4 Instructional Routines for Word Study and FluencyThroughout th.docx

4 Instructional Routines for Word Study and Fluency
Throughout this book, we describe instructional strategies that
help young readers develop fluency, learn words, and learn how
to solve problems related to words. These are fine strategies.
They work. But effective instruction is more than simply the
sum of all these ideas; teachers must also consider how they fit
together into a coherent and effective curriculum. In this
chapter we offer some suggestions for planning a word‐learning,
fluency‐building curriculum.
Teaching styles, learning needs, and teachers’ and students’
preferences differ from classroom to classroom, even at the
same grade level in the same school building. Because of these
differences, teaching must involve planning curriculum. Nobody
knows the situation and children’s learning needs better than the
teacher who interacts daily with children.
4.1 Planning a Word‐Learning Curriculum
The curriculum planning process begins with careful thought
about broad aims for literacy learning. Teachers might consider
such questions as:
· What do I believe about literacy learning?
· What do I believe about children as learners?
· What is the role of the teacher?
· What sort of physical and psychological environment best
promotes learning?
· How would I characterize an excellent learning activity?
· What role should word learning play within an overall literacy
program?
Questions like these help teachers articulate their philosophies
of teaching, learning, and literacy. We recommend making notes
about beliefs because they are useful for guiding curriculum
planning, selecting instructional activities, and evaluating the
impact of programs on children as learners. Moreover, the
beliefs can be used to double‐check existing programs—to see if
children have sufficient opportunities to learn what’s important.

The next stage in curriculum planning is to establish a few
broad instructional goals. These goals, which reflect the
teacher’s beliefs, articulate expectations for children in a
particular grade. Goals provide the foundation for a reading
program; they describe the general areas within which literacy
instruction occurs. Here, for example, are Lyndell’s goals for
his kindergarten students:
· To develop interest in and appreciation for books and reading
· To develop and extend understanding of stories and
informative text
· To learn concepts of print and gain an awareness of key
features of books and printed language
· To develop phonemic awareness
In contrast, June’s goals for her second‐graders include:
· To develop interest in and appreciation for books and reading
· To develop and extend comprehension abilities with a variety
of genres
· To read fluently
· To solve word‐related reading problems successfully
Note that both sets of goals are comprehensive. Lyndell and
June develop their entire reading programs based on these goals
by ensuring that children have daily opportunities to develop
proficiency in the targeted areas. Note, too, that their first and
second goals are similar. Indeed, teachers throughout their
school have similar goals. This makes sense because positive
attitudes about reading and the continued focus on
comprehension are all teachers’ responsibilities.
The next stage in the curriculum planning process involves
selecting or developing instructional routines. A routine is a
regular block of time during which students engage in a
predictable set of instructional activities related to a particular
goal or set of goals. Teacher read‐aloud and Making and
Writing Words (see Chapter 10) are instructional routines, for
example. Routines are helpful in curriculum planning—together
they constitute the reading program. Routines also help students
behave independently—they know what to expect. Our focus in

this book is on fluency development and word learning, so our
discussion of routines will focus on these important aspects of
reading programs.
4.2 Principles for Routines
Some routines, like teacher read‐aloud, are features of most
classrooms. Others may be unique to the teacher or particular
group of children. A few years ago in our summer reading
program, for example, one child wanted to write a riddle on the
chalkboard one day. This idea quickly caught on—soon
everybody was looking for riddles, and the chalkboard was
covered with a new set each morning. So finding, writing,
reading, and solving riddles became a much‐anticipated routine
for this group of children. This riddle mania happened quite by
accident and probably wouldn’t have been as effective if
teachers had planned it. Despite the occasional serendipity,
effective routines for promoting word learning are generally
based on several important principles. In this section we
comment briefly on each.
Base Routines on What Children Need
Base routines on what children need, not on a skills list or
sequence of lessons in materials. Think back on your own early
years in school. Were you taught things you already knew?
Boring, wasn’t it? How about times when the lesson was not
beneficial—too abstract, say, or not immediately useful? If you
can’t think of anything, try rules for determining accents in
words or using semicolons. How many times did well‐meaning
teachers try to help you learn these rules? And when—if ever—
did you finally figure the rules out so that you could use them
in your reading and writing? Our point here is not to criticize
past educational practices; rather, we wish to underscore the
importance of basing instructional routines on what children
need.
Planning needs‐based instruction begins with determining
needs. Observing students, listening to them read, and even
analyzing their invented spellings are good ways to do this.
Talking to children can also offer useful insights. We frequently

