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 18 Voltage Regulators • The most common voltage regulators are the LM78XX (+ voltages) and LM79XX ( voltages) – XX represents the voltage • 7815 is +15; 7915 is 15; 7805 is +5, etc – typically needs input > 3 volts above output (reg.) voltage • A versatile regulator is the LM317 (+) or LM337 () – 1.2–37 V output – Vout = 1.25(1+R2/R1) + IadjR2 – Up to 1.5 A – picture at right can go to 25 V – datasheetcatalog.com for details beware that housing is not always ground
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 19 Transistors • Transistors are versatile, highly non-linear devices • Two frequent modes of operation: – amplifiers/buffers – switches • Two main flavors: – npn (more common) or pnp, describing doping structure • Also many varieties: – bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) such as npn, pnp – field effect transistors (FETs): n-channel and p- channel – metal-oxide-semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs) • We’ll just hit the essentials of the BJT here – MOSFET in later lecture B C E B E C npn pnp
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 20 BJT Amplifier Mode • Central idea is that when in the right regime, the BJT collector-emitter current is proportional to the base current: – namely, Ice = Ib, where  (sometimes hfe) is typically ~100 – In this regime, the base-emitter voltage is ~0.6 V – below, Ib = (Vin  0.6)/Rb; Ice = Ib = (Vin  0.6)/Rb – so that Vout = Vcc  IceRc = Vcc  (Vin  0.6)(Rc/Rb) – ignoring DC biases, wiggles on Vin become  (Rc/Rb) bigger (and inverted): thus amplified out Rc Rb in Vcc B C E
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 21 Switching: Driving to Saturation • What would happen if the base current is so big that the collector current got so big that the voltage drop across Rc wants to exceed Vcc? – we call this saturated: Vc  Ve cannot dip below ~0.2 V – even if Ib is increased, Ic won’t budge any more • The example below is a good logic inverter – if Vcc = 5 V; Rc = 1 k; Ic(sat)  5 mA; need Ib > 0.05 mA – so Rb < 20 k would put us safely into saturation if Vin = 5V – now 5 V in  ~0.2 V out; < 0.6 V in  5 V out out Rc Rb in Vcc
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 22 Transistor Buffer • In the hookup above (emitter follower), Vout = Vin  0.6 – sounds useless, right? – there is no voltage “gain,” but there is current gain – Imagine we wiggle Vin by V: Vout wiggles by the same V – so the transistor current changes by Ie = V/R – but the base current changes 1/ times this (much less) – so the “wiggler” thinks the load is V/Ib = ·V/Ie = R – the load therefore is less formidable • The “buffer” is a way to drive a load without the driver feeling the pain (as much): it’s impedance isolation out R in Vcc
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 23 Improved Zener Regulator • By adding a transistor to the zener regulator from before, we no longer have to worry as much about the current being pulled away from the zener to the load – the base current is small – Rload effectively looks  times bigger – real current supplied through transistor • Can often find zeners at 5.6 V, 9.6 V, 12.6 V, 15.6 V, etc. because drop from base to emitter is about 0.6 V – so transistor-buffered Vreg comes out to 5.0, 9.0, etc. • Iz varies less in this arrangement, so the regulated voltage is steadier Vreg Rload Vz Vin Rz Z Vin
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 24 Switching Power Supplies • Power supplies without transformers – lightweight; low cost – can be electromagnetically noisy • Use a DC-to-DC conversion process that relies on flipping a switch on and off, storing energy in an inductor and capacitor – regulators were DC-to-DC converters too, but lossy: lose P = IV of power for voltage drop of V at current I – regulators only down-convert, but switchers can also up-convert – switchers are reasonably efficient at conversion
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 25 Switcher topologies from: http://www.maxim-ic.com/appnotes.cfm/appnote_number/4087 The FET switch is turned off or on in a pulse-width-modulation (PWM) scheme, the duty cycle of which determines the ratio of Vout to Vin
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 26 Step-Down Calculations • If the FET is on for duty cycle, D (fraction of time on), and the period is T: – the average output voltage is Vout = DVin – the average current through the capacitor is zero, the average current through the load (and inductor) is 1/D times the input current – under these idealizations, power in = power out
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 27 Step-down waveforms • Shown here is an example of the step-down with the FET duty cycle around 75% • The average inductor current (dashed) is the current delivered to the load – the balance goes to the capacitor • The ripple (parabolic sections) has peak-to-peak fractional amplitude of T2(1D)/(8LC) – so win by small T, large L & C – 10 kHz at 1 mH, 1000 F yields ~0.1% ripple – means 10 mV on 10 V FET Inductor Current Supply Current Capacitor Current Output Voltage (ripple exag.)
