1. Introduction to research method.pdf
- 1. Research Methods BY:Tesfaye Getachew (Ph.D.,Ass. Professor)
- 2. Outlines • Introduction to research • Source of knowledge • Types of Research • Research approaches • Research process 2
- 3. The Concept of Research Learning Objectives • Identify sources of knowledge • Define the concept of research • Explain the purpose of research • Understand Philosophy of research 3
- 4. Introduction • What is Knowledge? • Knowledge is the sum of man's conception, views and propositions which have been established as correct reflections of objective reality • Why is Knowledge? • The search for knowledge has been motivated by person’s desire to understand and control his environment 4
- 5. Sources of Knowledge Two major approaches to acquire knowledge: • Unscientific knowledge/common sense • Scientific knowledge/Science 5
- 6. 1. Unscientific Sources of Knowledge • Unscientific methods rely on tradition, tenacity, personal experience, intuition, logic and authority to arrive at conclusions. • Most of these are no longer accepted in the scientific community. The method of tenacity -Automatic acceptance of beliefs without exploring them. For instance:The sun rises in the east. 6
- 7. Cont’d ❖The method of Authority - Accepting information we have been told by authority figure. For instance: ❖Smoking affects our health. ❖Distancing is one way of Covid-19 prevention. Problem: o It is only useful and beneficial if the authority figure is knowledgeable in the area. These authorities include parents,the media,doctors, Priests and other religious authorities,the government,and professors 7
- 8. Traditional source of knowledge • It is innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities. • Examples: culture, stories, songs, and laws, languages, songlines, dance, games, designs, visual art and architecture, etc. 8
- 9. Personal experience • It is a direct experience of an individual. • Personal experience can be developed through: ✓Public speaking ✓Interviews ✓Academic works (essay and research) 9
- 10. Cont’d Common-sense - Knowledge acquired from past experience or from our perceptions of the world. It is good for routines aspects of daily life but hinders to widen our knowledge. For instance: The price of drug was increasing thoroughly due to dollar exchange rate. 10
- 11. Deductive Reasoning/Logic • It is the process of deriving specific expectations from general principles through reasoning. 11
- 12. Inductive Reasoning/Logic • Is the process of establishing general principles from specific observations. • Example Socrates is mortal Plato is mortal Aristotle is mortal Therefore, all humans are mortal. 12
- 13. 2. Scientific method ▪ Knowledge acquired systematically. i.e. evaluate observation by our bodily senses or measuring devices. ▪ Therefore, science relies on information that is verifiable unlike common sense. ▪ Science differs from common sense: ▪ Uses conceptual schemes and theoretical structures. ▪ Gives explanations or reasoning for different observed phenomena. 13
- 14. ScientificVs. Unscientific Research Scientific research: Focuses on solving problems and pursues a step-by- step logical, organized,and rigorous method.i.e. ✓ identify the problems ✓ collect data ✓ Analyse and ✓ Draw valid conclusions Non-scientific research: Based on experience and intuition 14
- 15. Expectations from scientific research: ➢General rules drawn ➢Objective evidences collected ➢Testable statements made ➢Solution attitude to all claims ➢Creative, public and productive 15
- 16. Limitations of scientific research: ➢Cannot have answer for all questions ➢Results may not be applied everywhere ➢Imperfection in the measurement devices • The scope and limitations of your work has to be clearly defined. • The work that will not be undertaken is described as the limitations of the research. • In your research project,when you will use limitation? 16
- 17. Definitions of Research ▪ The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search re is a prefix to mean again, a new or over again Search is to mean to examine closely & carefully, to test and try, or to probe ▪ Together a noun‘research’ it to mean a careful and systematic investigation undertaken to add knowledge,to establish facts or principles,or to solve problem 17
- 18. Research….. • Research is a scientific inquiry aimed at learning new facts, testing ideas and solving problems Scientific methods: is the systematic/standard collection, analysis & interpretation of data to generate new knowledge & answer a certain question or solve a problem • Research is the basis for a development 18
- 19. What is Research? . . . A research, ▪ Should be undertaken with a framework of a set of philosophies - Philosophies are approaches/techniques in research process ▪ Have to use procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity and reliability; ▪ Designed to be unbiased, objective, empirical and logical 19
- 20. Health research • Health research is the application of research principles on health system • It is the generation of new knowledge using scientific method or to identify and deal with health problems ✓ It is a scientific inquiry leading to the discovery of fact or information which increases our understanding of human health, disease and health care delivery system 20
