3.6 (2)

HISTORY AND CONTEXT

3.6
Art of Renaissance and Baroque Europe
(1400–1750)

The thousand years of European history known with Classical subjects, often have a Christian
as the Middle Ages were followed by the period message.
known as the Renaissance (1400–1600). The The Renaissance was also marked by an
term means “rebirth,” a reference to a renewed increased interest in education and the natural
interest in the Classical world of Greece and world. Improved literacy, travel, and books (made
Rome. The influence of Classical subject possible by the invention of moveable type in the
matter is evident in the numbers of nudes and 1400s) expanded the transmission of ideas and
3.117 Map of Renaissance mythological figures in Renaissance art. Yet artistic developments throughout Europe.
and Baroque Europe artworks from the Renaissance, even those Humanism became influential as a philosophical

•
Amsterdam
THE NETHERLANDS
•Antwerp
BELGIUM

• Isenheim

FRANCE
Milan •
Florence
•
I TA LY

Rome
•
S PA I N

• Toledo

376 HISTORY AND CONTEXT

approach to life that stressed the intellectual and
physical potential of human beings to achieve
personal success and to contribute to the
betterment of society.
Religion continued to be a large component
of people’s lives. The Reformation (beginning in
1517) resulted in Protestants breaking away from
the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church’s
Counter-Reformation (1545–1648) was an attempt
to define further the beliefs of Catholics in
opposition to the Protestants. Both the Reformation
and the Counter-Reformation had a great impact
on the way art was made. Generally, Catholic
artwork highlighted the power of intermediaries—
such as saints and the Church—between 3.118 Portrait of
Christians and God. Since the Catholic leadership Michelangelo from Giorgio
Vasari’s Lives of the Great
was based in Rome, much of the artwork of the Artists, second edition, 1568.
Italian Renaissance reflects Catholic doctrine. By Engraving
contrast, in northern Europe, artworks inspired
by Protestant beliefs were common. Protestantism Renaissance and Baroque periods were both
is based on a more individual and direct marked by constant warfare throughout Europe,
relationship with God rather than one strictly and art was often used to memorialize battles
guided by and through the Church. As a result, or to inspire people to support their rulers.
northern Renaissance imagery often includes Throughout these centuries, artworks were
intimate scenes and intricate details. commissioned by wealthy patrons, often a
Italian artist and historian Giorgio Vasari church or ruling family, who determined such
(1511–74) used the term Renaissance (rinascità) things as the size, subject matter, and even how
in the first art history book, The Lives of the Most much of an expensive pigment, such as
Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, which ultramarine blue, the artist could use.
was published in 1550 (3.118). Vasari’s text
emphasized the intellectual ability required to
make paintings, sculptures, and architecture.
Around this time artists began to be seen as
The Early Renaissance
creative geniuses, even divinely inspired, rather in Italy
than manual producers of craft products. The
Renaissance: a period of
art of the Renaissance can be divided into Following the renewed interest in the Classical cultural and artistic change in
chronological and stylistic periods: early, high, past and the influence of humanist thought, Europe from the fourteenth to
late, and Mannerist, all of which are discussed in Italian artists during the early Renaissance were the seventeenth century
Baroque: European artistic
this chapter. preoccupied with making pictures that their and architectural style of the
The period that followed the Renaissance is viewers would find entirely believable. The real, late sixteenth to early eighteenth
known as the Baroque (1600–1750). Like however, was balanced by the ideal, especially centuries, characterized by
extravagance and emotional
Renaissance, Baroque refers to both a historical when the subjects were mythological or religious. intensity
period and a style of art. The seventeenth century Whereas during the Middle Ages, depictions Patron: an organization or
is noted for an increase in trade, advancements of the nude body had been avoided except individual who sponsors the
creation of works of art
in science, and the permanent division between to show the weakness and mortality of Pigment: the colored material
the Roman Catholic Church and Protestants. such sinners as Adam and Eve, during the used in paints. Often made
Baroque art draws on much of the same subject Renaissance, artists portrayed the idealized nude from finely ground minerals
Ideal: more beautiful,
matter as the Renaissance, but Baroque images figure as the embodiment of spiritual and harmonious, or perfect than
tend to include more motion and emotion. The intellectual perfection. reality

ART OF RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE EUROPE 377

Toward the end of the Middle Ages, the works
of Giotto created a more believable, human space.
They were part of a transition from spiritual
Gothic art to the three-dimensional space that
became characteristic of the Italian Renaissance.
In art, although religious subjects remained
popular, the emphasis switched from a belief in
faith as the only factor in attaining immortality
after death, to a concentration on how human
actions could enhance the quality of life on Earth.
Mathematics and science, derived from a
renewed study of classical Greek and Roman
works, encouraged the systematic understanding
of the world. Renaissance artists used and refined
new systems of perspective (discussed below)
to translate their careful observations more
consistently into realistic artistic representations.
These influences inspired Renaissance artists to
combine existing subject matter and techniques
with innovative approaches.
The Italian sculptor and architect Filippo
Brunelleschi (1377–1446) is famous for solving
an architectural problem in Florence. More than
a century after construction started, the
cathedral was still unfinished because no one
had figured out how to build its enormous
140-foot-diameter dome. In 1419 a competition
was held and Brunelleschi’s radical proposals
won (3.119). He not only designed the dome
but also devised the machinery used to build it,
and oversaw the construction itself, thus earning 3.119 Arnolfo di Cambio and
him the right to be called the first Renaissance others, Florence Cathedral,
view from south, begun 1296
architect.
The dome was a great technological challenge. 3.120 Filippo Brunelleschi,
Existing construction techniques required Dome of Florence Cathedral,
temporary wooden scaffolding to form the shape 1417–36

of the dome (170 feet above the ground at its top)
until the stonework was finished—which in this
Three-dimensionality: the
case would have been too costly and heavy. The condition of having height,
enormous weight of the bricks and stone could width, and depth
not be held up by external stone supports either, Subject: the person, object, or
space depicted in a work of art
because of the existing buildings around the Perspective: the creation of
cathedral. Brunelleschi invented equipment to the illusion of depth in a two-
hoist the building materials and came up with dimensional image by using
mathematical principles
an ingenious system that used each stage of Linear perspective: a system
the structure to support the next as the dome using converging imaginary
was built, layer by layer (3.120). The dome’s sight lines to create the illusion
of depth
construction began in 1420 and took sixteen Fresco: paintings made on
years to complete. freshly applied plaster