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 28 Cable Impedances • RG58 cable is characterized as 50  cable – RG59 is 75  – some antenna cable is 300  • Isn’t the cable nearly zero resistance? And shouldn’t the length come into play, somehow? • There is a distinction between resistance and impedance – though same units • Impedances can be real, imaginary, or complex – resistors are real: Z = R – capacitors and inductors are imaginary: Z = i/C; Z = iL – mixtures are complex: Z = R  i/C + iL
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 29 Impedances, cont. • Note that: – capacitors become less “resistive” at high frequency – inductors become more “resistive” at high frequency – bigger capacitors are more transparent – bigger inductors are less transparent – i (√1) indicates 90 phase shift between voltage and current • after all, V = IZ, so Z = V/I • thus if V is sine wave, I is cosine for inductor/capacitor • and given that one is derivative, one is integral, this makes sense (slide # 3) – adding impedances automatically takes care of summation rules: add Z in series • capacitance adds as inverse, resistors, inductors straight-up
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 30 Impedance Phasor Diagram • Impedances can be drawn on a complex plane, with pure resistive, inductive, and capacitive impedances represented by the three cardinal arrows • An arbitrary combination of components may have a complex impedance, which can be broken into real and imaginary parts • Note that a system’s impedance is frequency- dependent R L Z Zr Zi 1/C real axis imag. axis
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 31 Transmission Line Model • The cable has a finite capacitance per unit length – property of geometry and dielectric separating conductors – C/l = 2πε/ln(b/a), where b and a are radii of cylinders • Also has an inductance per unit length – L/l = (μ/2π)ln(b/a) • When a voltage is applied, capacitors charge up – thus draw current; propagates down the line near speed of light • Question: what is the ratio of voltage to current? – because this is the characteristic impedance • Answer: Z0 = sqrt(L/C) = sqrt(L/C) = (1/2π)sqrt(μ/ε)ln(b/a) – note that Z0 is frequency-independent C L input output
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 32 Typical Transmission Lines • RG58 coax is abundant – 30 pF per foot; 75 nH per foot; 50 ; v = 0.695c; ~5 ns/m • RG174 is the thin version – same parameters as above, but scaled-down geometry • RG59 – used for video, cable TV – 21 pF/ft; 118 nH per foot; 75 ; v = 0.695c; ~5 ns/m • twisted pair – 110  at 30 turns/ft, AWG 24–28 • PCB (PC-board) trace – get 50  if the trace width is 1.84 times the separation from the ground plane (assuming fiberglass PCB with  = 4.5)
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 33 Why impedance matters • For fast signals, get bounces (reflections) at every impedance mismatch – reflection amplitude is (Zt  Zs)/(Zt + Zs) • s and t subscripts represent source and termination impedances • sources intending to drive a Z0 cable have Zs = Z0 • Consider a long cable shorted at end: insert pulse – driving electronics can’t know about the termination immediately: must charge up cable as the pulse propagates forward, looking like Z0 of the cable at first – surprise at far end: it’s a short! retreat! – in effect, negative pulse propagates back, nulling out capacitors (reflection is 1) – one round-trip later (10 ns per meter, typically), the driving electronics feels the pain of the short
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 34 Impedance matters, continued • Now other extreme: cable un-terminated: open – pulse travels merrily along at first, the driving electronics seeing a Z0 cable load – at the end, the current has nowhere to go, but driver can’t know this yet, so keeps loading cable as if it’s still Z0 – effectively, a positive pulse reflects back, double-charging capacitors (reflection is +1) – driver gets word of this one round-trip later (10 ns/m, typically), then must cease to deliver current (cable fully charged) • The goldilocks case (reflection = 0) – if the end of the cable is terminated with resistor with R = Z0, then current is slurped up perfectly with no reflections – the driver is not being lied to, and hears no complaints
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 35 So Beware! • If looking at fast (tens of ns domain) signals on scope, be sure to route signal to scope via 50  coax and terminate the scope in 50  – if the signal can’t drive 50 , then use active probes • Note that scope probes terminate to 1 M, even though the cables are NOT 1 M cables (no such thing) – so scope probes can be very misleading about shapes of fast signals
Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 36 References and Assignment • References: – The canonical electronics reference is Horowitz and Hill: The Art of Electronics – Also the accompanying lab manual by Hayes and Horowitz is highly valuable (far more practically-oriented) – And of course: Electronics for Dogs (just ask Gromit) • Reading – Sections 6.1.1, 6.1.2 – Skim 6.2.2, 6.2.3, 6.2.4 – Sections 6.3.1, 6.5.1, 6.5.2 – Skim 6.3.2

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08_electronics.ppt

  • 1. Electronics Overview Basic Circuits, Power Supplies, Transistors, Cable Impedance diode bridge
  • 2. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 2 Basic Circuit Analysis • What we won’t do: – common electronics-class things: RLC, filters, detailed analysis • What we will do: – set out basic relations – look at a few examples of fundamental importance (mostly resistive circuits) – look at diodes, voltage regulation, transistors – discuss impedances (cable, output, etc.)
