21 2 ztransform
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- The z-transform is a mathematical tool that converts discrete-time sequences into complex functions, analogous to how the Laplace transform handles continuous-time signals. - Key properties and sequences that are transformed include the unit impulse δn, unit step un, and geometric sequences an. - The z-transform is computed by taking the z-transform definition, which is an infinite summation, and obtaining closed-form expressions using properties like linearity and geometric series sums. - Common transforms include U(z) for the unit step, 1/1-az^-1 for geometric sequences an, and expressions involving z, sinh/cosh, and sin/cos for exponential and trigonometric sequences.
21 2 ztransform
- 1. Basics of z-Transform Theory 21.2 Introduction In this Section, which is absolutely fundamental, we define what is meant by the z-transform of a sequence. We then obtain the z-transform of some important sequences and discuss useful properties of the transform. Most of the results obtained are tabulated at the end of the Section. The z-transform is the major mathematical tool for analysis in such areas as digital control and digital signal processing. 9 8 6 7 Prerequisites Before starting this Section you should . . . • understand sigma (Σ) notation for summations • be familiar with geometric series and the binomial theorem • have studied basic complex number theory including complex exponentials 5 4 2 3 Learning Outcomes On completion you should be able to . . . • define the z-transform of a sequence • obtain the z-transform of simple sequences from the definition or from basic properties of the z-transform 12 HELM (2005): Workbook 21: z-Transforms
- 2. 1. The z-transform If you have studied the Laplace transform either in a Mathematics course for Engineers and Scientists or have applied it in, for example, an analog control course you may recall that 1. the Laplace transform definition involves an integral 2. applying the Laplace transform to certain ordinary differential equations turns them into simpler (algebraic) equations 3. use of the Laplace transform gives rise to the basic concept of the transfer function of a continuous (or analog) system. The z-transform plays a similar role for discrete systems, i.e. ones where sequences are involved, to that played by the Laplace transform for systems where the basic variable t is continuous. Specifically: 1. the z-transform definition involves a summation 2. the z-transform converts certain difference equations to algebraic equations 3. use of the z-transform gives rise to the concept of the transfer function of discrete (or digital) systems. Key Point 1 Definition: For a sequence {yn} the z-transform denoted by Y (z) is given by the infinite series Y (z) = y0 + y1z−1 + y2z−2 + . . . = ∞ n=0 ynz−n (1) Notes: 1. The z-transform only involves the terms yn, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . of the sequence. Terms y−1, y−2, . . . whether zero or non-zero, are not involved. 2. The infinite series in (1) must converge for Y (z) to be defined as a precise function of z. We shall discuss this point further with specific examples shortly. 3. The precise significance of the quantity (strictly the ‘variable’) z need not concern us except to note that it is complex and, unlike n, is continuous. Key Point 2 We use the notation Z{yn} = Y (z) to mean that the z-transform of the sequence {yn} is Y (z). HELM (2005): Section 21.2: Basics of z-Transform Theory 13