ask children, “What do you do when you come to a word that
you don’t know?” “What do you do if that doesn’t work?”
“What does good reading sound like?” Children’s answers,
especially when considered along with samples of their oral
reading, often provide on‐target direction for instruction.
Next, classroom management issues must be resolved. The odds
are slim that all children will have the same needs, so teachers
must think about how to coordinate several classroom activities
simultaneously. We offer two pieces of advice here. First,
remember that the predictable nature of routines enables
children to behave independently as learners. Second, remember
that the best way to practice reading, frequently what the rest of
the children do while the teacher works with some, is to read.
An effective record‐keeping system is also necessary. Some
teachers make notes on index cards or large computer labels.
Others keep charts with children’s names down one side and
skills or strategies across the top. Another alternative is to keep
lists of words or skills in children’s reading portfolios and to
indicate the dates on which children demonstrate proficiency.
The format of the records is a matter of personal preference, but
their existence is not. Teachers need a way to keep track of
what children know and what instruction can promote
word‐learning growth.
Is all this effort worth it? We believe that it is, for two major
reasons. First, for decades scholars have searched in vain for
the single best way to teach all children to read. Nothing works
for everyone, so attention to individual readers’ needs is
warranted. The second reason is, most likely, related to the
first: children are different. Here’s how Cunningham and
Allington (1999) put it:
Anyone who has ever observed how different children from the
same family behave knows that all children do not learn,
respond, and think in the same manner. Successful parents
recognize the differences in their children and adjust their rules,
routines, and interactions accordingly, in order to maximize the
potential of each of their children. (p. 15)

We believe that teachers can take a lesson from parents in this
regard. Providing effective instruction depends on the teacher’s
ability to determine both what children need to know and how
they can best learn. No predetermined list of skills or sequence
of instructional material can provide this insight.
Maximize Time on Task
It almost goes without saying that children need time to read in
order to become readers. We say almost because sometimes
instructional time is spent doing lots of reading‐related and
reading‐like activities but very little reading. Surely responding
to reading and working with words or even parts of words are
important, but most important is time on task—reading
connected text. Time spent reading is related to achievement in
reading (Anderson, Wilson, and Fielding 1988; Postlethwaite
and Ross 1992; Rupley, Wise, and Logan 1986).
The focus of children’s attention during instruction is another
issue related to time. This is especially true for children who
struggle as readers. Descriptions of instruction for struggling
readers show lack of opportunity for and emphasis on
meaningful reading (Allington 1977, 1980; McDermott 1978).
Instead, less able readers were asked to focus almost
exclusively on decoding. As Allington (1977) has asked, “If
they don’t read much, how they ever gonna get good?”
Sometimes we’re so busy teaching that we ignore this critical
issue of time on the task of reading. Observing three readers for
a couple of days is one way to begin to understand how much
time students spend reading. A high‐achieving reader, an
average reader, and a low‐achieving reader might be selected,
and the teacher might tally minutes spent reading—not engaging
in reading‐related activity, but actually reading. This quick
check is sometimes a real eye‐opener.
Word‐learning activities are important, but children need
plentiful and daily opportunities to read and listen to texts read
aloud. After all, that’s what all the word learning is for. Besides
that, both reading and listening foster fluency development.

Make It Engaging, Varied, and Fun
Many of the word‐learning activities we describe in this book
have a game‐like feel to them. This is purposeful. Children
learn best when they are successful and enjoy what they are
doing. We want students to be readers, to see the value in
reading for their lives in and out of school, and to feel confident
in their abilities to solve the inevitable problems readers
encounter. Enjoyable, success‐oriented word‐learning activities
can support the achievement of these goals.
What makes an activity enjoyable for children? Competition can
be enjoyable, but only for the winners. Struggling readers,
particularly, may not enjoy competitions that they regularly
lose. Opportunities to win small prizes or other forms of
external motivation can also be enjoyable; however, unlike
internal motivation—doing something for personal reasons—
external motivation ceases when the particular task is concluded
(Sweet and Guthrie 1996). Too many competitions or activities
dependent solely on external motivation, then, are probably not
advisable. Aside from these general guidelines, each teacher
will probably have to decide what makes an activity enjoyable.
But remember, a teacher’s enthusiasm for an activity
contributes to its allure.
Opportunities to be successful are also important. The repeated
readings characteristic of fluency practice have success built in.
Also, divergent thinking activities like open word sorts (see
Chapter 11) invite success because of the many ways to
complete them. One way to ensure success, then, is to provide
frequent opportunities for children to engage in open‐ended
word‐learning activities. Divergent thinking activities that pose
problems for children to solve will engage them actively as
learners. The level of difficulty of an activity also affects the
likelihood of success. Here, teachers should strive for activities
that are challenging but not frustrating, neither too easy nor too
difficult.

