11.25.ppt

Nutrition during the life
cycle:
Pregnancy and Lactation
Ms/ Amina Metwaly

Nutrition during pregnancy
• Maternal diet and nutritional status have a
direct impact on the course of pregnancy
and its outcome.
• Malnutrition that occurs in the early
months of pregnancy affects development
and the capacity of the embryo to survive
whilst poor nutrition in the latter part of
pregnancy affects fetal growth.

Pregnancy physiology that
alters nutritional needs
1- Altered Metabolism:
• Increase the basal metabolic rate: by the
fourth month of gestation and rises to 15 -
20% above normal by term.
• Altered the metabolism of nutrients: fat
becomes the major source of maternal
fuel, making glucose available for the
fetus.

2- Gastrointestinal Changes:
• Slow gastrointestinal motility: an advantage
of slowed motility is that nutrient absorption
increases.
• Nausea and vomiting are common in the
first trimester and may be related to
hypoglycemia, decreased gastric motility,
relaxation of the cardiac sphincter, or
anxiety.

2- Gastrointestinal Changes:
• Increases in appetite and thirst are also
common.
• Heartburn and constipation: due to slow
motility or enlarging uterus..

3- Blood Volume Changes:
• Increase total body water throughout
pregnancy.
• Hemodilution or a physiologic anemia of
pregnancy: due to the increase in blood
volume.
• Minor edema: may be considered normal if
it is not accompanied by hypertension and
proteinuria.

4- Ideal Weight Gain:
• The average weight gain is about 25 to 30
lb (11.5 kg to 14.0 kg).
• Weight gain during pregnancy consists of
the weight of the fetus and associated fetal
tissues (e.g. placenta), plus the weight
increases in maternal tissue.

4- Ideal Weight Gain:
• Recommendations for weight gain are
divided into three categories based on the
woman’s pre-pregnancy weight. The
weight category is determined using body
mass index (BMI).
• The range for women carrying twins is 35
lb to 45 lb (16 - 20 kg).

Distribution of weight gain in pregnancy
Body Part Weight (kg)
Full term baby 3.42
Placenta 0.62 Fetal
Amniotic and body fluids 0.80 Tissue
Uterus 0.89
Breasts 0.40
Blood volume 1.78 Maternal
Interstitial body fluids 1.20 Tissue
Maternal storage fat 0.66 – 3.18
Total 10.71 – 12.5

Recommended total weight gain ranges for
pregnant women*
Pre-pregnancy
Weight-for-Height
Recommended Total
Gain
Category (lb) (kg)
Low (BMI < 19.8) 28 - 40 12.5 - 18.0
Normal (BMI 19.8 - 26.0) 25 - 35 11.5 - 16.0
High (BMI >26 - 29) 15 - 25 7.0 - 11.5
Obese (BMI > 29)  15  7

Nutrient requirements during
pregnancy
• Actual requirements during pregnancy are
influenced by previous nutritional status and
health history, including: chronic illnesses,
multiple pregnancies and closely spaced
pregnancies.
• The requirement for one nutrient may be
altered by the intake of another. E.g., women
who do not meet their calorie requirements
need higher amounts of protein.

Nutrient requirements during
pregnancy
• Nutrient needs are not constant throughout the
course of pregnancy - nutrient needs change
little during the first trimester and are at their
highest during the last trimester.
• The Food Guide Pyramid can be used to teach
women how to make food choices that will
provide the balanced intake they need.

Calories
• The increased need for calories is 300
extra calories per day, which is @ 15% of
a woman’s normal calorie requirement.
• The increased need for calories does not
occur until the beginning of the second
trimester.

Calories
Calorie needs increase because of:
• The increase in basal metabolic rate.
• Weight gain increases the amount of
calories burned during activity.
• Uses additional calories to store energy
in preparation for lactation after delivery.

Protein
The RDA for protein increases by 10 g for
pregnant women ages 25 and older.
Protein needs increase to support :
• Fetal growth and development.
• The formation of the placenta and amniotic
fluid.
• The growth of maternal tissues and the
expanded blood volume.

Protein
Women who fail to consume adequate
protein may be at increased risk for:
• Development of toxemia.
• Anemia.
• Poor uterine muscle tone.
• Abortion.
• Decreased resistance to infection.
• Shorter, lighter infants with low Apgar
scores.