- 21. Research methodology • It is a way to systematically solve the research problem • It is a science of studying how research is done scientifically • Which methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not 21
- 22. • It is the integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values/preference applied to the management of individual patients. Sackett et al., 1996 • EBM is the judicious use of the best current evidence in making decisions about the care of the individual patient. Evidence-Based Medicine (EBM) 22
- 23. Assumptions of evidence-based practices • Not all evidence is equivalent • There is a hierarchy of study design • External evidence can inform but can never replace individual clinical expertise (Sackett et al.,1996) • Starting from the best external evidence and work from there. 23
- 25. Research Requirements 1.A research should be undertaken with a framework of a set of philosophies ▪ Philosophies means approaches e.g. qualitative, quantitative and the academic discipline in which you have been trained ▪ It request standard methods/techniques (theories, principles, approaches & strategies) on how to proceed to answer research problem 25
- 26. Requirements . . . 2.A research should be designed to be unbiased ✓Each step should be done in unbiased manner or without introducing your own vested interest ✓Bias is either system related or deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight something ✓Unbiased . . . . be objective 26
- 27. Research Requirements… 3.Accuracy of Measurement (Validity & Reliability) • Validity (Accuracy) – ability to detect the true value • Precision (Reliability) – the degree of closeness (consistence) between repeated measurement of the same value • Minimizes the effects of third factors/confounding factors Exposure outcome Confounder 27
- 28. Errors in measurement 1. Systematic error (bias) • Selection bias, Information bias • Lacks validity (true value) • It is possible to reduce (in design stage and analysis stage): • During design stage • Specification (restriction) study participants • Matching similar condition of case & controls • Randomization & Blinding 28
- 29. Errors in measurement… • During analysis stage • Stratification ( separate) analysis • Use multivariate analysis 2. Random error (chance) • Lacks reliability (no consistency) • can be minimized by increasing the size of the sample 29
- 30. Purpose of a research • The purpose of research is problem solving and acquiring new knowledge. • It also reduces the complexity of problems. • In short, research is used for the purposes of: • Describing phenomena • Explaining phenomena • Predicting phenomena • Controlling phenomena • Comparing phenomena 30
- 31. Con’t… Description - pictorial account of the phenomenon being studied. • It is the first step to do in scientific research. • It find answers to the questions (PPT) who, where and when. Example: Study on the prevalence of Covid-19 in Ethiopia. Explanation - exploring the causes of the occurrence of certain event. • It find answers to the questions“why”. 31
- 32. Con’t … Prediction-generalizing about what will happen in the future. Example: Predication on the consequences of Covid-19 in the social welfare and economic of the country. • Control - intervene and subsequently observe an expected result. • Comparison - explore whether two or more groups are similar or different on a certain behavior or vice versa Example: Is there gender difference in terms of Covid-19 infection in Ethiopia? 32
- 33. Types of Research • There are different ways of classifying research • It is really difficult to propose a single classification method that fits different disciplines and purpose • It should also be noted that there is no clear line that divide b/n one category and the others 33
- 34. Types of research… • Based on: • Goal: Basic & applied • Specific objectives: Descriptive & explanatory, • Approaches: Qualitative & quantitative • Designs: experimental & non-experimental • Type of data used: Primary & secondary • Fields of study: natural science, social science, educational, behavioral science, health science, etc 34
- 35. Basic vs Applied Research Basic / Fundamental /Pure research • Purpose: discovery of new knowledge and technology • Research done within laboratories Applied / Action Research • Central purpose to solve an immediate problem • To evaluate policies and programs • It is problem-oriented 35
- 36. BasicVs Applied . . . Basic Research Example ▪ How malaria disease affects human body? ▪ What are the main adverse effects reported for patients receiving initialARV treatment at district level? Applied Research Example ▪ What method is a proper to control and reduce the impacts of malaria disease? ▪ Does early identification of adverse effects improve treatment adherence amongARV treatment recipients at district level? 36
- 37. what type of a research is this? 37