Choice is motivating for students. For diverse students, such as
English language learners (ELLs) or students with special needs
in reading, motivation is linked to learner empowerment (see,
e.g., Guthrie and Humenick 2004; Guthrie, Rueda, Gambrell and
Morrison 2009). That is, when a student has an individual goal
that has an immediate value, the student is more likely to be
engaged.
Note that choice is not about whether or not to do something. It
is a choice between two competing options. A parent may say,
“Would you like broccoli or beans?” rather than, “Would you
like a vegetable?” While you plan your curriculum, think about
choice. You could list several word‐sorting activities, for
example, and request that each student complete two. Likewise,
fluency instruction can feature choice of texts.
Make It Consistent
Whether the instructional routine is a daily event or a series of
activities that take place over the course of a week, try to keep
the general structure of the routine as consistent and transparent
as possible. If a routine changes markedly from one day to the
next, precious time will be spent in explaining and
implementing the change. Many teachers’ daily sustained silent
reading (SSR) periods provide a good example of this principle.
When done well, SSR takes place at the same time each day.
Activities are consistent—students select a book or two to read,
choose a location for reading, and engage in independent silent
reading for 15 to 20 minutes. The teacher might put on some
classical music to set the mood and to mask distractions. A
noise may mark the end of each session, after which students
spend three minutes writing summaries or responses to their
reading. Finally, the teacher may ask students to discuss their
reading in some brief way. With the final response, the routine
ends.
Develop Home‐School Connections
One clear conclusion from five years of research supported by
the National Reading Research Center relates to this principle:
“Literacy learning occurs both at school and home, and

connections between home and school enhance children’s
learning in both environments” (Baumann and Duffy 1997, p.
21). Effective teachers realize the importance of inviting the
home and community into the classroom. They know that
reading is not just for school; it’s for life.
Research is clear about the uniformly positive effects of
promoting home‐school partnerships. In one multinational
study, parental involvement and support was the most important
characteristic of schools where children achieved exceptionally
well as readers (Postlethwaite and Ross 1992). Another research
project looked at the relationships among classroom support,
home support, and low‐income children’s achievement in
reading (Snow 1991). Results show the enormous impact of both
of these factors on children’s achievement (see Figure 4.1).
Chapter 18 offers many ways to nurture home‐school
partnerships.
Figure 4.1 Home Support, Classroom Support, and the
Percentage of Children Who Achieve Success
Home Support
Classroom Support
High
Low
High
100%
100%
Mixed
100%
25%
Low
60%
0%
Source: Based on Snow (1991); adapted from Cunningham and
Allington (1999), p. 2.

Use a Whole‐to‐Part‐to‐Whole Model for Teaching Skills and
Strategies
Learning about words and parts of words is most successful and
meaningful if students first focus on whole text. A narrower
highlight on words or word parts follows, after which teachers
and students explore the usefulness of new knowledge—how
knowing about the ‐it family, for example, can help students
solve word‐related problems in reading. This focus on problem
solving for authentic purposes seems natural to children because
it mirrors the way they learned oral language:
Babies use a variety of strategies to discover relationships about
language and thinking. . . . They find ways to distinguish the
sounds of language from the sounds of cars, cats, and fire
engines. In order to learn they do not have to isolate these
sounds. . . . As a consequence of using language and thought
authentically children have learned to sample, infer, predict,
confirm, and integrate new information into their existing
linguistic and pragmatic schema. These same strategies are used
by students learning to read if they are permitted to capitalize
on them in the classroom and if significant written context is
available. (Goodman, Watson, and Burke 1996, p. 53)
A skill becomes a strategy with purposeful use. In the final
analysis word‐learning skills are useful only if students can
apply them when they need to, as in the case of an unknown
word. Routines designed to foster word learning should seek to
develop both skills and strategies. The best way to accomplish
this is to begin an instructional routine within an authentic
reading context, pull from that context the skills and content to
be taught, and end by returning the focus to meaningful and
authentic context.
Enhancement of children’s sight vocabularies—those words
they recognize immediately without thought—is another goal of
word‐learning activities. Essentially this memorization process
happens as a result of many meaningful encounters with words.
We do not foster sight vocabulary growth by solely and
extensively asking children to look at words in isolation, as on