Folic acid
• The Institute of Medicine in U.S.A.
recommends that synthetic folic acid
intake increase to 600 g daily once
pregnancy is confirmed.

Folic acid
Importance of folic acid for pregnancy:
• Women who consume adequate amounts
of folic acid before conception and
throughout the first month of pregnancy
reduce their risk of having a baby with a
neural tube defect (e.g., spina bifida,
anencephaly).

Folic acid
Folic acid sources:
• Natural form of folic acid (folate): orange
juice, other citrus fruits and juices, green
leafy vegetables, dried peas and beans,
broccoli, and whole-grain products.
• Synthetic folic acid is found in
multivitamins, fortified breakfast cereals
and enriched grain products.

Other B vitamins
• The increased requirement for vitamin B6
is proportional to the increase in protein
because it is involved in protein
metabolism.
• Because vitamin B12 is necessary for the
metabolism of folate, a slight increase in
intake is recommended.

Calcium
• The AI for calcium for pregnant women 19
years of age and older is 1000 mg.
• The reason why the AI is not higher for
pregnant women compared with non
pregnant women is that calcium
absorption more than doubles early in
pregnancy.

Iron
• A daily supplement of 30 mg of ferrous
iron is recommended for all women during
the second and third trimesters.
• It is preferably taken between meals or at
bedtime on an empty stomach to
maximize absorption.

Iron
Importance for iron during pregnancy:
• To support the increase in maternal blood
volume.
• To provide iron for fetal liver storage,
which will sustain the infant for the first 4 -
6 months of life.

The advices should be given to a
pregnant women concerning her
nutrition
1- Eat in moderation.
2- Aim for balance.
3- Eat three meals daily plus two or three
snacks.
4- Drink adequate fluids.

The advices should be given to a
pregnant women concerning her
nutrition
5- Do not restrict salt intake.
6- Moderate Caffeine consumption does
not pose a problem.
7- If you use artificial sweeteners, do so
judiciously.
8- Be aware of food borne risks during
pregnancy.

Daily food guide for pregnancy and breastfeeding
Pregnancy
Food Group Adult Woman Adolescent Breastfeeding
Woman
Milk, Yogurt,
Cheese
3 - 4 servings 4 - 5 serving 4 - 5 servings
Meat and Meat
substitutes
5 - 6 oz 6 - 7 oz 6 - 7 oz
Fruits 2 - 4 servings 2 - 4 servings 2 - 4 servings
Vitamin C-rich 1 - 2 servings 1 - 2 servings 2 servings
Vegetables 3 - 5 servings 3 - 5 servings 3 - 5 servings
Vitamin A-rich 1 serving 1 serving 1 serving
Breads, Cereals,
Rice, Pasta
6 -11 servings 6 - 11 servings 6 - 11 servings
Fats, Oils,
Sweets
To meet caloric
needs
To meet caloric
needs
To meet caloric
needs

Indications for supplements
use during pregnancy
• Heavy smokers.
• Drug abusers.
• Those carrying twins.
• Women who are unlikely to consume an
adequate diet despite nutritional advice or
nutrition counseling.

• Women who do not receive adequate
exposure to sunlight.
• Women who do not receive adequate
exposure to sunlight.
• Women who do not consume adequate
calcium.

• Complete vegans need daily supplements
of vitamin B12.
• Women who take more than 30 mg of iron
to treat iron deficiency anemia should take
supplements of zinc and copper.

Nutritional intervention for
problems during pregnancy
1- Nausea and Vomiting
Women should be advised to:
• Eating small, frequent meals every 2 to 3
hours.
• Eat carbohydrate foods such as: dry
crackers, Melba toast, dry cereal, or hard
candy before getting out of bed in the
morning.

1- Nausea and Vomiting
Women should be advised to:
• Avoid drinking liquids with meals.
• Avoid coffee, tea and spicy foods.
• Limit high-fat foods, because they delay
gastric emptying time.
• Eliminate individual intolerances.

2.Constipation, may be caused by:
• Relaxation of gastrointestinal muscle tone
and motility
• Pressure of the fetus on the intestines.
• Decrease in physical activity
• Inadequate intake of fluid and fiber.
• Side effect of the consumption of iron
supplements.