3.121 Masaccio, Tribute Brunelleschi is also credited with inventing light and dark) to enhance the illusion of three-
Money, c. 1427. Fresco, a new method for drawing, known as linear dimensional form. Tribute Money is one of
8’1” × 19’7”. Brancacci Chapel,
Santa Maria del Carmine,
perspective, a technique for creating the illusion Masaccio’s most original paintings: it also shows
Florence, Italy of three-dimensional space. He shared the process three scenes in a sequence within one setting.
with other Florentine artists, including his close While the fresco maintains the medieval tradition
friend, a painter nicknamed Masaccio, or “Big of narrative painting, the composition deviates
Clumsy Tom” (1401–28). Leon Battista Alberti from the earlier practice in an important way.
Scale: the size of an object or
artwork relative to another
(1404–72) wrote in his treatise On Painting Rather than showing each scene on a separate
object or artwork, or to a system (1435) about the theories of perspective that were panel, events that take place at different times
of measurement already being put into practice by Brunelleschi are shown together in a unified space, or
Naturalism: a very realistic or
lifelike style of making images
and Masaccio, and the technique spread. a continuous narrative. In the center, the tax
Vanishing point: the point in Masaccio applied the rules of linear collector, with his back to us, demands the Jewish
a work of art at which imaginary perspective in several large-scale fresco paintings, temple tax as the disciples look on. Jesus tells
sight lines appear to converge,
suggesting depth
including Tribute Money (3.121). Here, figures, Peter to retrieve the money from the mouth of
Focal point: The area in a architecture, and landscape are integrated into a the first fish he catches. We see Peter doing so in
composition to which the eye believable scene. The buildings in the foreground the middle ground on our left. On our right,
returns most naturally
Atmospheric perspective: use
appear on the same scale as the group of figures Peter pays the collector double the amount owed,
of shades of color to create the standing next to them. As the buildings and using the money miraculously obtained from
illusion of depth. Closer objects people get further away from us, they get the fish’s mouth. This story from the gospel of
have warmer tones and clear
outlines, while objects set further
smaller, and lead, in a naturalistic way, toward Matthew would have been particularly relevant
away are smaller and become hazy a vanishing point on the horizon. The focal for contemporary Florentines, who were required
Chiaroscuro: the use of light point converges on Jesus, and the vanishing point to pay a tax for military defense in 1427, the same
and dark in a painting to create
the impression of volume
lies behind his head, making him the visual and year the painting was made.
Narrative: an artwork that tells symbolic center of the scene. Masaccio uses Like other Renaissance artists, Masaccio used
a story atmospheric perspective to show the distant linear perspective to convince viewers they
Continuous narrative: when
different parts of a story are
landscape, where the mountains fade from were looking at reality rather than a symbolic
shown within the same visual greenish to gray. representation. He incorporated an
space Innovations in this painting include understanding of the movement of the bodies
Volume: the space filled or
enclosed by a three-dimensional
consistent lighting throughout, a wide range of beneath the drapery to increase the sense of
figure or object colors, and the use of chiaroscuro (extremes of volume. This series of frescoes, which were


displayed in the Brancacci family chapel, was with his disciples before his crucifixion, the artist
a major influence on later artists, including used an experimental mixture of media (3.122).
Michelangelo (see below), who specifically went Leonardo was commissioned by Dominican
to the chapel to study Masaccio’s paintings. friars to paint The Last Supper for their dining
hall in the monastery of Santa Maria della Grazie
in Milan, Italy. Leonardo emphasizes Christ as the
most important figure in four ways. First, Christ
The High Renaissance is depicted in the center of the painting. Second,
in Italy he is shown as a stable and calm triangular form,
in contrast with the agitated activity of the other
The Italian artists Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), figures. Third, his head is framed by the natural
Michelangelo (1475–1564), and Raphael light of the middle of the three windows behind
(1483–1520) dominated the art world at the him. Finally, Leonardo arranged the linear
beginning of the sixteenth century. All three of perspective of his painting so that the vanishing
them utilized the rules of perspective and point is directly behind Christ’s head.
illusionism, but willingly departed from exact This work is not simply a representation of
mechanical precision in order to create desired a meal, however, for Leonardo highlights two
visual effects. important aspects of religious doctrine related to
Leonardo was the oldest among them. He this event: the Eucharist, or communion ceremony,
was known not only as a great painter but also and the betrayal of Judas. Here Leonardo portrays
as a scientist and engineer. Leonardo invented the tradition accepted by Catholics, who believe
a painting technique he called sfumato, which that the communion bread and wine are the body
consisted of applying a hazy or misty glaze over and blood of Christ. The artist also invites the
the painting. In Leonardo’s Last Supper, the best- viewer to locate Judas: by depicting the moment
known depiction of Christ sharing a last meal when Christ has just announced, “One of you is

3.122 Leonardo da Vinci,
The Last Supper, c. 1497.
Refectory of Santa Maria
delle Grazie, Milan, Italy

Sfumato: in painting, the
application of layers of
translucent paint to create a hazy
or smoky appearance and unify
the composition
Media: plural of medium; the
materials on or from which an
artist chooses to make a work of art


about to betray me” (Matthew 26:21), Leonardo
shows, through gesture and facial expression,
the individual reaction of each of the disciples.
Judas has his elbow on the table and is in the
group of three to Christ’s right (our left). The
deceiver clutches a money bag in his right hand
and has just knocked down a salt dish, which is
a bad omen.
The Catholic Church was an important
patron of the arts. Like the Dominican friars
who hired Leonardo in Milan, Pope Julius II
also commissioned important artworks. As part
of Julius’s campaign to restore Rome and the
Vatican to its ancient grandeur, he had Raphael
working on the School of Athens fresco in the
Vatican apartments between 1510 and 1511
(see Gateway Box: Raphael, 3.125, p. 382), while
Michelangelo was nearby painting the ceiling
of the Vatican’s Sistine Chapel. The painting,
which took Michelangelo four years to complete,
is so believable we could be fooled into thinking
the beams, pedestals, and structural elements
are real (3.123). Michelangelo preferred stone
carving to painting, which perhaps explains
why he painted the ceiling with such apparently
three-dimensional figures and surrounded them
with architectural elements and sculpture.
The nine panels at the ceiling’s center detail the
Old Testament stories of Genesis, from the
creation of the heavens and earth, to the creation
and fall of Adam and Eve, and ending with
scenes from the Great Flood. The ceiling is
covered with detailed figure studies,
Michelangelo’s specialty. In the Creation of Adam
panel, for example, human nudity could be
associated with the perfection of man.
Michelangelo also worked on another famous
commission in the Sistine Chapel almost twenty
years later. When the artist was in his sixties,
Pope Clement VII requested that Michelangelo
paint the Last Judgment on the wall behind the
altar (3.124). As during the earlier commission,
Michelangelo was forced to delay sculptural