flash cards; instead, words become known by sight because
children have seen and used them successfully in multiple
contexts. Also, teachers should look for opportunities to focus
children’s attention on the visual features of the words. Here are
several ways to do this (also see word bank activities listed in
Chapter 11):
· Ask children to locate and circle all examples of a sight word
in a story they are reading.
· Place the words on word walls and practice reading the words
(see Chapter 9).
· Record the words in personal or class dictionaries or add them
to students’ word banks.
· Make word collages—cut the words out of old magazines and
paste on construction paper.
· Construct the words with magnetic letters; write the words in
the sand tray, in finger paint, or in shaving cream.
· Play word games with the words (see Chapter 14).
Remember the Overall Goal: Grow Readers
The final principle for establishing word‐learning routines
reminds us to keep word learning in perspective, not to lose the
forest for the trees. As Baumann and Duffy (1997) note,
“Reading skills and strategies can be taught effectively and
efficiently when instruction is systematic and integrated with
quality children’s literature” (p. 17). In other words, although
important, instruction in words and word learning should not be
the focus of the reading program. Reading aloud to children,
guiding children to read texts themselves, and encouraging
students to read and write independently and with one another
are also essential. Next we explore some ways to plan
instruction so that all these features receive the emphasis they
deserve.
4.3 Types of Routines
Designing a classroom reading program involves making some
decisions about using space. For example, some teachers create
centers, such as a book nook for independent reading, a writing
center filled with writing tools (including computers), and a

words center where children can complete word‐related
activities either independently or with partners. Others prefer
for children to work at their tables or desks. In either case, the
classroom should be organized to promote independent learning.
Daily lists of things to do or simply written charts posted
around the classroom can save lots of time. Children won’t have
to wait for instructions; they will be able to get about the
business of learning.
Teachers must also decide how to break up the larger block of
reading time. In part, this decision may involve thinking about
how large the instructional group will be—Whole class? Small
groups? Individual activity? Many of the activities we describe
in this book can work well within any of these formats. We
offer a word of caution, however, about whole‐group
instruction—for this organizational scheme to work effectively,
all children must be appropriately engaged all the time. This is
a time‐on‐task issue.
The Four Blocks design, developed by Pat Cunningham and her
colleagues, is a particularly promising curriculum framework.
(See Chapter 1 for a description of Four Blocks.) Over a decade
of research has shown its effectiveness with all young learners,
particularly those who struggle with learning to read
(Cunningham 2006; Cunningham, Hall, and Defee 1998). We
find the model useful for teachers at all grade levels. Devoting
approximately equal time (Cunningham and colleagues suggest
about 30 minutes each day) to each of the four blocks—
self‐selected reading, guided reading, working with words, and
writing—ensures a balanced reading and writing program that
gives children ample opportunities to achieve the goals that the
teacher has set.
Within each of the four blocks, teachers design smaller‐scale
routines of related activities. For example, in one classroom the
daily self‐selected reading routine may consist of 10 minutes of
teacher read‐aloud, 15 minutes of student silent reading, and 5
minutes of writing in response journals. In another classroom,

the same block may involve student silent reading for 20
minutes followed by 10 minutes of oral sharing and response.
The routines for the working with words block might consist of
activities described in this book. Here’s one example:
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
1. Read word wall
1. Read word family poems
1. Read word wall
1. Poetry festival
1. Word games
2. Mini‐lesson
2. Student word family poems
2. Mini‐lesson
2. Word sorts
3. Making and Writing Words
3. Word sorts
3. Making and Writing Words
4. Cloze
4. Cloze
Teachers do not need to march children through the blocks each
day. Indeed, some effective lessons involve several of the
blocks simultaneously. The Fluency Development Lesson (see
Chapter 16) is an example, since children participate in both
guided reading and word‐related activities in a brief 10‐ to
15‐minute period. Books and poetry (see Chapter 5) can be used