2. Constipation
Encourage the client to:
• Increase fiber intake.
• Drink at least eight 8-ounce glasses of
liquid daily.
• Try hot water with lemon or prune juice
upon waking to help stimulate peristalsis
• Participate in regular exercise.

3- Heartburn:
Encourage client to:
• Eat small, frequent meals and eliminate
liquids immediately before and after meals to
avoid gastric distention.
• Avoid coffee, high-fat foods and spices.
• Eliminate individual intolerances.
• Avoid lying down or bending over after
eating.

4- Inadequate Weight Gain:
• Inadequate weight gain during pregnancy
increases the risk of giving birth to a low-
birth-weight (LBW) infant (i.e., a baby
weighing less than 2500 g).

4- Inadequate Weight Gain:
• The recommended weight gain for normal
weight women is @ 0.44 kg/week,
• Underweight women more than 0.44
kg/week whilst overweight women about
0.29 kg/week and women pregnant with
twins at least 0.44 kg/week.

4- Inadequate Weight Gain, may occur
secondary to:
• Poor appetite related to nausea, vomiting,
heartburn or smoking.
• From an inadequate intake related to lack
of knowledge or fear of gaining weight.

4- Inadequate Weight Gain
• Counsel the client on the recommended rate
and quantity of weight gain associated with
optimal maternal and infant health and
successful breast-feeding.
• Explain how the weight gain is distributed
among the fetus, placenta and maternal
tissues.

• Encourage the client to ask questions and
verbalize feelings.
• Advise the client that extra weight gained
during pregnancy is quickly lost during
lactation or through dieting after pregnancy.

• Advise the client that if her diet is inadequate
in calories, it probably is also inadequate in
other nutrients.
• Advise the client that although the fetus can
use maternal nutrient stores if the mother’s
diet is inadequate.

• Advise the client that an inadequate intake
can adversely affect maternal health (e.g.,
poor iron intake leading to anemia) and infant
health (e.g., lbw, anemia, other postnatal
complications).

5- Excessive Weight Gain, may be related
to:
• Overeating.
• Stress.
• Decrease in physical activity.

5- Excessive Weight Gain:
• Counsel the client on the recommended rate
and quantity of weight gain associated with
optimal maternal and infant health and
successful breast-feeding.
• Explain that the weight gain is distributed
among the fetus, placenta and maternal
tissues.

• Set mutually agreeable weight gain goals.
• Substitute skim or low-fat milk for whole milk.
• Bake, broil or steam foods instead of frying.

• Eliminate empty calories: carbonated
beverages, candy, rich desserts and
traditional snack foods.
• Use fats and oils sparingly.

Nutritional interventions for medical
complications during pregnancy
Diabetes mellitus
• It characterized by abnormal glucose
tolerance, requires dietary management
regardless of whether it was present
before conception (established diabetes)
or developed during gestation (gestational
diabetes) as a result of the metabolic
changes of pregnancy.

Diabetes increases the risk of:
• Infection, especially urinary tract infection
• Preeclampsia & Eclampsia
• Spontaneous abortion
• Extrauterine conception
• Neonatal death
• Congenital abnormalities

Diabetes
• Gestational diabetes does not usually
produce maternal complications or birth
defects, but it can make delivery difficult,
because babies born to gestational
diabetics are usually large, which may
increase the risk of postpartum
hemorrhage.

Diabetes Management:
• Monitor the progress and course of
pregnancy of established diabetics.
• Screen all women for gestational diabetes
between 24 - 28 weeks of pregnancy.
• Check for ketonuria regularly.
• Diabetic management during pregnancy
includes nutrition therapy and, possible,
multiple daily doses of insulin.

Diabetes
Advise the client that:
• Pregnant diabetics require the same
nutrients and weight gain as non diabetic
pregnant women.
• She is not on a “diet” weight loss and
fasting should never be undertaken during
pregnancy.
• Calorie requirements are based on pre-
pregnancy weight.

Diabetes
Suggested guidelines are as follows:
• 30 cal/kg for women of normal weight
before conception.
• 24 cal/kg for women weighing more than
120% of desirable weight before
conception
• 36-40 cal/kg for women weighing less than
90% of desirable weight before
conception.

