3ech01lecture 140425153610-phpapp02

psychology
CHAPTER
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
third edition
the science of
psychology
1

Learning Objectives
• LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology
• LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism
• LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
• LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow and Rogers
• LO 1.5 Psychiatrist, psychologist, and other professionals
• LO 1.6 Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method
• LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings
• LO 1.8 Case studies and surveys
• LO 1.9 Correlational technique
• LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms
• LO 1.11 Placebo and the experimenter effects
• LO 1.12 Conducting a real experiment
• LO 1.13 Ethical concerns in conducting research
• LO 1.14 Principles of critical thinking

What is Psychology?
• Psychology - scientific study of behavior
and mental processes.
– Behavior - outward or overt actions and
reactions.
– Mental processes - internal, covert activity of
our minds.
LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology

Psychology is a Science
• Prevent possible biases from leading to
faulty observations
• Precise and careful measurement

Psychology’s Four Goals
• Description
– What is happening?
• Explanation
– Why is it happening?
– Theory - general explanation of a set of
observations or facts

Psychology’s Four Goals
• Prediction
– Will it happen again?
• Control
– How can it be changed?

Structuralism
• Structuralism
– Focused on structure or basic elements of the
mind.
LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism

Structuralism
• Wilhelm Wundt’s psychology laboratory
– Germany in 1879
– Developed the technique of objective
introspection – process of objectively
examining and measuring one’s thoughts and
mental activities.

Structuralism
• Edward Titchener
– Wundt’s student; brought structuralism to
America.
• Margaret Washburn
– Titchener’s student; first woman to earn a
Ph.D. in psychology.
• Structuralism died out in early 1900s.

Functionalism
• Functionalism
– How the mind allows people to adapt, live,
work, and play.
• Proposed by William James.
• Influenced the modern fields of:
– Educational psychology
– Evolutionary psychology
– Industrial/organizational psychology

Gestalt Psychology
• Gestalt
– “good figure” psychology.
• Started with Wertheimer, who studied
sensation and perception.
• Gestalt ideas are now part of the study of
cognitive psychology, a field focusing not
only on perception but also on learning,
memory, thought processes, and problem
solving.
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism

Figure 1.1 A Gestalt Perception
The eye tends to “fill in” the blanks hereand sees both of these figures as circles rather than as a series of dots or a
broken line.

Psychoanalysis
• Psychoanalysis - the theory and therapy
based on the work of Sigmund Freud.
• Freud’s patients suffered from nervous
disorders with no found physical cause.
– Freud proposed that there is an unconscious
(unaware) mind into which we push, or
repress, all of our threatening urges and
desires.

Psychoanalysis
• Freud’s patients suffered from nervous
disorders with no found physical cause.
– He believed that these repressed urges, in
trying to surface, created nervous disorders.
– Freud stressed the importance of early
childhood experiences.

Behaviorism
• Behaviorism
– The science of behavior that focuses on
observable behavior only.
– Must be directly seen and measured.

Behaviorism
• Proposed by John B. Watson.
– Based much from work of Ivan
Pavlov who demonstrated that a
reflex could be conditioned
(learned).
– Watson believed that phobias
were learned.
 Case of “Little Albert” – taught to
fear a white rat.

Behaviorism
• Mary Cover Jones an early pioneer in
behavior therapy.

Modern Perspectives
• Psychodynamic perspective - modern
version of psychoanalysis.
– More focused on the development of a sense
of self and the discovery of other motivations
behind a person’s behavior than sexual
motivations.
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

Modern Perspectives
• Behavioral perspective
– B. F. Skinner studied operant conditioning of
voluntary behavior.
– Behaviorism became a major force in the
twentieth century.
– Skinner introduced the concept of
reinforcement to behaviorism.

Modern Perspectives
• Humanistic perspective
– Owes far more to the early roots of
psychology in the field of philosophy.
– Humanists held the view that people have
free will, the freedom to choose their own
destiny.
– Early founders:
 Abraham Maslow
 Carl Rogers

Modern Perspectives
• Humanistic perspective
– Emphasized the human potential, the ability of
each person to become the best person he or
she could be.
 Self-actualization - achieving one’s full potential or
actual self.

Modern Perspectives
• Cognitive perspective
– Focuses on memory, intelligence, perception,
problem solving, and learning.
• Sociocultural perspective
– Focuses on the relationship between social
behavior and culture.

Modern Perspectives
• Biopsychological perspective
– Attributes human and animal behavior to
biological events occurring in the body, such
as genetic influences, hormones, and the
activity of the nervous system.