- 3. Less strictly one might write Zyn = Y (z). Some texts use the notation yn ↔ Y (z) to denote that (the sequence) yn and (the function) Y (z) form a z-transform pair. We shall also call {yn} the inverse z-transform of Y (z) and write symbolically {yn} = Z−1 Y (z). 2. Commonly used z-transforms Unit impulse sequence (delta sequence) This is a simple but important sequence denoted by δn and defined as δn = 1 n = 0 0 n = ±1, ±2, . . . The significance of the term ‘unit impulse’ is obvious from this definition. By the definition (1) of the z-transform Z{δn} = 1 + 0z−1 + 0z−2 + . . . = 1 If the single non-zero value is other than at n = 0 the calculation of the z-transform is equally simple. For example, δn−3 = 1 n = 3 0 otherwise From (1) we obtain Z{δn−3} = 0 + 0z−1 + 0z−2 + z−3 + 0z−4 + . . . = z−3 TaskTask Write down the definition of δn−m where m is any positive integer and obtain its z-transform. Your solution Answer δn−m = 1 n = m 0 otherwise Z{δn−m} = z−m 14 HELM (2005): Workbook 21: z-Transforms
- 4. Key Point 3 Z{δn−m} = z−m m = 0, 1, 2, . . . Unit step sequence As we saw earlier in this Workbook the unit step sequence is un = 1 n = 0, 1, 2, . . . 0 n = −1, −2, −3, . . . Then, by the definition (1) Z{un} = 1 + 1z−1 + 1z−2 + . . . The infinite series here is a geometric series (with a constant ratio z−1 between successive terms). Hence the sum of the first N terms is SN = 1 + z−1 + . . . + z−(N−1) = 1 − z−N 1 − z−1 As N → ∞ SN → 1 1 − z−1 provided |z−1 | 1 Hence, in what is called the closed form of this z-transform we have the result given in the following Key Point: Key Point 4 Z{un} = 1 1 − z−1 = z z − 1 ≡ U(z) say, |z−1 | 1 The restriction that this result is only valid if |z−1 | 1 or, equivalently |z| 1 means that the position of the complex quantity z must lie outside the circle centre origin and of unit radius in an Argand diagram. This restriction is not too significant in elementary applications of the z-transform. HELM (2005): Section 21.2: Basics of z-Transform Theory 15
- 5. The geometric sequence {{{aaannn }}} TaskTask For any arbitrary constant a obtain the z-transform of the causal sequence fn = 0 n = −1, −2, −3, . . . an n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . Your solution Answer We have, by the definition in Key Point 1, F(z) = Z{fn} = 1 + az−1 + a2 z−2 + . . . which is a geometric series with common ratio az−1 . Hence, provided |az−1 | 1, the closed form of the z-transform is F(z) = 1 1 − az−1 = z z − a . The z-transform of this sequence {an }, which is itself a geometric sequence is summarized in Key Point 5. Key Point 5 Z{an } = 1 1 − az−1 = z z − a |z| |a|. Notice that if a = 1 we recover the result for the z-transform of the unit step sequence. 16 HELM (2005): Workbook 21: z-Transforms
- 6. TaskTask Use Key Point 5 to write down the z-transform of the following causal sequences (a) 2n (b) (−1)n , the unit alternating sequence (c) e−n (d) e−αn where α is a constant. Your solution Answer (a) Using a = 2 Z{2n } = 1 1 − 2z−1 = z z − 2 |z| 2 (b) Using a = −1 Z{(−1)n } = 1 1 + z−1 = z z + 1 |z| 1 (c) Using a = e−1 Z{e−n } = z z − e−1 |z| e−1 (d) Using a = e−α Z{e−αn } = z z − e−α |z| e−α The basic z-transforms obtained have all been straightforwardly found from the definition in Key Point 1. To obtain further useful results we need a knowledge of some of the properties of z-transforms. HELM (2005): Section 21.2: Basics of z-Transform Theory 17