3.123 (above, left) Michelangelo, Detail of Creation of
Adam, Sistine Chapel ceiling, 1508–12. Vatican City

3.124 (left) Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel, Vatican City,
with view of ceiling (1508–12) and Last Judgment (1534–41)


Gateway to Art: Raphael, The School of Athens
Past and Present in the Painting
Apollo: god of music Plato (great Classical The sky (and Plato Architecture and
and lyric poetry; philosopher) modeled pointing to it) as coffered ceiling use
made to look like after Leonardo a reference to the rules of perspective as
Michelangelo’s da Vinci heavens as realm of a reference to man’s
Dying Slave the ideal design ability and
Socrates, in green, perhaps dominance
engaging youths Aristotle holding over nature
in debate, talking Nicomachean Ethics
to Alexander and pointing to the
the Great ground—the material Athena: goddess
world of Wisdom

Poetic Diogenes Self-portrait of
thinkers Ancient
Raphael, second from
scientists
the right, listening to
Heraclitus, modeled after Euclid bending Ptolemy. In a group
Michelangelo, leaning on a block of with compass and because he was
Pythagoras with marble. Shown by himself because Ptolemy holding the slate, modeled gregarious. Perhaps
a book he was a solitary person Celestial Globe after Bramante representing Apelles


In The School of Athens, Raphael depicts the projects that captivated him more fully. His
Classical world within the Renaissance muscular, dynamic figures on both the ceiling
as a rebirth of the physical and mental and the altar wall highlight Michelangelo’s first
advancements of the ancients. Raphael links love of sculpting the nude male body. After
a gathering of great philosophers and scientists years of wishing he could be sculpting rather
from the Classical past—Plato, Aristotle, than painting, and of enduring frequent
Socrates, Pythagoras, and Ptolemy, for unsolicited advice regarding his compositions
example—to sixteenth-century Italy by using and choice of nude figures, Michelangelo
people he knew as models for the figures from painted the mask on St. Bartholomew’s flayed
ancient Greece and Rome. By using the skin within The Last Judgment as a self-portrait
Renaissance painter Leonardo da Vinci as of the tortured artist who would have preferred
the model for the honorable figure of the his chisel and hammer (3.126). Some scholars
Greek philosopher Plato, Raphael expresses speculate that the location of Bartholomew
admiration and reverence for Leonardo’s (and Michelangelo’s self-portrait) on the side
accomplishments. Using the face of the damned are a cloaked reference to the
of Leonardo allows us to see Plato in the flesh artist’s homosexuality.
as a fully formed, believable individual. The energetic, whirlpool effect of the
Raphael also pays homage to his contemporary judgment scene is much more chaotic and
Michelangelo, who is shown sitting by himself psychologically dark than many other Last
on the steps, in the guise of the pessimistic Judgment scenes made by previous artists.
philosopher Heraclitus. This is a reflection The nude figures within it, which took the
of Michelangelo’s solitary, even melancholic artist eight years to complete, represent blessed
personality, which was likely familiar to all and damned souls as they face their last
who knew him. Raphael also subtly includes moments on earth. The Last Judgment reflects
a self-portrait of himself as the Greek painter the uncertainty of the late Renaissance and
Apelles in the group on the right listening to points to the preoccupations of the Baroque
the mathematician and astronomer Ptolemy era to come.
(holding a globe), showing himself to be a
gregarious, intellectual person. The thinkers 3.126 Michelangelo, Detail of
on the left represent the Liberal Arts of Last Judgment showing self-
portrait in St. Bartholomew’s
grammar, arithmetic, and music, while those
skin, 1536–41. Sistine Chapel,
on the right of center are involved with the Vatican City
scientific pursuits of geometry and astronomy.
The setting for this symposium is a grand
Roman building with majestic arches and
vaults that open up to the heavens. The
Classical past is further invoked through the
sculptures of Apollo (on our left) and Athena
(on our right) in the niches behind the crowd.
Despite its sixteenth-century references, the
scene is utterly convincing, with calm, orderly
groups of scholars and thinkers from
throughout history gathered according to
Raphael’s carefully organized plan.

3.125 Raphael, The School of Athens, 1510–11. Fresco,
16’8” × 25’. Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican City


artists of the Netherlands continued using the
The Renaissance in traditional methods established in medieval
Northern Europe manuscript illumination painting. At that time
they had a reputation for producing much of the
Over time, developments in Italian art were best art in Europe, and their work influenced
widely admired by artists in the northern the visual arts elsewhere on the Continent. Artists
3.127a Jan van Eyck,
European countries we now know as the in the northern countries were known for their
The Arnolfini Portrait, 1434.
Oil on panel, 323⁄8 × 235⁄8”. Netherlands, Germany, France, and Belgium. careful attention to texture and to fine details
National Gallery, London Throughout the fifteenth century, though, the in their artwork, achieved in part through the

Chandelier is very ornamental and expensive, a clear
sign of wealth

Single candle burning in the chandelier: possibly a
symbolic reference to Christ; or a unity candle used in a
marriage ceremony; or a sign of a legal event

Man stands near the window to show that he is part of
the world outside

Woman stands near the elaborate bed to indicate her
domestic role and the hope that she will bear children

Fruit on the window: sign of fertility. Indicates wealth
(oranges and lemons were expensive because they had
to be imported from Spain); also a reference to
innocence and purity before humans sinned in the
Garden of Eden