- 38. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Quantitative Research • Uses numerical measurable data • Require large sample • Main approach: statistical analysis • Mostly uses structured approach (closed questionnaires) • It is seeks to answer questions about: how much? How many? How often?To what extent? Qualitative Research • Uses non-numerical data • Uses small samples • Main approach: In-depth descriptions of situations • Unstructured approach (open ended questionnaires • Seek to answers to the questions that begin with:Why? How? In what way? 38
- 39. Descriptive vs.Analytical: Descriptive research • Purpose: Describe the characteristics of units under study by time, place and person • Research methods: descriptive study designs • Used to generates hypothesis Analytical research • Purpose:Test hypothesis, answer cause-effect r/ship • Describe reason for the occurrence of events • Research methods: analytical study designs • Uses comparison groups 39
- 40. QualitativeVs Quantitative Qualitative • Deals with phenomena that are difficult or impossible to quantify • Example • Beliefs, values, morals, feelings • Aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behaviour & the reasons that govern such behaviour Quantitative • Deals with phenomena which could observe & measure • Such observations & measurements can be made objectively & repeated by other researchers 40
- 41. QualitativeVs Quantitative Qualitative • It attempts to increase our understanding of • Why things are the way they are in our social world? • Why people act the ways they do • Seek to answers to the questions that begin with:Why? How? In what way? Quantitative • It is seeks to answer questions about: how much? How many? How often?To what extent? • They do not adequately answer the “why” and “how” questions 41
- 42. QualitativeVs Quantitative Qualitative Examples • Why people behave the way they do? • How opinions and attitudes are formed? • How people are affected by the events that go on around them? • How and why cultures have developed in the way they have? Quantitative Examples • How many people are affected by the event? • How often a person do exercise in a week? 42
- 43. 43 what type of a research is this?Why?
- 44. ObservationalVs Experimental Observational • Investigator can only observe the occurrence of d/se in people who are already segregated into groups on the basis of exposure or outcome • Allocation of groups on the basis of exposure to a risk factor or outcome is not under the control of the investigator • More common • Relatively less quality data Experimental • Investigator manipulate or allocate exposure & observe the result of exposure • Not common • Provides high quality data 44
- 45. Which one is obsn and experimental study 1.Occurrence of cancer was identified betweenApril 1991 and July 2002 for 50,000 troops who served in the first GulfWar (ended April 1991) and 50,000 troops who served elsewhere during the same period. 2. Subjects were children enrolled in a health maintenance organization.At 2 months, each child was randomly given one of two types of a new vaccine against rotavirus infection. Parents were called by a nurse two weeks later and asked whether the children had experienced any of a list of side-effects. 45
- 46. Reading assignment • Research type based on: • Type of data used: Primary & secondary • Fields of study: natural science, social science, educational, behavioral science, health science, clinical research, etc 46
- 47. Rationale for health research • Limited resource need proper evidence based decision • To identify efficient options for priority problems • Inequities in health care • To explore reasons • The use of inappropriate care • To replace them with new ones • Huge expansion of technological advances • To assess options 47
- 48. Importance of health research • Improve quality of care • Improve the health of our patients • Enhance efficiency of system • To avoid unnecessary wastage of resources • To enhance capacity development • Professional (skill) advancement • Guide health policy / intervention • Identifying determinants of health • To design appropriate interventions 48
- 49. Who should be involved in research work? ▪Multidisciplinary ✓ Researchers from variety of disciplines/departments within disciplines e.g. physician, nurse and pharmacist to solve problems related to drug use ▪Trans-disciplinary ✓ Working together as a team throughout all phases/cross sector e.g. health and education sector on personal hygiene issues ▪Participatory ✓ Stakeholders: policy makers, managers, practitioners, community 49
- 50. Research Process ▪ The research process is similar to undertaking a journey ▪ For a research journey there are two important decisions to make ✓ What you want to find out about or what research questions (problems) you want to answers to ✓ How to go about finding their answers 50
- 51. Research Process . . . ▪ There are practical steps through which you must pass in your research journey in order to find answers to your research questions ▪ The path to finding answers to your research questions constitutes research methods ▪ At each step you are required to choose from a multiplicity of methods, procedures & models which will help you to best achieve your objectives ▪ This is where your knowledge base of research methodology plays a crucial role 51
- 52. Thank you 52