  • 3. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 3 The Basic Relations • V is voltage (volts: V); I is current (amps: A); R is resistance (ohms: ); C is capacitance (farads: F); L is inductance (henrys: H) • Ohm’s Law: V = IR; V = ; V = L(dI/dt) • Power: P = IV = V2/R = I2R • Resistors and inductors in series add • Capacitors in parallel add • Resistors and inductors in parallel, and capacitors in series add according to:
  • 4. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 4 Example: Voltage divider • Voltage dividers are a classic way to set a voltage • Works on the principle that all charge flowing through the first resistor goes through the second – so V  R-value – provided any load at output is negligible: otherwise some current goes there too • So Vout = V(R2/(R1 + R2)) • R2 here is a variable resistor, or potentiometer, or “pot” – typically three terminals: R12 is fixed, tap slides along to vary R13 and R23, though R13 + R23 = R12 always 1 2 3 R1 R2 V Vout
  • 5. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 5 Real Batteries: Output Impedance • A power supply (battery) is characterized by a voltage (V) and an output impedance (R) – sometimes called source impedance • Hooking up to load: Rload, we form a voltage divider, so that the voltage applied by the battery terminal is actually Vout = V(Rload/(R+Rload)) – thus the smaller R is, the “stiffer” the power supply – when Vout sags with higher load current, we call this “droop” • Example: If 10.0 V power supply droops by 1% (0.1 V) when loaded to 1 Amp (10  load): – internal resistance is 0.1  – called output impedance or source impedance – may vary with load, though (not a real resistor) V R D-cell example: 6A out of 1.5 V battery indicates 0.25  output impedance
  • 6. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 6 Power Supplies and Regulation • A power supply typically starts with a transformer – to knock down the 340 V peak-to-peak (120 V AC) to something reasonable/manageable • We will be using a center-tap transformer – (A’  B’) = (winding ratio)(A  B) • when A > B, so is A’ > B’ – geometry of center tap (CT) guarantees it is midway between A’ and B’ (frequently tie this to ground so that A’ = B’) – note that secondary side floats: no ground reference built-in A B A’ CT B’ AC input AC output
  • 7. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 7 Diodes • Diodes are essentially one-way current gates • Symbolized by: • Current vs. voltage graphs: V I V I V I V I 0.6 V plain resistor diode idealized diode WAY idealized diode no current flows current flows the direction the arrow points in the diode symbol is the direction that current will flow acts just like a wire (will support arbitrary current) provided that voltage is positive
  • 8. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 8 Diode Makeup • Diodes are made of semiconductors (usually silicon) • Essentially a stack of p-doped and n-doped silicon to form a p-n junction – doping means deliberate impurities that contribute extra electrons (n-doped) or “holes” for electrons (p-doped) • Transistors are n-p-n or p-n-p arrangements of semiconductors p-type n-type
  • 9. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 9 LEDs: Light-Emitting Diodes • Main difference is material is more exotic than silicon used in ordinary diodes/transistors – typically 2-volt drop instead of 0.6 V drop • When electron flows through LED, loses energy by emitting a photon of light rather than vibrating lattice (heat) • LED efficiency is 30% (compare to incandescent bulb at 10%) • Must supply current-limiting resistor in series: – figure on 2 V drop across LED; aim for 1–10 mA of current
  • 10. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 10 Getting DC back out of AC • AC provides a means for us to distribute electrical power, but most devices actually want DC – bulbs, toasters, heaters, fans don’t care: plug straight in – sophisticated devices care because they have diodes and transistors that require a certain polarity • rather than oscillating polarity derived from AC • this is why battery orientation matters in most electronics • Use diodes to “rectify” AC signal • Simplest (half-wave) rectifier uses one diode: AC source load input voltage voltage seen by load diode only conducts when input voltage is positive