Figure carved on the chair: St. Margaret, protector of
women in childbirth

Shoes/clogs: given to a woman as a wedding gift; symbol
of stability; removed to show that the event taking place
here is sacred and makes the ground so, too

Full-skirted dress: fashion of the day because the current
queen was pregnant (the woman in the painting is not
Dog: sign of fidelity and wealth pregnant herself, because she never had children)


widespread use of oil paint (see Box: Pieter Bruegel: announcing the painter’s presence at this event
Texture: the surface quality of
a work, for example fine/coarse,
A Sampling of Proverbs, p. 386). Many of the and possibly suggesting he was one of two
detailed/lacking in detail everyday objects depicted so convincingly in these witnesses visible in the convex mirror behind
Oil paint: paint made of paintings also have significant religious symbolism. the principal figures (3.127b).
pigment floating in oil
Glazing: in oil painting, adding
The development of oil paint has been Van Eyck’s painting relies on illusion in
a transparent layer of paint to attributed to Dutch artist Jan van Eyck (c. 1395– several ways. The young couple and the room in
achieve a richness in texture, 1441), who was born into a family of artists and which they stand are painted in such detail that
volume, and form
eventually served as court painter to the Duke viewers feel as if they are looking into a real
of Burgundy. Vasari credits van Eyck with the room with real people. Fifteenth-century
invention of oil painting, but it was actually used viewers would probably have paid careful
in the Middle Ages to decorate stone, metal, and, attention to the mirror, with its circular mini-
occasionally, plaster walls. The technique of pictures, or roundels, depicting scenes from the
glazing, which van Eyck developed with such crucifixion of Christ, since such an object would
virtuosity, was widely adopted throughout have been very expensive, a truly luxurious
Europe after 1450. possession. The mirror helps extend the illusion
One of the most important northern of reality by showing in its reflective surface the
Renaissance paintings, The Arnolfini Portrait by room in front of them, which is otherwise not in
Jan van Eyck, has been a source of mystery for the picture. Numerous other symbols help to
scholars (3.127a). Art historians have been trying reveal the sacramental nature of marriage:
to identify the people in this painting since at the shoes that have been taken off because the
least the 1930s. Scholars have claimed that the ground is considered sacred for the event; the
portrait depicts Giovanni Arnolfini and his wife. dog, which is a sign of fidelity; the single candle
Some have also suggested it could have been some lit in the chandelier, which suggests unity; and
kind of legal document, perhaps certifying their the exotic, ripe fruit near the window, which
wedding ceremony. An inscription on the wall indicates the hope of fertility.
3.127b Detail of Jan van above the mirror says “Johannes de eyck fuit Many northern Renaissance artists also
Eyck, The Arnolfini Portrait hic 1434,” or “Jan van Eyck was here 1434,” explored explicitly religious subject matter.

"Johannes de eyck fuit hic 1434": innovative signature
of the artist (seen by some as evidence that this is
a marriage contract)

Crystal prayer beads beside the mirror: indicate the
couple's piety

Reflection in the mirror includes the entire room and
likely the artist

Roundels around the mirror show scenes from the
Passion of Christ


Pieter Bruegel: A Sampling of Proverbs

3.128 Pieter Bruegel the
Elder, Netherlandish Proverbs,
1559. Oil on oak, 3’10” × 5’2”.
Gemäldegalerie, Staatliche
Museen, Berlin, Germany

Pieter Bruegel the Elder (c. 1525/30–69) was idealized portraits. The examples shown here
an artist from the Netherlands who became identify a selection of the more than one
famous for his landscapes and humorous hundred proverbs that Bruegel illustrated in
scenes of peasant life. His work comments on this painting. A few of the proverbs that are still
the beliefs and customs of his day. The painting familiar to us include the “world turned upside
Netherlandish Proverbs depicts recognizable down”; the man who is “beating his head
types, such as farmers and townspeople (3.128 against a wall”; and the two women gossiping
3.129 a, b, c Details from
Pieter Bruegel the Elder, and 3.129 a–c). The people are general and —“one winds the distaff, the other spins it.”
Netherlandish Proverbs universal figures, rather than specific or


3.130 Matthias Grünewald,
Isenheim Altarpiece (closed),
c. 1510–15. Oil on panel,
center panel: Crucifixion,
8’95⁄8” × 10’; predella:
Lamentation, 297⁄8” × 11’17⁄8”;
side panels: Saints Sebastian
and Anthony 7’65⁄8” × 291⁄2”
each, Musée d’Unterlinden,
Colmar, France

Sometime around 1515 the German artist caused a swollen stomach, convulsions, gangrene,
Matthias Grünewald (c. 1475/80–1528) painted and boils on the skin was named “St. Anthony’s
a scene of the crucifixion of Christ on an Fire.”
altarpiece made for the chapel in a hospital that Christ’s suffering was further emphasized
cared for patients with skin diseases, the Abbey when the altarpiece was opened on certain
of St. Anthony in Isenheim (in what is now occasions, such as Easter Sunday. When the left
northeastern France). The crucifixion scene of door was swung open, Christ’s arm would look
the Isenheim Altarpiece, one of the most graphic separated from the rest of his body, making him
images of Christ’s crucifixion in the history of appear to lose his arm. Similarly, opening the left
art, is visible when the altarpiece is closed (3.130). side of the Lamentation scene at the bottom of
It is designed to make the viewer empathize the altarpiece would make Christ’s legs appear
with Christ’s suffering and to be thankful for to be cut off. As limbs were often amputated
his sacrifice. When patients prayed before this to prevent further spreading of disease,
altarpiece they saw the green pallor of Christ’s many patients could directly identify with
skin, the thorns that drew blood from his body, Christ’s experience.
and the deformations of his bones caused A quarter of a century after Leonardo’s
by hanging on the cross for so long. The famous painting of the Last Supper, the
altarpiece could be opened to reveal additional woodblock print of the same subject made by
scenes inside. the German artist Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528)
The vivid details offered patients suffering offers a different interpretation. Dürer was a
from a variety of serious diseases a way to identify talented draftsman and one of the first painters
with Christ in his human form, as well as comfort to work seriously on woodcuts, etchings,
that they were not alone in their own suffering. engravings, and printed books. Two study trips
St. Anthony, shown on the right wing of the that he made to see the paintings of Renaissance
Altarpiece: an artwork that
is placed behind an altar in altarpiece, was the patron saint of sufferers from Italy were deeply influential. They encouraged
a church skin disease. Indeed, a common disease that him to paint Classical subject matter and to