for word family instruction, word sorts, word walls, repeated
readings, and paired readings. So the point is not to shift
reading‐related gears every 30 minutes; rather, when thinking
about children’s learning opportunities in a day or a week,
teachers should see that the various areas receive appropriate
emphasis.
Over several years fourth‐grade teacher Lorraine Griffith has
created a very successful 20‐ to 30‐minute daily fluency routine
(Griffith and Rasinski 2004). Each week a new passage (poem,
speech, readers theater script, monologue, dialogue, etc.) is
introduced to small groups of students or individuals. Early in
the week Lorraine models fluent readings of the texts as
students follow along. As the week progresses, students read
and practice the texts with partners and on their own, in school
and at home, with the teacher (and parents) coaching and giving
feedback and plenty of praise. On Fridays students perform
their texts for the teacher, fellow students, parents, and others.
The following week the routine begins again.
Griffith and Rasinski (2004) report remarkable yearly gains in
reading fluency and overall reading achievement as a result of
this instructional routine. Analyses of three years of data
revealed that struggling fourth‐grade readers made, on average,
close to three years’ growth in reading achievement in their
year with her!
4.4 When Readers Struggle
Young children struggle with the learning‐to‐read process for
many reasons. Some have language barriers; others have special
needs. Some may have had little exposure to books and print
prior to school entrance. Still others may simply be late
bloomers—children who are not yet developmentally ready to
learn what the school system has designated for them.
Regardless of the reasons, these children need all the support
we can provide. Here, we offer several guidelines and
adaptations that may help struggling readers to succeed
(Cunningham and Allington 1999; Five and Dionisio 1999).

Chief among the guidelines is, we believe, to forget about the
child’s age or what other children are doing and to focus instead
on the struggling reader’s needs. Successful learning
experiences, important for all, are doubly important for
struggling readers. Teachers must focus on students’ strengths,
not their weaknesses, and must plan many daily opportunities
for children to succeed with reading and reading‐related
activity. Sometimes this involves slowing down, allowing
children time to grow and progress at their own rates. Often,
teachers must find texts the child can read successfully. Other
times, instructional adaptations may be necessary. For example,
children might listen to an audio version of a book the class is
using while reading the book. Or a buddy or tutor may read to
or with the child. These strategies allow the child to be an
active and successful participant in classroom activities.
Another general principle for working with struggling readers is
this: keep it real. Sometimes we think that breaking reading
down into minute skills or subskills will make it easier for
children to learn. Not so. Some instructional programs for
struggling readers even focus on shapes, pictures, or nonsense
words. These are not effective: “Numerous studies have shown
that matching shapes and pictures as preliminary instruction for
letter and word discrimination is useless. . . . If we want
students to visually identify the distinguishing features of
letters and words, [lessons] should include letters and words,
not nonword forms” (McCormick 1999, p. 477).
So what might a routine for struggling readers look like? First,
it’s essential that children can successfully read most materials.
More invitations to read familiar books may accomplish this
goal. Moreover, careful observation, including numerous
opportunities to listen to and analyze the child’s reading, will
help determine the focus for instruction, which may differ from
other students’ mini‐lessons. Multiple opportunities to read
successfully coupled with needs‐based instruction (and frequent
celebrations of success) will go a long way toward ensuring that
struggling readers achieve.

Coordination is another guideline. Coordinating with other
teachers, whether Title I, special education, ELL/bilingual
education, or Reading Recovery, is absolutely essential.
Without joint planning, what begins as an effort to provide
additional assistance may result in a “confusing and unhelpful
conglomeration of reading lessons and activities” (Cunningham
and Allington 1999, p. 202). Some teachers accomplish
coordinated instruction by team‐teaching; others plan jointly.
All keep in close contact about the child’s needs and what’s
happening in the child’s classroom. This close coordination
pays off:
What is common among the very best programs is that children
spend most of their time actually reading and writing in a way
that supports classroom success. The support children receive
from the specialist teacher provides immediate returns in
improved reading and writing during classroom instruction.
(Cunningham and Allington 1999, p. 203)
Volunteers, such as parent helpers, tutors, older students, or
senior citizens, can also provide extra support for struggling
readers. Before eliciting tutors’ assistance, however, teachers
should decide what tutors might do and how to teach them what
they need to know to work successfully with children. Many of
the activities we describe in this book can easily and
successfully be adapted for tutoring. For example, tutors and
children can play word games, or the tutor can listen to the
child read a poem, dictated account, or pattern book. Most
children can make considerable progress in reading if their
strong classroom program is supplemented with the extra
opportunities that one‐on‐one tutoring can provide. The time it
takes to plan these tutoring opportunities and to help tutors
learn about their roles is well worth it in the long run.
Teaching a young child who struggles with reading is
sometimes a challenge, but it can also be very rewarding
because doing so gives a child the gift of literacy. Although we
have no easy answers for assisting struggling readers, we agree