  • 11. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 11 Doing Better: Full-wave Diode Bridge • The diode in the rectifying circuit simply prevented the negative swing of voltage from conducting – but this wastes half the available cycle – also very irregular (bumpy): far from a “good” DC source • By using four diodes, you can recover the negative swing: A C B D AC source load input voltage voltage seen by load B & C conduct A & D conduct
  • 12. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 12 Full-Wave Dual-Supply • By grounding the center tap, we have two opposite AC sources – the diode bridge now presents + and  voltages relative to ground – each can be separately smoothed/regulated – cutting out diodes A and D makes a half-wave rectifier A C B D AC source + load  load voltages seen by loads can buy pre-packaged diode bridges
  • 13. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 13 Smoothing out the Bumps • Still a bumpy ride, but we can smooth this out with a capacitor – capacitors have capacity for storing charge – acts like a reservoir to supply current during low spots – voltage regulator smoothes out remaining ripple A C B D AC source load capacitor
  • 14. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 14 How smooth is smooth? • An RC circuit has a time constant  = RC – because dV/dt = I/C, and I = V/R  dV/dt = V/RC – so V is V0exp(t/) • Any exponential function starts out with slope = Amplitude/ • So if you want < 10% ripple over 120 Hz (8.3 ms) timescale… – must have  = RC > 83 ms – if R = 100 , C > 830 F R C V 
  • 15. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 15 Regulating the Voltage • The unregulated, ripply voltage may not be at the value you want – depends on transformer, etc. – suppose you want 15.0 V • You could use a voltage divider to set the voltage • But it would droop under load – output impedance  R1 || R2 – need to have very small R1, R2 to make “stiff” – the divider will draw a lot of current – perhaps straining the source – power expended in divider >> power in load • Not a “real” solution • Important note: a “big load” means a small resistor value: 1  demands more current than 1 M 1 2 3 R1 R2 Vin Vout Rload
  • 16. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 16 The Zener Regulator • Zener diodes break down at some reverse voltage – can buy at specific breakdown voltages – as long as some current goes through zener, it’ll work – good for rough regulation • Conditions for working: – let’s maintain some minimal current, Iz through zener (say a few mA) – then (Vin  Vout)/R1 = Iz + Vout/Rload sets the requirement on R1 – because presumably all else is known – if load current increases too much, zener shuts off (node drops below breakdown) and you just have a voltage divider with the load R1 Z Vin Vout = Vz Rload zener voltage high slope is what makes the zener a decent voltage regulator
  • 17. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 17 Voltage Regulator IC • Can trim down ripply voltage to precise, rock-steady value • Now things get complicated! – We are now in the realm of integrated circuits (ICs) • ICs are whole circuits in small packages • ICs contain resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, etc. note zeners
  • 18. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 18 Voltage Regulators • The most common voltage regulators are the LM78XX (+ voltages) and LM79XX ( voltages) – XX represents the voltage • 7815 is +15; 7915 is 15; 7805 is +5, etc – typically needs input > 3 volts above output (reg.) voltage • A versatile regulator is the LM317 (+) or LM337 () – 1.2–37 V output – Vout = 1.25(1+R2/R1) + IadjR2 – Up to 1.5 A – picture at right can go to 25 V – datasheetcatalog.com for details beware that housing is not always ground
  • 19. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 19 Transistors • Transistors are versatile, highly non-linear devices • Two frequent modes of operation: – amplifiers/buffers – switches • Two main flavors: – npn (more common) or pnp, describing doping structure • Also many varieties: – bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) such as npn, pnp – field effect transistors (FETs): n-channel and p- channel – metal-oxide-semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs) • We’ll just hit the essentials of the BJT here – MOSFET in later lecture B C E B E C npn pnp