- 7. 3. Linearity property and applications Linearity property This simple property states that if {vn} and {wn} have z-transforms V (z) and W(z) respectively then Z{avn + bwn} = aV (z) + bW(z) for any constants a and b. (In particular if a = b = 1 this property tells us that adding sequences corresponds to adding their z-transforms). The proof of the linearity property is straightforward using obvious properties of the summation operation. By the z-transform definition: Z{avn + bwn} = ∞ n=0 (avn + bwn)z−n = ∞ n=0 (avnz−n + bwnz−n ) = a ∞ n=0 vnz−n + b ∞ n=0 wnz−n = aV (z) + bV (z) We can now use the linearity property and the exponential sequence {e−αn } to obtain the z-transforms of hyperbolic and of trigonometric sequences relatively easily. For example, sinh n = en − e−n 2 Hence, by the linearity property, Z{sinh n} = 1 2 Z{en } − 1 2 Z{e−n } = 1 2 z z − e − z z − e−1 = z 2 z − e−1 − (z − e) z2 − (e + e−1)z + 1 = z 2 e − e−1 z2 − (2 cosh 1)z + 1 = z sinh 1 z2 − 2z cosh 1 + 1 Using αn instead of n in this calculation, where α is a constant, we obtain Z{sinh αn} = z sinh α z2 − 2z cosh α + 1 18 HELM (2005): Workbook 21: z-Transforms
- 8. TaskTask Using cosh αn ≡ eαn + e−αn 2 obtain the z-transform of the sequence {cosh αn} = {1, cosh α, cosh 2α, . . .} Your solution Answer We have, by linearity, Z{cosh αn} = 1 2 Z{eαn } + 1 2 Z{e−αn } = z 2 1 z − eα + 1 z − e−α = z 2 2z − (eα + e−α ) z2 − 2z cosh α + 1 = z2 − z cosh α z2 − 2z cosh α + 1 Trigonometric sequences If we use the result Z{an } = z z − a |z| |a| with, respectively, a = eiω and a = e−iω where ω is a constant and i denotes √ −1 we obtain Z{eiωn } = z z − e+iω Z{e−iωn } = z z − e−iω Hence, recalling from complex number theory that cos x = eix + e−ix 2 we can state, using the linearity property, that HELM (2005): Section 21.2: Basics of z-Transform Theory 19
- 9. Z{cos ωn} = 1 2 Z{eiωn } + 1 2 Z{e−iωn } = z 2 1 z − eiω + 1 z − e−iω = z 2 2z − (eiω + e−iω ) z2 − (eiω + e−iω)z + 1 = z2 − z cos ω z2 − 2z cos ω + 1 (Note the similarity of the algebra here to that arising in the corresponding hyperbolic case. Note also the similarity of the results for Z{cosh αn} and Z{cos ωn}.) TaskTask By a similar procedure to that used above for Z{cos ωn} obtain Z{sin ωn}. Your solution 20 HELM (2005): Workbook 21: z-Transforms
- 10. Answer We have Z{sin ωn} = 1 2i Z{eiωn } − 1 2i Z{e−iωn } (Don’t miss the i factor here!) ∴ Z{sin ωn} = z 2i 1 z − eiω − 1 z − e−iω = z 2i −e−iω + eiω z2 − 2z cos ω + 1 = z sin ω z2 − 2z cos ω + 1 Key Point 6 Z{cos ωn} = z2 − z cos ω z2 − 2z cos ω + 1 Z{sin ωn} = z sin ω z2 − 2z cos ω + 1 Notice the same denominator in the two results in Key Point 6. Key Point 7 Z{cosh αn} = z2 − z cosh α z2 − 2z cosh α + 1 Z{sinh αn} = z sinh α z2 − 2z cosh α + 1 Again notice the denominators in Key Point 7. Compare these results with those for the two trigono- metric sequences in Key Point 6. HELM (2005): Section 21.2: Basics of z-Transform Theory 21
- 11. TaskTask Use Key Points 6 and 7 to write down the z-transforms of (a) sin n 2 (b) {cos 3n} (c) {sinh 2n} (d) {cosh n} Your solution Answer (a) Z sin n 2 = z sin 1 2 z2 − 2z cos 1 2 + 1 (b) Z{cos 3n} = z2 − z cos 3 z2 − 2z cos 3 + 1 (c) Z{sinh 2n} = z sinh 2 z2 − 2z cosh 2 + 1 (d) Z{cosh n} = z2 − z cosh 1 z2 − 2z cosh 1 + 1 22 HELM (2005): Workbook 21: z-Transforms
