2da grammar 3_presentation

ESCUELA : NOMBRES: COMUNICATIVE GRAMMAR III (2do bimestre) FECHA: Mgs. Paúl González T. OCTUBRE 20010 – FEBRERO 2011 Inglés

NOUNS AND QUANTIFIERS Proper nouns are the names of particular people, places, or things. They are usually unique (there is only one). People: González, Ecuadorians Places: the Atlantic, Venezuela Months: January, August Nationalities: Japanese, German Seasons: spring, summer, fall, winter

Common nouns refer to people, places, and things, but not by their names. People: sailor, explorer, student Places: continent, country, city Things: pots, eggs, fish, honey Common nouns can be either count or non-count .

Count nouns are people, places, or things that you can count separately: one sailor, two sailors, three sailors … Count nouns can be singular or plural . You can use a/an or the before them. a car, the car, two cars a city, the city, four cities

Count nouns take singular or plural verbs. The boat is fine, but the sailors are sick. Non-count nouns are things that you cannot count separately. (They have no plural forms). CORRECT: English is an interesting subject. INCORRECT: An English is an interesting subject.

Abstract words: courage, education, time Activities: exploring, sailing, farming Fields of study: geography, history Foods: corn, chocolate, fish Some common non-count nouns do not fit into categories. For example: equipment, homework, news, furniture, information, work

Use the quantifiers some , enough , a lot of , and any with both count nouns and non-count nouns . We have some eggs (c) and some honey (nc). Use any in negative sentences and questions. Is there any coffee left? (nc) We didn’t see any cars . (c)

Use a few , several , and many , with plural count nouns in affirmative sentences. A few members came to the meeting. Use a little , a great deal of , and much with non-count nouns in affirmative sentences. They threw away a great deal of food.

Use many with count nouns and much with non-count nouns in questions and negative sentences. A : How many ships did they see? B: They didn’t see many .

ARTICLES: INDEFINITE AND DEFINITE A noun is indefinite when you and your listener do not have a specific person, place, or thing in mind . A: Let’s buy a book . B: Good idea. Which one should we buy?

A noun is definite when you and your listener both know which person, place or thing you are talking about. A: I bought the book yesterday. B: Good. You’ve wanted it for a while.

Use the indefinite article a/an with singular count nouns that are indefinite . A: I’m reading a fable . B: Oh really? Which one? A: The one that has an e xciting story. It was an h onest mistake. He is a E uropean writer.

Use no article or some with plural count nouns and with non-count nouns that are indefinite. Some means an indefinite number: There are (some) books on the floor. (plural count) I had to buy (some) food . (non-count)

Uses of a/an , no article , and some : To identify , use: a/an with singular count nouns A: What do you do? B: I’m a student . (sing. count) no article with plural count nouns and non-count nouns A: What are these? B: They’re beans . I’m making soup. (pl. count)

To make general statements , use no article with plural count nouns and non-count nouns . Ava loves stories and music . (stories and music in general) Some in general statements means “some, but not at all.” I like some stories , but a lot of them are boring.

Use the definite article the with most common nouns that are definite . Use the when: a person, place or thing is unique – there is only one We must take care of the Earth .

The context makes it clear which person, place, or thing you mean A: Who is she? B: She’s the teacher . The noun is mentioned for the second time An ant lived next to a river . One day the ant went to the river to drink.

A phrase or adjective such as first , best , right , wrong , or only identifies the noun He was the best student in the class. She served the only food she had.

Adjectives often go directly before a noun . When you use an article or some , the adjective goes between the article or some and the noun. John has some beautiful old guitars .

ADJECTIVES: COMPARISONS Use (not) as + adjective + as to compare people, places, or things, and show how they are (or aren’t) similar . A: This restaurant is as good as Joe’s. B: But Joe’s is n’t as expensive as this one.

It is not necessary to mention both parts of the comparison when the meaning is clear. A: I liked the old menu. It had more choices. B: Too bad the new one is n’t as varied . (… as the old menu)

Use comparative adjectives + than to show how people, places, or things are different . This office is bigger than the old one. The new employees are more responsible than the old employees.

Forming comparative adjectives : Short adjectives (one or some two-syllable): ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE tall taller large larger hot hotter happy happier

For long adjectives , use more/less + adjective. For some adjectives , like lively , lovely or quiet , you can use either –er or more . This place is more lively than Joe’s. This place is livelier than Joe’s. ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE generous more generous intelligent more intelligent

It is not necessary to mention both parts of the comparison when the meaning is clear. The new tables are smaller . (… than the old ones)

ADJECTIVES: SUPERLATIVES Use superlative adjectives to compare one person, place, or thing with other people, places, or things in a group . Rob is the wisest person I know. Rob’s house in the mountain is the most peaceful place in the world.

Forming superlative adjectives : Short adjectives (one syllable and two syllables ending in –y ): the + adjective + -est ADJECTIVE SUPERLATIVE tall the tallest large the largest hot the hottest happy the happiest

For long adjectives (2 or more syllables), use the most/the least + adjective . For some adjectives , like lively , lovely or quiet , you can use either the … –est or the most/the least . This is the liveliest place in the world. This is the most lively place in the world. ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE generous the most generous intelligent the most intelligent

GERUNDS: SUBJECT AND OBJECT A gerund ( base form + -ing ) is a verb that we use like a noun . I enjoy running in the park. Smoking is bad for your health. Not exercising is bad for you. I suggest not drinking too much beer.