  • 20. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 20 BJT Amplifier Mode • Central idea is that when in the right regime, the BJT collector-emitter current is proportional to the base current: – namely, Ice = Ib, where  (sometimes hfe) is typically ~100 – In this regime, the base-emitter voltage is ~0.6 V – below, Ib = (Vin  0.6)/Rb; Ice = Ib = (Vin  0.6)/Rb – so that Vout = Vcc  IceRc = Vcc  (Vin  0.6)(Rc/Rb) – ignoring DC biases, wiggles on Vin become  (Rc/Rb) bigger (and inverted): thus amplified out Rc Rb in Vcc B C E
  • 21. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 21 Switching: Driving to Saturation • What would happen if the base current is so big that the collector current got so big that the voltage drop across Rc wants to exceed Vcc? – we call this saturated: Vc  Ve cannot dip below ~0.2 V – even if Ib is increased, Ic won’t budge any more • The example below is a good logic inverter – if Vcc = 5 V; Rc = 1 k; Ic(sat)  5 mA; need Ib > 0.05 mA – so Rb < 20 k would put us safely into saturation if Vin = 5V – now 5 V in  ~0.2 V out; < 0.6 V in  5 V out out Rc Rb in Vcc
  • 22. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 22 Transistor Buffer • In the hookup above (emitter follower), Vout = Vin  0.6 – sounds useless, right? – there is no voltage “gain,” but there is current gain – Imagine we wiggle Vin by V: Vout wiggles by the same V – so the transistor current changes by Ie = V/R – but the base current changes 1/ times this (much less) – so the “wiggler” thinks the load is V/Ib = ·V/Ie = R – the load therefore is less formidable • The “buffer” is a way to drive a load without the driver feeling the pain (as much): it’s impedance isolation out R in Vcc
  • 23. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 23 Improved Zener Regulator • By adding a transistor to the zener regulator from before, we no longer have to worry as much about the current being pulled away from the zener to the load – the base current is small – Rload effectively looks  times bigger – real current supplied through transistor • Can often find zeners at 5.6 V, 9.6 V, 12.6 V, 15.6 V, etc. because drop from base to emitter is about 0.6 V – so transistor-buffered Vreg comes out to 5.0, 9.0, etc. • Iz varies less in this arrangement, so the regulated voltage is steadier Vreg Rload Vz Vin Rz Z Vin
  • 24. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 24 Switching Power Supplies • Power supplies without transformers – lightweight; low cost – can be electromagnetically noisy • Use a DC-to-DC conversion process that relies on flipping a switch on and off, storing energy in an inductor and capacitor – regulators were DC-to-DC converters too, but lossy: lose P = IV of power for voltage drop of V at current I – regulators only down-convert, but switchers can also up-convert – switchers are reasonably efficient at conversion
  • 25. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 25 Switcher topologies from: http://www.maxim-ic.com/appnotes.cfm/appnote_number/4087 The FET switch is turned off or on in a pulse-width-modulation (PWM) scheme, the duty cycle of which determines the ratio of Vout to Vin
  • 26. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 26 Step-Down Calculations • If the FET is on for duty cycle, D (fraction of time on), and the period is T: – the average output voltage is Vout = DVin – the average current through the capacitor is zero, the average current through the load (and inductor) is 1/D times the input current – under these idealizations, power in = power out
  • 27. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 27 Step-down waveforms • Shown here is an example of the step-down with the FET duty cycle around 75% • The average inductor current (dashed) is the current delivered to the load – the balance goes to the capacitor • The ripple (parabolic sections) has peak-to-peak fractional amplitude of T2(1D)/(8LC) – so win by small T, large L & C – 10 kHz at 1 mH, 1000 F yields ~0.1% ripple – means 10 mV on 10 V FET Inductor Current Supply Current Capacitor Current Output Voltage (ripple exag.)