Modern Perspectives
• Evolutionary perspective
– Focuses on the biological bases of universal
mental characteristics that all humans share.
– Looks at the way the mind works and why it
works as it does.
– Behavior is seen as having an adaptive or
survival value.

Types of Psychological Professionals
• Psychiatrist
– A medical doctor who has specialized in the
diagnosis and treatment of psychological
disorders.
• Psychoanalyst
– Either a psychiatrist or a psychologist who has
special training in the theories of Sigmund
Freud and his method of psychoanalysis.
LO 1.5 Psychiatrist, psychologist, and other professionals

• Psychiatric social worker
– A social worker with some training in therapy
methods who focuses on the environmental
conditions that can have an impact on mental
disorders, such as poverty, overcrowding,
stress, and drug abuse.

• Psychologist
– A professional with an academic degree and
specialized training in one or more areas of
psychology.
– Can do counseling, teaching, and research
and may specialize in any one of a large
number of areas within psychology.
– Areas of specialization in psychology include
clinical, counseling, developmental, social,
and personality, among others.

Figure 1.2 Work Settings and Subfields of Psychology
(a) There are many different work settings for psychologists. Although not obvious from the chart,many psychologists
work in more than one setting. For example, a clinical psychologist may work in a hospital setting and teach at a
university or college. (Tsapogas et al., 2006) (b) This pie chart shows the specialty areas of psychologists who recently
received their doctorates. (Hoffer et al., 2007)

Psychology and the Scientific Method
• Scientific method
– System of gathering data so that bias and
error in measurement are reduced.
LO 1.6 Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method

Psychology and the Scientific Method
• Steps in the Scientific Method:
1. Perceive the question.
2. Form a hypothesis – tentative explanation of a
phenomenon based on observations.
3. Test the hypothesis.
4. Draw conclusions.
5. Report your results so that others can try to
replicate - repeat the study or experiment to
see if the same results will be obtained in an
effort to demonstrate reliability of results.
LO 1.6 Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method

Descriptive Methods
LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings
• Naturalistic observation
– Watching animals or humans behave in their
normal environment.
• Major Advantage:
– Realistic picture of behavior.

Descriptive Methods
• Disadvantages:
– Observer effect - tendency of people or
animals to behave differently from normal
when they know they are being observed.
 Participant observation - a naturalistic observation
in which the observer becomes a participant in the
group being observed (to reduce observer effect).

Descriptive Methods
• Disadvantages:
– Observer bias - tendency of observers to see
what they expect to see.
 Blind observers – people who do not know what
the research question is (to reduce observer bias).
– Each naturalistic setting is unique and
observations may not hold.

Descriptive Methods
• Laboratory observation
– Watching animals or humans behave in a
laboratory setting.
• Advantages:
– Control over environment.
– Allows use of specialized equipment.

Descriptive Methods
• Disadvantage:
– Artificial situation that may result in artificial
behavior.
• Descriptive methods lead to the formation
of testable hypotheses.

Descriptive Methods
LO 1.8 Case studies and surveys
• Case study
– Study of one individual in great detail.
– Advantage:
 Tremendous amount of detail.
– Disadvantage:
 Cannot apply to others.
– Famous case study
 Phineas Gage.

Descriptive Methods
• Surveys
– Researchers will ask a series of questions
about the topic under study.
• Given to a representative sample -
randomly selected sample of subjects
from a larger population of subjects.
• Population
– The entire group of people or animals in
which the researcher is interested.

Descriptive Methods
• Advantages:
– Data from large numbers of people.
– Study covert behaviors.
• Disadvantages:
– Have to ensure representative sample (or
results not meaningful).
– People are not always accurate (courtesy
bias).

Descriptive Methods
• Random Sampling from Population
POPULATION
SAMPLEINFERENCE

Finding Relationships
LO 1.9 Correlational technique
• Correlation
– A measure of the relationship between two
variables.
– Variable
 Anything that can change or vary.

• Correlation
– Measures of two variables go into a
mathematical formula and produce a
correlation coefficient (r), which represents
two things:
 direction of the relationship.
 strength of the relationship.
– Knowing the value of one variable allows
researchers to predict the value of the other
variable.

• Correlation coefficient ranges from –1.00
to +1.00.
• Closer to 1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the
relationship between the variables.
– No correlation = 0.0.
– Perfect correlation = -1.00 OR +1.00.

• Positive correlation – variables are related
in the same direction.
– As one increases, the other increases; as one
decreases, the other decreases.
• Negative correlation – variables are
related in opposite direction.
– As one increases, the other decreases.
• CORRELATION DOES NOT PROVE
CAUSATION!!!

Figure 1.3 Five Scatterplots
These scatterplots show direction and strength of correlation. It should be noted that perfect correlations, whether
positive or negative, rarely occur in the real world.