A gerund can be the subject of a sentence. It is always singular . Use the 3 rd -person-singular form of the verb after gerunds. Inhaling smoke gives me bronchitis.

A gerund can also be the object of certain verbs. Use a gerund after these verbs : admit, avoid, consider, deny, dislike, enjoy, finish, miss, practice, quit, suggest, understand . The president denies ordering audit. She practiced signing autographs. I suggested not drinking too much beer.

We often use go + gerund to describe activities such as shopping, fishing, skiing, swimming , and camping . Let’s go fishing in the river! Sandra will go camping in Europe. They went skiing with their family.

Because gerunds are nouns, they can also follow prepositions . I thanked him for giving me the book. She believes in working hard. He is bored with working in a store. She’s happy about not working today.

INFINITIVES AFTER CERTAIN VERBS Some verbs can be followed by an infinitive . For example: begin, decide, fail, hope, learn, plan, promise, refuse, try . He hopes to be promoted. She refuses to go to the show. I began to use an ipod. Jack promised not to be late.

Some verbs need an object (noun or pronoun) before infinitive . For example: advise, allow, encourage, force, invite, order, remind, tell, warn . This program allows students to interact . I encourage you to access EVA. He forced himself to be silent.

GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive . For example: begin, continue, hate, like, love, prefer. Jeff hates studying . Jeff hates to study .

To make general statements , you can use: Gerund as subject Writing a paper is hard. it + infinitive It ’s hard to write a paper.

PREFERENCES: PREFER, WOULD PREFER, WOULD RATHER We often use prefer to express a general preference. Which do you prefer – comedies or westerns? We use would prefer or would rather to talk about a preference in a specific situation. I’ d rather go to the rock concert next weekend.

Prefer and would prefer may be followed by a noun , a gerund , or an infinitive . Jeffrey usually prefers comedies . Does Kyle prefer reading magazines? She would prefer to watch TV tonight.

Would rather can only be followed by the base form of the verb. I’ d rather cook dinner at home. I’ d rather not have dessert. We often use I’d rather not , by itself, to refuse an offer, suggestion, or invitation. A: Let’s see the movie at Cineworld. B: I’d rather not . I hear it’s terrible.

NECESSITY: HAVE (GOT) TO, MUST, DON’T HAVE TO, MUST NOT, CAN´T Have to is the most common expression in everyday speaking and writing . He has to carry his passport for international travel.

Have got to is used in conversation and informal writing to express strong feelings . I’ ve got to apply for a new passport. Must is used in writing , including official forms, signs and notices. Travelers must show their passports when they check in.

Use have got to and must only for the present and the future . Passengers must arrive one hour before the flight. Use have to for most questions . Did you have to leave now?

Use don’t have to to show that something is not necessary . There is a choice. You don’t have to show your passport now. Use must not for prohibition . There is no choice. (We often use can’t instead of must to express prohibition in spoken English ) You must not smoke in this area. You can’t smoke in this area.

EXPECTATIONS: BE SUPPOSED TO Use be supposed to to talk about different kinds of expectations . Rules You’ re not supposed to smoke here. Customs (usual way of doing things) The groom is supposed to arrive early.

Predictions The weather forecast says it’ s supposed to rain tomorrow. Hearsay (what everyone says) The beaches in Montañita are supposed to be beautiful. Everyone says so. Plans or arrangements I’m supposed to pick up my son at 2 P.M.

FUTURE POSSIBILITY: MAY, MIGHT, COULD May be and maybe both express possibility. May be is a modal + be . (two words) He may be late today Maybe is an adverb (not a modal). It is always one word and it comes at the beginning of the sentence. Maybe he’ll take the train.

Use may not and might not to express the possibility that something will not happen . There are a lot of clouds, but it might not rain. Use couldn’t to express the idea that something is impossible . A: Why don’t you ask John for a ride? B: I couldn’t do that. He’s too busy.

Questions about possibility usually do not use may, might , or could . Instead, they use the future ( will , be going to , the present progressive) or phrases such as Do you think…? or Is it possible that…? A:Do you think it will rain tomorrow? B: It could stop tonight. The answers to these questions often use may , might or could .

CONCLUSIONS: MUST, HAVE (GOT) TO, MAY, MIGHT, COULD, CAN’T When we are almost 100% certain , we use must , have to , or have got to to state affirmative conclusions . FACT CONCLUSION Wilson has only one clerk. His shop must be quite small Wilson applied for a job. He has to need money. They pay men for having red hair. It’ s got to be a joke.

When we are less certain about our conclusion , we use may , might , or could to express that something is possible . FACT CONCLUSION Wilson has a hole in his sleeve. He may write a lot. Watson knows a lot about medicine. He might be a doctor. Vincent knows a lot about cameras. He could be a photographer.

To express negative conclusions : Use can’t and couldn’t when you are almost 100 percent certain that something is impossible . He can’t be dead! I just saw him! Use must not when you are slightly less certain . He must not have enough money. He never buys new clothes.

Use may not and might not when you are even less certain . He may not know about the plan. His boss doesn’t tell him everything. Do not use have to and have got to to draw negative conclusions. CORRECT: It can’t be true! INCORRECT: It doesn’t have to be true!

Use can and could in questions. Could Vincent be in the shop? In short answers , use a modal alone . A: Does he still work at Wilson’s? B: She may not . I saw a new clerk there.

Use be in short answers to questions that include be . A: Is Ron still with City Bank? B: I’m not sure. He might not be .

2da grammar 3_presentation

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