- 12. TaskTask Use the results for Z{cos ωn} and Z{sin ωn} in Key Point 6 to obtain the z- transforms of (a) {cos(nπ)} (b) sin nπ 2 (c) cos nπ 2 Write out the first few terms of each sequence. Your solution Answer (a) With ω = π Z{cos nπ} = z2 − z cos π z2 − 2z cos π + 1 = z2 + z z2 + 2z + 1 = z z + 1 {cos nπ} = {1, −1, 1, −1, . . .} = {(−1)n } We have re-derived the z-transform of the unit alternating sequence. (See Task on page 17). (b) With ω = π 2 Z sin nπ 2 = z sin π 2 z2 − 2z cos π 2 + 1 = z z2 + 1 where sin nπ 2 = {0, 1, 0, −1, 0, . . .} (c) With ω = π 2 Z cos nπ 2 = z2 − cos π 2 z2 + 1 = z2 z2 + 1 where cos nπ 2 = {1, 0, −1, 0, 1, . . .} (These three results can also be readily obtained from the definition of the z-transform. Try!) HELM (2005): Section 21.2: Basics of z-Transform Theory 23
- 13. 4. Further zzz-transform properties We showed earlier that the results Z{vn + wn} = V (z) + W(z) and similarly Z{vn − wn} = V (z) − W(z) follow from the linearity property. You should be clear that there is no comparable result for the product of two sequences. Z{vnwn} is not equal to V (z)W(z) For two specific products of sequences however we can derive useful results. Multiplication of a sequence by aaannn Suppose fn is an arbitrary sequence with z-transform F(z). Consider the sequence {vn} where vn = an fn i.e. {v0, v1, v2, . . .} = {f0, af1, a2 f2, . . .} By the z-transform definition Z{vn} = v0 + v1z−1 + v2z−2 + . . . = f0 + a f1z−1 + a2 f2z−2 + . . . = ∞ n=0 an fnz−n = ∞ n=0 fn z a −n But F(z) = ∞ n=0 fnz−n Thus we have shown that Z{an fn} = F z a Key Point 8 Z{an fn} = F z a That is, multiplying a sequence {fn} by the sequence {an } does not change the form of the z- transform F(z). We merely replace z by z a in that transform. 24 HELM (2005): Workbook 21: z-Transforms
- 14. For example, using Key Point 6 we have Z{cos n} = z2 − z cos 1 z2 − 2z cos 1 + 1 So, replacing z by z 1 2 = 2z, Z 1 2 n cos n = (2z)2 − (2z) cos 1 (2z)2 − 4z cos 1 + 1 TaskTask Using Key Point 8, write down the z-transform of the sequence {vn} where vn = e−2n sin 3n Your solution Answer We have, Z{sin 3n} = z sin 3 z2 − 2z cos 3 + 1 so with a = e−2 we replace z by z e+2 to obtain Z{vn} = Z{e−2n sin 3n} = ze2 sin 3 (ze2)2 − 2ze2 cos 3 + 1 = ze−2 sin 3 z2 − 2ze−2 cos 3 + e−4 HELM (2005): Section 21.2: Basics of z-Transform Theory 25
- 15. TaskTask Using the property just discussed write down the z-transform of the sequence {wn} where wn = e−αn cos ωn Your solution Answer We have, Z{cos ωn} = z2 − z cos ω z2 − 2z cos ω + 1 So replacing z by zeα we obtain Z{wn} = Z{e−αn cos ωn} = (zeα )2 − zeα cos ω (zeα)2 − 2zeα cos ω + 1 = z2 − ze−α cos ω z2 − 2ze−α cos ω + e−2α Key Point 9 Z{e−αn cos ωn} = z2 − ze−α cos ω z2 − 2ze−α cos ω + e−2α Z{e−αn sin ωn} = ze−α sin ω z2 − 2ze−α cos ω + e−2α Note the same denominator in each case. 26 HELM (2005): Workbook 21: z-Transforms
- 16. Multiplication of a sequence by nnn An important sequence whose z-transform we have not yet obtained is the unit ramp sequence {rn}: rn = 0 n = −1, −2, −3, . . . n n = 0, 1, 2, . . . 0 1 2 n 1 3 2 3 rn Figure 5 Figure 5 clearly suggests the nomenclature ‘ramp’. We shall attempt to use the z-transform of {rn} from the definition: Z{rn} = 0 + 1z−1 + 2z−2 + 3z−3 + . . . This is not a geometric series but we can write z−1 + 2z−2 + 3z−3 = z−1 (1 + 2z−1 + 3z−2 + . . .) = z−1 (1 − z−1 )−2 |z−1 | 1 where we have used the binomial theorem ( 16.3) . Hence Z{rn} = Z{n} = 1 z 1 − 1 z 2 = z (z − 1)2 |z| 1 Key Point 10 The z-transform of the unit ramp sequence is Z{rn} = z (z − 1)2 = R(z) (say) Recall now that the unit step sequence has z-transform Z{un} = z (z − 1) = U(z) (say) which is the subject of the next Task. HELM (2005): Section 21.2: Basics of z-Transform Theory 27