3.131 Albrecht Dürer, The
Last Supper, 1523. Woodcut,
8 3⁄8 × 117⁄8”. British Museum,
London, England

calculate carefully his depictions of the human When Pope Clement VII humiliatingly had to
form and its environment. Like Leonardo, Dürer crown Charles as Holy Roman Emperor in 1530,
draws attention to Christ in his composition by it was further evidence of the end of those days
placing him centrally and surrounding his head of supremacy and assuredness. The disorder of
with white light (3.131). Only eleven disciples are the period was reflected in its art.
there; the absence of Judas tells us that he has Compared to the art that came before it, the
already gone out to betray Jesus to the authorities. late phase of the Renaissance (c. 1530–1600)
Dürer’s print reflects the ideas of the Protestant tends to feature compositions that are more
Reformation and, in particular, the doctrine of chaotic and possess greater emotional intensity.
the Lutheran Church. While Lutherans accepted The successes of the high Renaissance could not
the Communion ceremony, they insisted it was be rivaled: Leonardo, Raphael, and Michelangelo
only a re-enactment of the Last Supper, not were thought to have achieved perfection in the
a literal receiving of Christ’s body and blood. To arts. Artists were faced with the predicament of
emphasize this important doctrinal point, Dürer where to go from there. In reaction, instead of
displays an empty plate in the foreground, harmony, many artworks stressed dissonance.
signifying that the meal has already taken place. Imagination often took the place of believable
reality. Distortion and disproportion, rather
Composition: the overall design than mathematically precise depictions,
or organization of a work were intentionally used to emphasize certain
Dissonance: a lack of harmony Late Renaissance and anatomical features and themes. During the late
Mannerism: from Italian di
maniera, meaning charm, grace, Mannerism Renaissance period, a style called Mannerism
playfulness; mid- to late developed, characterized by sophisticated and
sixteenth-century style of
painting, usually with elongated
The Sack of Rome by the troops of Charles V of elegant compositions in which the accepted
human figures elevating grace as Spain in 1527 brought the high Renaissance to conventions of poses, proportions, and gestures
an ideal a close. Pope Julius II’s building campaign and became exaggerated for emotional effect.
Rhythm: the regular or ordered
repetition of elements in the
patronage of the arts had helped make Rome the The Italian Mannerist artist Sofonisba
work center of artistic and intellectual activity in Italy. Anguissola (c. 1532–1625) achieved a level of


success rarely enjoyed by women during the
Renaissance. Known primarily for her portraits,
she gained an international reputation that led
to an official appointment at the court of the
queen of Spain. Anguissola emphasized emotion
and heightened the realism in her artworks.
Portrait of the Artist’s Sisters Playing Chess (3.132)
shows an everyday scene in the outdoors, as
indicated by the tree behind the girls, and the
landscape in the distance. Anguissola
concentrates on the rich details of the textures
of the girls’ clothing, jewelry, and hair. Rather
than focusing on creating a unified and
mechanically precise scene, Anguissola has
emphasized the individuality of each one of her
sitters, from the expressions on their faces to the
elegant placement of their fingers. As the older
sisters play their game, the clear sense of joy in
the youngest sister’s face is balanced by the
expression of the maid, who looks on with care features, especially the three Roman arches that 3.132 Sofonisba Anguissola,
and concern. frame and balance the scene, with the chaos and Portrait of the Artist’s Sisters
Playing Chess, 1555. Oil on
The Last Supper is a traditional biblical activity common in later Renaissance art. Overall, canvas, 283⁄8 × 381⁄4”. National
subject; Leonardo’s famous version was painted the composition is formally balanced and Museum, Pozna´ , Poland
n
eighty years before the one shown in 3.133. But detailed in an elegant architectural setting, but
Paolo Caliari of Verona, known as Veronese the artist has introduced lively and unconventional 3.133 Paolo Veronese, Christ
in the House of Levi, 1573. Oil
(1528–88), took a new and unconventional characters. Along with Christ and the disciples,
on canvas, 7’3 3⁄8” × 16’8 7⁄8”.
approach. His painting combines the strict Veronese includes members of the Venetian elite, Galleria dell’Accademia,
rhythm of the prominent, Classical architectural and entertainers. Venice, Italy


This approach proved controversial with 3.134 (above) Tintoretto,
Church officials. They objected that Christ, in The Last Supper, 1592–4. Oil
on canvas, 11’113⁄4” × 18’75⁄8”.
this key moment in the gospels, is shown so near San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice,
such unsavory characters as clowns, dwarves, and Italy
dogs. The Inquisition, a religious court that could
punish heresy with death, charged Veronese with
irreverence. To avoid making painstaking changes
to his painting, he re-titled it to portray the Feast
in the House of Levi, based on a story in the Bible
in which Jesus scandalized the Jewish priests by
eating with sinners.
The surge of Protestantism at this time led in
its turn to the Counter-Reformation, in which
the Catholic Church powerfully reasserted core
Catholic values and enforced them through the
Inquisition. Catholicism had long believed that
images should be used as powerful teaching tools,
and this belief now became more apparent in
the art of the time. For example, the intensely
dramatic quality of The Last Supper by the Italian 3.135 (right) Jacopo da
Pontormo, Deposition, 1525–8.
artist Tintoretto (1519–94) highlights the urgency
Oil on wood, 1231⁄4 × 755⁄8”.
of the Catholic mission to encourage believers to Capponi Chapel, Santa
remain in the Church rather than converting to Felicita, Florence, Italy