  • 28. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 28 Cable Impedances • RG58 cable is characterized as 50  cable – RG59 is 75  – some antenna cable is 300  • Isn’t the cable nearly zero resistance? And shouldn’t the length come into play, somehow? • There is a distinction between resistance and impedance – though same units • Impedances can be real, imaginary, or complex – resistors are real: Z = R – capacitors and inductors are imaginary: Z = i/C; Z = iL – mixtures are complex: Z = R  i/C + iL
  • 29. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 29 Impedances, cont. • Note that: – capacitors become less “resistive” at high frequency – inductors become more “resistive” at high frequency – bigger capacitors are more transparent – bigger inductors are less transparent – i (√1) indicates 90 phase shift between voltage and current • after all, V = IZ, so Z = V/I • thus if V is sine wave, I is cosine for inductor/capacitor • and given that one is derivative, one is integral, this makes sense (slide # 3) – adding impedances automatically takes care of summation rules: add Z in series • capacitance adds as inverse, resistors, inductors straight-up
  • 30. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 30 Impedance Phasor Diagram • Impedances can be drawn on a complex plane, with pure resistive, inductive, and capacitive impedances represented by the three cardinal arrows • An arbitrary combination of components may have a complex impedance, which can be broken into real and imaginary parts • Note that a system’s impedance is frequency- dependent R L Z Zr Zi 1/C real axis imag. axis
  • 31. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 31 Transmission Line Model • The cable has a finite capacitance per unit length – property of geometry and dielectric separating conductors – C/l = 2πε/ln(b/a), where b and a are radii of cylinders • Also has an inductance per unit length – L/l = (μ/2π)ln(b/a) • When a voltage is applied, capacitors charge up – thus draw current; propagates down the line near speed of light • Question: what is the ratio of voltage to current? – because this is the characteristic impedance • Answer: Z0 = sqrt(L/C) = sqrt(L/C) = (1/2π)sqrt(μ/ε)ln(b/a) – note that Z0 is frequency-independent C L input output
  • 32. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 32 Typical Transmission Lines • RG58 coax is abundant – 30 pF per foot; 75 nH per foot; 50 ; v = 0.695c; ~5 ns/m • RG174 is the thin version – same parameters as above, but scaled-down geometry • RG59 – used for video, cable TV – 21 pF/ft; 118 nH per foot; 75 ; v = 0.695c; ~5 ns/m • twisted pair – 110  at 30 turns/ft, AWG 24–28 • PCB (PC-board) trace – get 50  if the trace width is 1.84 times the separation from the ground plane (assuming fiberglass PCB with  = 4.5)
  • 33. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 33 Why impedance matters • For fast signals, get bounces (reflections) at every impedance mismatch – reflection amplitude is (Zt  Zs)/(Zt + Zs) • s and t subscripts represent source and termination impedances • sources intending to drive a Z0 cable have Zs = Z0 • Consider a long cable shorted at end: insert pulse – driving electronics can’t know about the termination immediately: must charge up cable as the pulse propagates forward, looking like Z0 of the cable at first – surprise at far end: it’s a short! retreat! – in effect, negative pulse propagates back, nulling out capacitors (reflection is 1) – one round-trip later (10 ns per meter, typically), the driving electronics feels the pain of the short
  • 34. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 34 Impedance matters, continued • Now other extreme: cable un-terminated: open – pulse travels merrily along at first, the driving electronics seeing a Z0 cable load – at the end, the current has nowhere to go, but driver can’t know this yet, so keeps loading cable as if it’s still Z0 – effectively, a positive pulse reflects back, double-charging capacitors (reflection is +1) – driver gets word of this one round-trip later (10 ns/m, typically), then must cease to deliver current (cable fully charged) • The goldilocks case (reflection = 0) – if the end of the cable is terminated with resistor with R = Z0, then current is slurped up perfectly with no reflections – the driver is not being lied to, and hears no complaints
  • 35. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 35 So Beware! • If looking at fast (tens of ns domain) signals on scope, be sure to route signal to scope via 50  coax and terminate the scope in 50  – if the signal can’t drive 50 , then use active probes • Note that scope probes terminate to 1 M, even though the cables are NOT 1 M cables (no such thing) – so scope probes can be very misleading about shapes of fast signals
  • 36. Winter 2012 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012 36 References and Assignment • References: – The canonical electronics reference is Horowitz and Hill: The Art of Electronics – Also the accompanying lab manual by Hayes and Horowitz is highly valuable (far more practically-oriented) – And of course: Electronics for Dogs (just ask Gromit) • Reading – Sections 6.1.1, 6.1.2 – Skim 6.2.2, 6.2.3, 6.2.4 – Sections 6.3.1, 6.5.1, 6.5.2 – Skim 6.3.2

Editor's Notes