- 17. TaskTask Obtain the derivative of U(z)= z (z−1) with respect to z. Your solution Answer We have, using the quotient rule of differentiation: dU dz = d dz z z − 1 = (z − 1)1 − (z)(1) (z − 1)2 = −1 (z − 1)2 We also know that R(z) = z (z − 1)2 = (−z) − 1 (z − 1)2 = −z dU dz (3) Also, if we compare the sequences un = {0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . .} ↑ rn = {0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} ↑ we see that rn = n un, (4) so from (3) and (4) we conclude that Z{n un} = −z dU dz Now let us consider the problem more generally. Let fn be an arbitrary sequence with z-transform F(z): F(z) = f0 + f1z−1 + f2z−2 + f3z−3 + . . . = ∞ n=0 fnz−n 28 HELM (2005): Workbook 21: z-Transforms
- 18. We differentiate both sides with respect to the variable z, doing this term-by-term on the right-hand side. Thus dF dz = −f1z−2 − 2f2z−3 − 3f3z−4 − . . . = ∞ n=1 (−n)fnz−n−1 = −z−1 (f1z−1 + 2f2z−2 + 3f3z−3 + . . .) = −z−1 ∞ n=1 n fnz−n But the bracketed term is the z-transform of the sequence {n fn} = {0, f1, 2f2, 3f3, . . .} Thus if F(z) = Z{fn} we have shown that dF dz = −z−1 Z{n fn} or Z{n fn} = −z dF dz We have already (equations (3) and (4) above) demonstrated this result for the case fn = un. Key Point 11 If Z{fn} = F(z) then Z{n fn} = −z dF dz TaskTask By differentiating the z-transform R(z) of the unit ramp sequence obtain the z- transform of the causal sequence {n2 }. Your solution HELM (2005): Section 21.2: Basics of z-Transform Theory 29
- 19. Answer We have Z{n} = z (z − 1)2 so Z{n2 } = Z{n.n} = −z d dz z (z − 1)2 By the quotient rule d dz z (z − 1)2 = (z − 1)2 − (z)(2)(z − 1) (z − 1)4 = z − 1 − 2z (z − 1)3 = −1 − z (z − 1)3 Multiplying by −z we obtain Z{n2 } = z + z2 (z − 1)3 = z(1 + z) (z − 1)3 Clearly this process can be continued to obtain the transforms of {n3 }, {n4 }, . . . etc. 5. Shifting properties of the z-transform In this subsection we consider perhaps the most important properties of the z-transform. These properties relate the z-transform Y (z) of a sequence {yn} to the z-transforms of (i) right shifted or delayed sequences {yn−1}{yn−2} etc. (ii) left shifted or advanced sequences {yn+1}, {yn+2} etc. The results obtained, formally called shift theorems, are vital in enabling us to solve certain types of difference equation and are also invaluable in the analysis of digital systems of various types. Right shift theorems Let {vn} = {yn−1} i.e. the terms of the sequence {vn} are the same as those of {yn} but shifted one place to the right. The z-transforms are, by definition, Y (z) = y0 + y1z−1 + y2z−2 + yjz−3 + . . . V (z) = v0 + v1z−1 + v2z−2 + v3z−3 + . . . = y−1 + y0z−1 + y1z−2 + y2z−3 + . . . = y−1 + z−1 (y0 + y1z−1 + y2z−2 + . . .) i.e. V (z) = Z{yn−1} = y−1 + z−1 Y (z) 30 HELM (2005): Workbook 21: z-Transforms
- 20. TaskTask Obtain the z-transform of the sequence {wn} = {yn−2} using the method illus- trated above. Your solution Answer The z-transform of {wn} is W(z) = w0 + w1z−1 + w2z−2 + w3z−3 + . . . or, since wn = yn−2, W(z) = y−2 + y−1z−1 + y0z−2 + y1z−3 + . . . = y−2 + y−1z−1 + z−2 (y0 + y1z−1 + . . .) i.e. W(z) = Z{yn−2} = y−2 + y−1z−1 + z−2 Y (z) Clearly, we could proceed in a similar way to obtains a general result for Z{yn−m} where m is any positive integer. The result is Z{yn−m} = y−m + y−m+1z−1 + . . . + y−1z−m+1 + z−m Y (z) For the particular case of causal sequences (where y−1 = y−2 = . . . = 0) these results are particularly simple: Z{yn−1} = z−1 Y (z) Z{yn−2} = z−2 Y (z) Z{yn−m} = z−m Y (z) (causal systems only) You may recall from earlier in this Workbook that in a digital system we represented the right shift operation symbolically in the following way: {yn} z−1 {yn−2} z−1 {yn−1} Figure 6 The significance of the z−1 factor inside the rectangles should now be clearer. If we replace the ‘input’ and ‘output’ sequences by their z-transforms: Z{yn} = Y (z) Z{yn−1} = z−1 Y (z) it is evident that in the z-transform ‘domain’ the shift becomes a multiplication by the factor z−1 . N.B. This discussion applies strictly only to causal sequences. HELM (2005): Section 21.2: Basics of z-Transform Theory 31