Protestantism (3.134). Tintoretto depicts the very unstable (3.135). Pontormo has stacked the
Last Supper as a glorious and spiritual event. figures vertically and placed them in an oddly
There are many ordinary people busy in service swirling pattern, almost as if they are supported
and conversation—we can almost hear the buzz by the figure at the bottom of the composition,
of conversation and clatter of dishes. At the same who is crouching unsteadily on tiptoe. Far from
time, the heavens seem to be opening up to send being a realistic depiction of observable reality,
down angels to witness the event. This scene is the figures are overly muscular and the colors
a marked change from the symmetry and are striking. We would expect to see grief and
emotional balance of both Leonardo’s (3.122; see sorrow in a deposition scene, but here the faces
p. 380) and Dürer’s (3.131; see p. 388) versions. show expressions of feeling lost and bewildered.
But Tintoretto still makes Christ the focal point Everything contributes to a sense of anxiety
by placing him in the center with the largest and and disorder.
brightest halo, reaching out with a glass to one Another Mannerist, Domenikos
of the disciples; Judas is easy to find, too, alone Theotokopoulos (c.1541–1614), called El Greco
without a halo on the opposite side of the table (“The Greek”), worked in Venice and Rome
from Jesus. But Tintoretto’s picture conveys a before moving to Spain. Laocoön is a subject
dynamic—even disturbed—sense of motion and from Greek mythology (3.136). The Trojan priest
drama, with the table placed at an angle pointing Laocoön attempted to warn the inhabitants of
off-center deep into space, dramatic contrasts Troy that Greek soldiers were trying to infiltrate
of lighting, and the theatrical gestures of the their fortifications by hiding inside the Trojan
characters. Horse, seen in the middle ground at the center
In Jacopo da Pontormo’s (1494–1556) of this painting. El Greco shows the priest and
Mannerist painting of the deposition, the his sons being attacked by snakes sent by the god
arrangement of the group of figures appears to be Poseidon (who supported the Greeks) to stop

3.136 El Greco, Laocoön,
c. 1610/14. Oil on canvas,
541⁄8 × 68”. National Gallery of
Art, Washington, D.C.

Symmetry: the correspondence
in size, form, and arrangement
of items on opposite sides of a
plane, line, or point that creates
direct visual balance
Balance: a principle of art in
which elements are used to
create a symmetrical or
asymmetrical sense of visual
weight in an artwork
Deposition: a scene showing the
removal of Christ’s body from
the cross


Depictions of David
The biblical story of David and Goliath inspired instead placed near the entrance to the main
three renowned Renaissance and Baroque piazza, or plaza, where it could be viewed by
sculptors in three centuries. Donatello, masses of people. Its Classical attributes
Michelangelo, and Bernini each took a different include athletic musculature and essentially
approach to the appearance of the hero, David. ideal proportions. By presenting David as nude,
Each work displays the characteristic cultural with a scarcely noticeable slingshot draped
and artistic concerns of their respective eras. In over his shoulder—the only reference to his
the Bible, David is a young Israelite who battles identity—Michelangelo creates a sculpture of a
the giant Goliath. Goliath challenges the man as well as a hero. David’s facial expression
Israelites to send a champion to fight in single is idealized and calm, but his gaze, which is
combat. Only David is brave enough to face him. purposefully directed off to the side, reveals
Armed with just his shepherd’s hook, slingshot, a mood of concentration and intensity.
and a handful of stones, he fells Goliath with a Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598–1680) created his
single slingshot to the forehead and then uses David in the Baroque period. It is a dynamic,
the giant’s own sword to cut off his head. three-dimensional sculpture that emphasizes
David’s triumph against a powerful opponent movement and action (3.139) . Whereas
became an emblem for the city of Florence after Donatello’s sculpture shows David as
its forces defeated a much stronger army from triumphant and Michelangelo’s sculpture
3.137 Donatello, David,
Milan in 1428. Our comparison of statues of shows him as contemplative, Bernini’s
c. 1430. Bronze, 5’21⁄4” high.
Museo Nazionale del David considers two sculptures made for sculpture shows David at a moment of dramatic,
Bargello, Florence, Italy Florence and one made in Rome. heightened tension, when he is about to launch
Donatello (c. 1386/87–1466) was a skilled the stone. The energy of David’s entire body is
sculptor of both bronze and marble. At the time focused on the physical movement he is about
he made David, he was reinvigorating the ancient to make. Even the muscles in his face tighten.
technique of bronze casting. His David, the first Bernini is said to have studied his own reflection
nearly full-scale male nude since antiquity, also to create the perfect facial expression for such
reflects the sculptor’s familiarity with and an energetic feat. Unlike Michelangelo’s and
admiration for the Classical ideal depictions of Donatello’s sculptures, which are meant to be
the human body (3.137). Rather than emphasizing viewed from the front, Bernini’s is intended to
the mortal and corruptible nature of the body, as be seen and understood in the round.
was common during the Middle Ages, Donatello These three sculptures are clearly different
follows the idealized nude model used by Greek in several ways. Michelangelo’s sculpture is
and Roman sculptors. Donatello’s statue reveals more than twice the size of the other two, in
the artist’s careful observation of physical order to allow viewers to see all of the detail
posture. David stands with his weight on his had the sculpture been installed in its originally
right leg, leaving the left leg relaxed. His right planned location, high above the ground.
shoulder is higher and his left lower as a result. Donatello’s sculpture is the only one to include
Donatello’s understanding of human anatomy weaponry other than a slingshot: his David
makes his David look mobile and lifelike. holds the sword with which he has just
Michelangelo’s David was carved from a beheaded his opponent, whose head lies at his
single block of marble (3.138). It was originally feet. Bernini’s sculpture, like Michelangelo’s,
intended to be placed in a high niche of features the slingshot, but it is in action, and a
Florence Cathedral as a symbol of the city’s pile of cast-off armor lies beneath. Such a prop
power and (temporary) freedom from the was necessary to allow for the wide stance and
tyranny of the Medici. The sculpture was so gesture of the figure, as marble sculptures are
popular that on its completion in 1504 it was prone to snap if their weight is unsupported.