2- Anemia
• Non pregnant women (non smokers) who
have a hemoglobin below 12 g/dL are
considered anemic.
• Pregnant women (non smoker) with a
hemoglobin below 11 g/dL in the first and
third trimesters or below 10.5 g/dL in the
second trimester are considered anemic.

2- Anemia Management:
• A therapeutic dose of 60 mg to 120
mg/day of elemental iron is prescribed.
• In addition, a low-dose vitamin/mineral
supplement is prescribed to ensure
adequate amounts of copper and zinc.

2- ANEMIA
• The RDA of 400 mcg of folate during
pregnancy can be met by a well-chosen
diet. Supplements of folate are
recommended for pregnant women who
are not meeting this level of intake.

Pregnancy-induced hypertension:
• Pregnancy–induced hypertension (PIH or
toxemia) is a hypertensive syndrome that
occurs in approximately 6 - 7% of all
pregnancies. Severe cases are
associated with increased risks of
maternal, fetal and neonatal death.
• Although the exact cause is unknown.

Risk factors for pregnancy-induced
hypertension:
• Poorly nourished.
• Primigravida.
• Economically deprived.
• Very young or very old.
• Obese.
• Underweight.

Nutritional interventions for
medical complications during
pregnancy
Pregnancy-induced hypertension:
• Advise clients at risk for preeclampsia to
consume a liberal intake of calories, protein
and calcium and to salt their food to taste.

Risk factors for poor nutritional status
during pregnancy
 Prepartum weight < 85% or > 120% of ideal weight
 Use of a therapeutic diet for a chronic disease
 Use of alcohol, tobacco, or drugs
 Food faddism, unbalanced diet, pica
 Teens and women older than 40 years of age
 Poor obstetric history (LBW, stillbirth, abortion, fetal
anomalies), high parity, multipara
 Repetitive pregnancies at short intervals
 Low socioeconomic status
 Chronic preexisting medical problems, such as hypertension,
diabetes, heart disease, pulmonary disease, renal disease,
maternal PKU
 Untimely prenatal care

Common myths about nutrition during pregnancy
You can eat anything you want because you’re eating for two.
You can eat double portions because you’re eating for two.
You should eat whatever you’re craving; your body must need it.
If you take prenatal vitamins, you don’t have to worry about what you
eat.
You must take vitamins to have a healthy baby.
The baby gets what he or she needs first and the rest goes to the mother.
If you breast-feed, you can lose all the weight you gain in pregnancy.
Obese women don’t need to gain weight during pregnancy.
It doesn’t matter what you eat, because the baby will take what it needs
from your body.
As long as you take vitamins, it’s all right to skip meals.
When you are pregnant, you will crave pickles and ice cream.

Common myths about nutrition during pregnancy
Gaining lots of weight makes a healthy baby.
You lose a tooth with every baby if you don’t drink milk.
Beets build red blood.
Food cravings during pregnancy determine your child’s likes and
dislikes later in life.
Give in to your cravings, or you will mark the baby.
Do not eat fish and milk at the same meal.
Do not eat egg yolks, because they will rot the uterus.
If you crave sweets, the baby will be a girl; if you crave pickles, the
baby will be a body.

Lactation
• Because of the unquestionable benefits to
both mother and infant, exclusive breast-
feeding for the first 4 - 6 months of age is
recommended for most full-term infants.
• Breast-feeding with weaning to foods is
recommended for at least the first 12
months of age.

Benefits of breast feeding
For the mother:
• Promotes optimal maternal-infant bonding.
• Can mobilize fat stores to help women lose
weight.
• Early breast-feeding stimulates uterine
contractions to help control blood loss and
regain pre pregnant size.
• Breast milk is readily available and requires
no mixing or dilution.

For the mother:
• Is less expensive than purchasing bottles,
nipples, sterilizing equipment and formula.
• May decrease the risk of thromboembolism,
especially after operative deliveries.
• Childbirth and breast-feeding may be
protective against breast cancer.

For the infant:
• “Breast is best” – breast milk is unique in
its types and concentrations of
macronutrients, micronutrients, enzymes,
hormones, growth factors,
inducers/modulators of the immune
system and anti-inflammatory agents.