- 21. Notational point: A causal sequence is sometimes written as ynun where un is the unit step sequence un = 0 n = −1, −2, . . . 1 n = 0, 1, 2, . . . The right shift theorem is then written, for a causal sequence, Z{yn−mun−m} = z−m Y (z) Examples Recall that the z-transform of the causal sequence {an } is z z − a . It follows, from the right shift theorems that (i) Z{an−1 } = Z{0, 1, a, a2 , . . .} = zz−1 z − a = 1 z − a ↑ (ii) Z{an−2 } = Z{0, 0, 1, a, a2 , . . .} = z−1 z − a = 1 z(z − a) ↑ TaskTask Write the following sequence fn as a difference of two unit step sequences. Hence obtain its z-transform. 0 1 2 n fn 1 3 4 5 6 7 Your solution 32 HELM (2005): Workbook 21: z-Transforms
- 22. Answer Since {un} = 1 n = 0, 1, 2, . . . 0 n = −1, −2, . . . and {un−5} = 1 n = 5, 6, 7, . . . 0 otherwise it follows that fn = un − un−5 Hence F(z) = z z − 1 − z−5 z z − 1 = z − z−4 z − 1 Left shift theorems Recall that the sequences {yn+1}, {yn+2} . . . denote the sequences obtained by shifting the sequence {yn} by 1, 2, . . . units to the left respectively. Thus, since Y (z) = Z{yn} = y0 +y1z−1 +y2z−2 +. . . then Z{yn+1} = y1 + y2z−1 + y3z−2 + . . . = y1 + z(y2z−2 + y3z−3 + . . .) The term in brackets is the z-transform of the unshifted sequence {yn} apart from its first two terms: thus Z{yn+1} = y1 + z(Y (z) − y0 − y1z−1 ) ∴ Z{yn+1} = zY (z) − zy0 TaskTask Obtain the z-transform of the sequence {yn+2} using the method illustrated above. Your solution HELM (2005): Section 21.2: Basics of z-Transform Theory 33
- 23. Answer Z{yn+2} = y2 + y3z−1 + y4z−2 + . . . = y2 + z2 (y3z−3 + y4z−4 + . . .) = y2 + z2 (Y (z) − y0 − y1z−1 − y2z−2 ) ∴ Z{yn+2} = z2 Y (z) − z2 y0 − zy1 These left shift theorems have simple forms in special cases: if y0 = 0 Z{yn+1} = z Y (z) if y0 = y1 = 0 Z{yn+2} = z2 Y (z) if y0 = y1 = . . . ym−1 = 0 Z{yn+m} = zm Y (z) Key Point 12 The right shift theorems or delay theorems are: Z{yn−1} = y−1 + z−1 Y (z) Z{yn−2} = y−2 + y−1z−1 + z−2 Y (z) ... ... ... ... Z{yn−m} = y−m + y−m+1z−1 + . . . + y−1z−m+1 + z−m Y (z) The left shift theorems or advance theorems are: Z{yn+1} = zY (z) − zy0 Z{yn+2} = z2 Y (z) − z2 y0 − zy1 ... ... Z{yn−m} = zm Y (z) − zm y0 − zm−1 y1 − . . . − zym−1 Note carefully the occurrence of positive powers of z in the left shift theorems and of negative powers of z in the right shift theorems. 34 HELM (2005): Workbook 21: z-Transforms
- 24. Table 1: z-transforms fn F(z) Name δn 1 unit impulse δn−m z−m un z z − 1 unit step sequence an z z − a geometric sequence eαn z z − eα sinh αn z sinh α z2 − 2z cosh α + 1 cosh αn z2 − z cosh α z2 − 2z cosh α + 1 sin ωn z sin ω z2 − 2z cos ω + 1 cos ωn z2 − z cos ω z2 − 2z cos ω + 1 e−αn sin ωn ze−α sin ω z2 − 2ze−α cos ω + e−2α e−αn cos ωn z2 − ze−α cos ω z2 − 2ze−α cos ω + e−2α n z (z − 1)2 ramp sequence n2 z(z + 1) (z − 1)3 n3 z(z2 + 4z + 1) (z − 1)4 an fn F z a n fn −z dF dz This table has been copied to the back of this Workbook (page 96) for convenience. HELM (2005): Section 21.2: Basics of z-Transform Theory 35