The moment each artist chose to depict has Laocoön’s warning. The landscape in the
In the round: a freestanding
a strong influence on the resulting appearance
sculpted work that can be viewed
background is a view of Toledo, Spain, where
and effect of their sculptures. Donatello shows from all sides El Greco lived and made his best-known works
a triumphant, boyish David standing in calm Expressionistic: devoted to late in his life. El Greco combined Mannerist
representing subjective emotions
repose after the fight. Michelangelo presents
and experiences instead of
exaggeration, seen in the elongated forms and
David as an adult: the sheer size and mass of his objective or external reality distorted figures, with his own expressionistic
form are much more manlike than Donatello’s Color: the optical effect caused use of color, outlines, and modeling. Like other
when reflected white light of the
slim, youthful figure. Michelangelo’s David
spectrum is divided into a
Mannerist artworks, this intricate composition
stands poised at a moment of anticipation and separate wavelength combines carefully observed factual information
determined contemplation before the battle; Outlines: the outermost lines of with mythological stories according to the dictates
an object or figure, by which it is
a concentrated expression is visible on his face.
defined or bounded
of the artist’s imagination.
Bernini’s David, more mature, is dynamically Modeling: the representation
focused on casting a lethal strike at the giant of three-dimensional objects in

Goliath—the time of calculation and reflection
two dimensions so that they
appear solid
The Baroque
has passed; now it is time for action.
Religious stories were common subjects for The Baroque period was a time of exploration,
artworks during the Renaissance and Baroque. increased trade, and discovery in the sciences.
Instead of having to invent something The Western world now accepted the theory of
completely new, these three artists’ David astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus that the Sun,
sculptures show their originality in their rather than the Earth, was the center of the
treatment of the subject. universe—a theory the Catholic Church had
previously rejected. Light, both heavenly and
3.138 (below left) Michelangelo, David, 1501–4. Marble,
otherwise, became a prominent feature in many
14’27⁄8” high. Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence, Italy
Baroque artworks. The seventeenth century
3.139 (below right) Gianlorenzo Bernini, David, 1623. was also a time of frequent battles throughout
Marble, 5’7” high. Galleria Borghese, Rome, Italy Europe, largely the result of the divisions in
the Catholic Church after the Reformation.
Baroque artworks give us a sense of this turmoil:
their theatrical, dynamic compositions are
marked by dramatic movement and light.
Some Baroque artists, such as Nicolas Poussin,
continued the high Renaissance interest in
carefully ordered calmness. Others, such as
Gianlorenzo Bernini (see left: Depictions of
David), displayed heightened emotion and
created figures that seem to be in action, often
breaking into the viewer’s personal space.
French artist Nicolas Poussin (1594–1665)
specialized in paintings of subjects from Classical
antiquity. Everything in his paintings was
carefully constructed and positioned. He would
even arrange miniature figures on a small stage
when choreographing the scenes for his
landscapes. Yet, though these and his buildings
look detailed and realistic, their appearance
and placement were always invented from his
imagination. The Funeral of Phocion depicts two
men carrying the deceased Phocion, an Athenian
general, over a winding road that leads away from


Gateway to Art: Gentileschi, Judith Decapitating Holofernes
The Influence of Caravaggio
and patrons, particularly those in the pope’s
circle. His development of tenebrism, the
dramatic use of intense darkness and light, was
adopted by other painters during his lifetime
and by later artists as well.
In Caravaggio’s Judith Decapitating
Holofernes (3.142), a strong beam of light seems
to stop time as Judith’s knife slices through the
general’s neck. The light emphasizes the drama
of this particular moment and shows the main
characteristics of Caravaggio’s style. The scene
seems to emerge into the light from a darkened
background in a way similar to the effect of a
modern spotlight. Because the background is so
dark, the action takes place in a shallow, stage-
like space, again reinforcing dramatic effect.
3.142 Caravaggio, Judith Along with many other artists in Europe in the The details Caravaggio has focused on, such as
Decapitating Holofernes, 1599. seventeenth century, Artemisia Gentileschi the seventeenth-century clothing, emphasize
Oil on canvas, 4’9” × 6’43⁄4”.
(1593–1652/53) imitated the artistic style of the ordinary aspects of this biblical event.
Galleria Nazionale d’Arte
Antica, Rome, Italy Italian artist Caravaggio (1571–1610). In Artemisia Gentileschi’s style was greatly
addition to being an accomplished painter, influenced by Caravaggio’s detailed realism
Caravaggio led a tumultuous existence. By the and dramatic use of tenebrism. In their
time he was in his late twenties, Caravaggio’s paintings on the same subject, Judith
innovative approach to painting had earned him decapitating Holofernes (see 3.142 and 3.143),
an impressive reputation and he was receiving both artists use extreme darks and lights for
Church commissions. At the same time, he was dramatic effect, emphasize the violence of
3.143 Artemisia Gentileschi, involved in numerous brawls; he eventually the scene through spurting blood and blood-
Judith Decapitating
killed a man in a fight over a tennis match. stained sheets, and show the female characters
Holofernes, c. 1620. Oil on
canvas, 6’63⁄ 8” × 5’33⁄ 4”. Uffizi While on the run from these charges, he died of performing the murder with a marked strength
Gallery, Florence, Italy unknown causes on a beach at the age of 39. and resolve that are untypical of conventional
Caravaggio’s paintings, ideas about feminine behavior at the time.
although often of religious stories, Gentileschi also infused her Judith image
look like everyday genre scenes, with active physical strength on the part of the
filled with people from the lower women in a way that allows the viewer to sense
classes, shown unidealized and the sheer effort required to sever the brute’s
wearing unkempt clothes. This head. By contrast, Caravaggio’s Judith, apart
naturalistic, down-to-earth from having powerful forearms, appears quite
approach offended some viewers delicate, and shocked at her deadly deed.
who believed religious figures in Judith’s maidservant in Caravaggio’s painting is
artworks should be presented as shown as an old woman who appears to take no
idealized individuals to signify their active part in the murder. The maidservant in
holiness. Caravaggio’s talent, Gentileschi’s scene, by contrast, physically
however, was also greatly restrains the Assyrian general as Judith severs
appreciated by many art lovers his head.