The Experiment
LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms
• Experiment
– A deliberate manipulation of a variable to see
if corresponding changes in behavior result,
allowing the determination of cause-and-effect
relationships.
• Operational definition
– Definition of a variable of interest that allows it
to be directly measured.
– Definition: Aggressive play

The Experiment
• Independent variable (IV)
– Variable in an experiment that is manipulated
by the experimenter.
– IV: Violent TV
• Dependent variable (DV)
– Variable in an experiment that represents the
measurable response or behavior of the
subjects in the experiment.
– DV: Aggressive play

The Experiment
• Experimental group
– Subjects in an experiment who are subjected
to the independent variable.
– Exp Group: Watch TV

The Experiment
• Control group
– Subjects in an experiment who are not
subjected to the independent variable and
who may receive a placebo treatment
(controls for confounding variables).
– Control Group: No TV

The Experiment
• Random assignment
– Process of assigning subjects to the
experimental or control groups randomly, so
that each subject has an equal chance of
being in either group.
– Controls for confounding (extraneous,
interfering) variables.

• Random Assignment
The Experiment
SAMPLE
Control Group
Experimental Group
Test for Differences

Control Group
Experimental Group
The Experiment
• Confounding Variables
SAMPLE
Are differences due to manipulation
or confounding variable (mood)?

The Experiment
• No Confounding Variables
SAMPLE
Control Group
Experimental Group
Differences due to manipulation, not
an extraneous variable because mood
randomly determined.

The Experiment
LO 1.11 Placebo and the experimenter effects
• Placebo effect
– The phenomenon in which the expectations of
the participants in a study can influence their
behavior.
• Single-blind study
– Subjects do not know if they are in the
experimental or the control group (reduces
placebo effect).

The Experiment
• Experimenter effect
– Tendency of the experimenter’s expectations
for a study to unintentionally influence the
results of the study.
• Double-blind study
– Neither the experimenter nor the subjects
knows if the subjects are in the experimental
or control group (reduces placebo effect and
experimenter effect).

The Experiment
• Quasiexperimental designs
– Not considered true experiments because of
the inability to randomly assign participants to
the experimental and control groups (for
example, if age is the variable of interest).

Example of a Real Experiment
LO 1.12 Conducting a real experiment
• Hypothesis:
– Extrinsic (external) reward would reduce
creativity.
• Independent variable
– Two different sets of instructions.
• Dependent variable
– Creativity on art project as judged by raters
blind to the group assignment.

Example of a Real Experiment
LO 1.12 Conducting a real experiment
• Experimental group
– Instructed to make project to compete for an
award (prizes).
• Control group
– Instructed to make project for fun; prizes
would be raffled off.
• Results supported hypothesis:
– Those competing for extrinsic reward were
less creative.

Ethics in Psychological Research
LO 1.13 Ethical concerns in conducting research
• Ethics committees
– Groups of psychologists or other
professionals who look over each proposed
research study and judge it according to its
safety and consideration for the participants in
the study.

• Common ethical guidelines:
– Rights and well-being of participants must be
weighed against the study’s value to science.
– Participants must be allowed to make an
informed decision about participation.
– Deception must be justified.
– Participants may withdraw from the study at
any time.

– Participants must be protected from risks or
told explicitly of risks.
– Investigator must debrief participants, telling
the true nature of the study and expectations
of results.
– Data must remain confidential.

– If for any reason a study results in undesirable
consequences for the participant, the
researcher is responsible for detecting and
removing, or correcting, these consequences.

• Animal research
– Answers questions we could never do with
human research.
• Focus is on avoiding exposing them to
unnecessary pain or suffering.
• Animals are used in approximately 7% of
psychological studies.

• These rabbits are part of a drug-testing
study. Their bodies are enclosed in the
metal cases to prevent movement during
the test. What steps might the researchers
using these animals take to treat the
animals ethically?

Critical Thinking
LO 1.14 Principles of critical thinking
• Critical thinking
– Making reasoned judgments about claims.

Critical Thinking
LO 1.14 Principles of critical thinking
• Four Basic Criteria:
1. There are very few “truths” that do not need
to be subjected to testing.
2. All evidence is not equal in quality.
3. Just because someone is considered to be
an authority or to have a lot of expertise
does not make everything that person claims
automatically true.
4. Critical thinking requires an open mind.

3ech01lecture 140425153610-phpapp02

More Related Content

What's hot (16)

Similar to 3ech01lecture 140425153610-phpapp02 (20)

More from Cleophas Rwemera (20)

Recently uploaded (20)

3ech01lecture 140425153610-phpapp02