with Five and Dionisio (1999), who note that nearly all children
“can succeed when we include them as valued members of [the
classroom], enable them to work and learn collaboratively with
peers, build on their strengths and knowledge, and meet their
individual needs through explicit instruction” (p. 5).
Response to Intervention—RTI
In recent years a new concept called Response to Intervention
(RTI) has captured the interest of educators and educational
policy makers (Fuchs, Fuchs, and Vaughn 2008). Actually, RTI
is not new at all; it is what good teachers have always done with
students—make needs‐based decisions about instruction.
Essentially, RTI is an overarching, formalized instructional
routine that aims to ensure that the instructional needs of all
students are being met.
RTI assumes various levels and types of instruction to meet
students’ needs. Usually this takes the form of three tiers of
instruction. Tier 1 instruction is the common core curriculum
provided to all students. In any given classroom most students
(e.g., 80 percent) should make good progress as a result of Tier
1 instruction. Regular assessments allow teachers to determine
the students who are progressing well and those who are not.
Students who are not progressing move to Tier 2 instruction,
which is additional targeted instruction that supplements but
does not supplant Tier 1. Tier 3 adds another layer of
instruction and instructional intensity for those students who are
not making sufficient progress in Tier 2. Special education
personnel are ordinarily involved in Tier 3 instruction.
Molly teaches third‐graders. She assesses students early in the
year by asking them to read several grade‐level passages. She
notices that about a third of her students appear to have word
recognition and/or fluency difficulties. These students are
placed in Tier 2 intervention in addition to the reading
curriculum she offers to all students. In her Tier 2 instruction,
children receive 15 extra instructional minutes each day. They
do word sorts with high‐frequency words and engage in

word‐building activities (e.g., Making and Writing Words).
Molly’s home‐involvement program asks parents to do paired
and repeated reading with students (Fast Start; see Chapter 18)
nightly for 15 minutes. After several weeks, Molly reassesses
students and adjusts instruction as needed. She finds that one or
two students need Tier 3 support each year, but she notes:
“Nearly all students achieve their goals. One of the things I like
about RTI is that everyone gets the same curriculum. It only
differs in intensity and time. I think that’s better for the
children.”
In Conclusion
Michael Pressley (2002) reviewed several studies of classrooms
of highly effective reading teachers, looking for commonalities.
He found that these teachers:
· Had excellent classroom management
· Communicated a positive tone
· Taught skills explicitly in the context of real reading and
writing
· Had lots of books available; provided lots of time for children
to read real books
· Taught in very academically busy classrooms
· Used an assess—plan—teach model; children did what they
needed to do; teachers used assessment results to make
instructional decisions
· Scaffolded, monitored, and provided just the right amount of
support
· Encouraged self‐regulation
· Fostered strong connections across curriculum
Teacher decision making is central to the creation of such a
classroom: “There are no quick fixes with regard to improving
children’s literacy. There’s no reform package that a school can
buy that delivers improved achievement with certainty. The
influences of packaged reforms are often uneven or small”
(Pressley 2002, p. 180).
Children will learn what they have the opportunity to learn.

Moreover, no one knows children’s needs and interests as
readers better than their classroom teacher. For these reasons,
curriculum planning must be part of the teacher’s responsibility.
Effective instruction in word learning is more than just the sum
of interesting and engaging activities. To plan effective
instruction, the teacher must first look at the big picture—think
about beliefs and establish instructional goals. These ideas are
used to develop complete programs, which are designed to make
the best use of children’s time and to help them achieve the goal
of proficient reading.

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