Genre: categories of artistic
subject matter, often with
strongly influential histories
and traditions
Tenebrism: dramatic use of
intense darkness and light
to heighten the impact of
a painting
Foreground: the part of a work
depicted as nearest to the viewer
Implied line: a line not actually
drawn but suggested by elements
in the work

3.140 Nicolas Poussin,
The Funeral of Phocion, 1648.
Oil on canvas, 447⁄ 8” × 687⁄ 8”.
National Museum of Wales,
Cardiff

3.141 Peter Paul Rubens,
the city (3.140). Phocion had been executed after finished works for important clients himself. center panel from The Raising
of the Cross, 1610–11. Oil on
being falsely accused of treason; because he His Raising of the Cross was one of several
canvas, 5’11⁄ 8” × 11’17⁄8”.
was considered a traitor, he was buried outside paintings commissioned by wealthy merchants Cathedral of Our Lady,
the city. to be installed in churches (3.141). Antwerp, Belgium
The composition highlights the tragedy of
Phocion’s burial as a traitor, when he was in fact
a hero who should have been honored. The two
figures carrying Phocion’s body, covered with
a white sheet, are prominently placed in the
foreground. The large tree to the right arches
over and creates an implied line from pallbearers
through the figures, trees, and buildings that
gradually become smaller as they recede into
space. The winding road both emphasizes the
distance of Phocion’s burial from the city and
creates a sense of deep space, skillfully guiding
our gaze into the landscape. The carefully
structured sense of the landscape continues the
Renaissance emphasis on balance and order.
Similarly, the classically designed buildings and
figures dressed in antique clothing call our
attention to the past.
Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) produced
about 2,000 paintings in his lifetime, an impressive
output made possible because he operated a large
workshop in Antwerp (in modern-day Belgium).
His assistants were responsible for producing
some of his paintings, but Rubens generally


In The Raising of the Cross, we can sense the of the company are shown busily organizing
physical exertions of these muscular men to themselves. This painting came to be known as
raise Christ on the cross. A dynamic tension is The Night Watch because its dark atmosphere
created along the diagonal line of the cross that made it look like a night scene. Rembrandt
visually connects the men at its base as they made skillful use of chiaroscuro, tenebrism,
strain to pull Christ up toward the right side and dramatic lighting to enliven his composition,
of the painting. Although, in fact, Christ would but the impression of night-time was actually
have been tortured and close to death at this created by years of accumulated dirt and layers
point, the artist has painted his flesh as almost of varnish. The painting was revealed to be
immaculate, and lighter than that of those a daytime scene when it was cleaned after
around him. In this way, and by bathing him World War II.
in light, Rubens makes Christ the focal point
and emphasizes his holiness.
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–69) was an
extremely popular painter who also had a large Discussion Questions
workshop at one point in his life. Yet, despite his
impressive reputation, he filed for bankruptcy 1 Find two examples of artworks in this
in old age. In The Night Watch, the gathering chapter in which linear perspective plays
of officers and guardsmen likely commemorates an important part. Point out the parts of
a visit by Queen Maria de’Medici to Amsterdam the composition that use linear perspective
in 1638 (3.144). The painting was commissioned to create the desired illusion. Discuss what
by the civic militia, and scholars believe that all the artist wants to communicate by using
of those portrayed in this scene contributed linear perspective.
3.144 Rembrandt van Rijn,
The Company of Frans financially to the artist’s fee. The Night Watch 2 From this chapter choose a northern
Banning Cocq and Willem is a fine example of Rembrandt’s innovative Renaissance artwork and an Italian
van Ruytenburch (The Night approach to a group portrait. His painting is Renaissance work. List the prominent
Watch), 1642. Oil on
not only convincing but also full of the vitality characteristics of each. Include information
canvas, 11’ 11” × 14’ 4”.
Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, and energy typical of a group getting ready for about both the form and the content of the
Netherlands an important occasion. The various members artworks in your lists.
3 Select three artworks that deal with subject
matter from the Bible. Consider how they
portray their biblical themes: examine style,
medium and technique, content, and any
other aspects that the artist emphasizes (1.70,
2.148, 4.163).
4 Select a Renaissance work and a Baroque
work from this chapter. List their similarities
and differences. Consider their subject
matter, style, content, and emotional
impact.
5 Select three Renaissance artworks that draw
on the artistic and intellectual heritage of
Classical Greece and Rome. Make a list of
the ways in which they use the Classical past.
Make another list of any Renaissance
innovations, either in terms of form or of
content. You might choose one work from
another chapter in this book, for example:
4.133, 4.136.


Images related to 3.6:
Art of Renaissance and Baroque Europe (1400–1750)

0.8 Leonardo da Vinci, 1.65 Masaccio, Trinity, 1.115 Piero della Francesca, 2.28 Jan van Eyck, The 4.133 Sandro Botticelli,
Mona Lisa, 1503–6, p. 33 c. 1425–26, p. 88 The Flagellation, c. 1649, Madonna of Chancellor Rolin, The Birth of Venus, c. 1482–6,
p. 119 1430–34, p. 185 p. 558

1.70 Andrea Mantegna, The 2.42 Albrecht Dürer, Four 2.2 Leonardo da Vinci, 2.148 Michelangelo, Creation 4.77 Parmigianino, Self-
Lamentation over the Dead Horsemen of the Apocalypse, Studies of the foetus in the of the Sun and the Moon, portrait in a Convex Mirror,
Christ, c. 1480, p. 91 c. 1497–8, p. 193 womb, c. 1510–13, p. 167 1508–10, p. 264 c. 1524, p. 511

4.136 Titian, Venus of Urbino, 1.144 Peter Bruegel the 1.124 Andrea Palladio, Plan 1.52 Caravaggio, The Calling 4.163 Rembrandt van Rijn,
1538, p. 560 Elder, Landscape with the Fall and part elevation/section of of St. Matthew, c. 1599–1600, Self-portrait with Saskia in the
of Icarus, c. 1555–8, p. 138 the Villa Rotonda, begun p. 79 Scene of the Prodigal Son at
1565/6, p. 127 the Tavern, c. 1635, p. 580

2.34 Artemisia Gentileschi, 2.16 Claude Lorrain, 4.29 Gianlorenzo Bernini, 1.169 Diego de Silva y 4.58 Johannes Vermeer,
Self-portrait as the Allegory The Tiber from Monte Mario The Ecstasy of St. Teresa, Velázquez, Las Meninas, Woman Holding a Balance,
of Painting (La Pittura), Looking South, 1640, p. 176 1645–52, p. 475 c. 1656, p. 160 c. 1664, p. 495
1638–9, p. 187


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