For the infant:
• The infant can easily tolerate and digest
and it changes to match the needs of a
growing infant.
• Is a “natural” food.
• Sterile, is at the proper temperature and is
readily available.

For the infant:
• Breast-feeding promotes better tooth and
jaw development than bottle-feeding
because the infant has to suck harder.
• Breast-feeding avoids nursing-bottle caries.
• Breast-feeding is protective against food
allergies.

For the infant:
• Overfeeding is not likely with breast-
feeding.
• Breast-feeding is associated with
decreased frequency of certain chronic
diseases later in life, such as non-insulin-
dependent diabetes mellitus & lymphoma.

Variables affecting breast milk
composition
• Stage of lactation.
• The mother’s diet.
• The duration of the feeding.

composition
Stage of lactation:
• Colostrum, which is secreted during the first
few post-partum days, is a thick, yellowish
fluid that is higher in protein, minerals and
sodium than mature milk, but lower in
sugar, fat and calories.
• Colostrum is rich in antibodies and anti-
infective factors.

composition
Stage of lactation:
• Colostrum begins to change to transitional
milk about 3 to 6 days after delivery as the
protein content decreases and the
carbohydrate and fat contents increase.
• Major changes in the milk take place by the
tenth day and mature milk is stable by the
end of the first month.

composition
The mother’s diet:
• The vitamin content of breast milk declines
as a result of inadequate maternal intake,
especially B6, B12, A and D.

composition
The duration of the feeding:
• The milk secreted as each feeding begins
is significantly lower in fat than the milk
secreted at the end of each feeding.

Nutritional needs for lactation
Calories:
• The average woman uses approximately
640 cal/day for the first 6 months and 510
cal/day during the second 6 months to
produce a normal amount of milk.

Protein
• Women need an additional 20 g of
protein while breast-feeding. Extra 2 cups
of milk provide 16 g of protein.

Fluid
• It is suggested that nursing mothers drink
2 to 3 liters of fluid daily, preferably in
the form of water, milk and fruit juices.

Vitamins and minerals:
• Foods, rather than supplements, are the
preferred source of these nutrients,
• women are encouraged to choose a varied
diet that includes enriched and fortified
grains and cereals, fresh fruits and
vegetables and lean meats and dairy
products.

Vitamins and minerals:
• Multivitamin and mineral supplements are not
recommended for routine use. However,
specific supplements may be indicated when
maternal intake is inadequate.

Foods to avoid:
• Caffeine: consumption of one to two cups of
coffee daily does not pose any problems.
Intakes higher than this may cause the infant
to become irritable and restless.
• It usually is not necessary to eliminate any
other foods while breast-feeding unless the
infant shows intolerance.

Factors that impair lactation
Impaired letdown, related to
 Embarrassment or stress
 Fatigue
 Negative attitude, lack of desire, lack of family support
 Excessive intake of caffeine or alcohol
 Smoking
 Drugs
Failure to establish lactation, related to
 Delayed or infrequent feedings
 Weak infant sucking because of anesthesia during labor and delivery
 Nipple discomfort or engorgement
 Lack of support, especially from baby’s father
Decreased demand, related to
 Supplemental bottles of formula or water
 Introduction of solid food
 The infant’s lack of interest

Lactation in the diabetic mother
• Breast-feeding complicates blood glucose
control in women with type 1 diabetes by
inducing hypoglycemia and lowering insulin
requirements.
• 35 cal/kg is usually recommended to
achieve optimal glucose and lipid levels
and promote moderate weight loss (4.5
pounds/month).

Other points to consider include:
• Careful and frequent monitoring of blood
glucose level is essential.
• Frequent snacks are recommended.
• Unless breast-feeding occurs within 1 to 2
hours after eating, women should eat a
light snack before or during breast-feeding.

• Breast care takes on greater importance.
• Diabetic women face a higher risk of mastitis.
Measures to prevent mastitis include
alternating breasts when feeding, cleaning
breasts with water and letting them air dry,
making sure the baby’s mouth is positioned
correctly over the nipple, drinking adequate
fluids.

• Support groups may be especially helpful.
• Encourage participation in appropriate
programs that provide support and education.

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