41_lecture_presentation_ggggggggggg0.ppt

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
PowerPoint®
Lecture Presentations for
Biology
Eighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Chapter 41
Animal Nutrition

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Overview: The Need to Feed
• Food is taken in, taken apart, and taken up in
the process of animal nutrition.
• In general, animals fall into three categories:
– Herbivores eat mainly autotrophs (plants and
algae).
– Carnivores eat other animals.
– Omnivores regularly consume animals as well
as plants or algal matter.

An animal’s diet must supply chemical energy,
organic molecules, and essential nutrients
• An animal’s diet provides chemical energy,
which is converted into ATP and powers
processes in the body.
• Animals need a source of organic carbon and
organic nitrogen in order to construct organic
molecules.
• Essential nutrients are required by cells and
must be obtained from dietary sources.

Essential Nutrients
• There are four classes of essential nutrients:
– Essential amino acids
– Essential fatty acids
– Vitamins
– Minerals

Essential Amino Acids
• Animals require 20 amino acids and can
synthesize about half from molecules in their
diet.
• The remaining amino acids, the essential
amino acids must be obtained from food in
preassembled form.
• A diet that provides insufficient essential amino
acids causes malnutrition called protein
deficiency.

• Meat, eggs, and cheese provide all the essential
amino acids and are thus “complete” proteins.
• Most plant proteins are incomplete in amino acid
makeup.
• Individuals who eat only plant proteins need to eat
specific plant combinations to get all essential amino
acids.
• Some animals have adaptations that help them
through periods when their bodies demand
extraordinary amounts of protein.

Essential amino acids from a vegetarian diet
Beans
and other
legumes
Corn (maize)
and other grains
Lysine
8 Essential amino acids for adults
Tryptophan
Isoleucine
Leucine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Valine
Methionine

Essential Fatty Acids
• Animals can synthesize most of the fatty acids
they need.
• The essential fatty acids are certain
unsaturated fatty acids that must be obtained
from the diet.
• Deficiencies in fatty acids are rare.

Vitamins
• Vitamins are organic molecules required in the
diet in small amounts. Many vitamins function
as coenzymes.
• 13 vitamins essential to humans have been
identified.
• Vitamins are grouped into two categories: fat-
soluble and water-soluble.

41_lecture_presentation_ggggggggggg0.ppt

Minerals
• Minerals are simple inorganic nutrients,
usually required in small amounts. Minerals
serve a variety of important functions including
enzymes cofactors.

Dietary Deficiencies
• Undernourishment is the result of a diet that
consistently supplies less chemical energy than
the body requires.
• Malnourishment is the long-term absence
from the diet of one or more essential nutrients.

Undernourishment
• An undernourished individual will
– Use up stored fat and carbohydrates
– Break down its own proteins
– Lose muscle mass
– Suffer protein deficiency of the brain
– Die or suffer irreversible damage.

Malnourishment
• Malnourishment can cause deformities,
disease, and death. Malnourishment can be
corrected by changes to a diet.
• Insights into human nutrition have come from
epidemiology, the study of human health and
disease in populations.
• Neural tube defects were found to be the result
of a deficiency in folic acid in pregnant
mothers.

Question: Can diet influence the frequency of birth defects?

The main stages of food processing are ingestion,
digestion, absorption, and elimination
• Ingestion is the act of eating. There are a
variety of types of eating:
• Suspension feeders
• Substrate feeders
• Fluid feeders
• Bulk feeders

Suspension Feeders
• Many aquatic animals are suspension
feeders, which sift small food particles from the
water.

Humpback whale, a suspension feeder
Baleen

Substrate feeders are animals that live in or on their food
source.
Leaf miner caterpillar, a substrate feeder
Caterpillar Feces

Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host.
Mosquito, a fluid feeder

Bulk feeders eat relatively large pieces of food.
Rock python, a bulk feeder

• Digestion is the process of breaking food down into
soluble molecules - small enough to absorb.
– In chemical digestion, the process of enzymatic
hydrolysis splits bonds in molecules with the addition
of water.
• Absorption is uptake of nutrients by body cells.
• Elimination is the passage of undigested material out
of the digestive compartment.

The four stages of food processing
Ingestion Digestion
Mechanical & Chemical
Digestion
Absorption Elimination
Undigested
material
Chemical
digestion
(enzymatic
hydrolysis)
Nutrient
molecules
enter body
cells
Small
molecules
Mechanical
digestion
Food
Pieces
of food
1 2 3 4

Digestive Compartments
• Most animals process food in specialized
compartments. These compartments reduce the risk
of an animal digesting its own cells and tissues.
• Intracellular digestion, food particles are engulfed by
endocytosis and digested within food vacuoles.
• Extracellular digestion is the breakdown of food
particles outside of cells. It occurs in compartments
that are continuous with the outside of the animal’s
body.

Digestion
in a
hydra
Gastrovascular
cavity
Food
Epidermis
Mouth
Tentacles
Gastrodermis

• Animals with simple body plans have a
gastrovascular cavity with only one opening
that functions as mouth / anus. This
gastrovascular cavity functions in both
digestion and distribution of nutrients.
• More complex animals have a digestive tube
with two openings, a mouth and an anus.
• This one way digestive tube is called a
complete digestive tract or an alimentary
canal. It can have specialized regions that
carry out digestion and absorption in a
stepwise, efficient fashion.

Variation in
alimentary
canals
Esophagus
Mouth
Pharynx
Crop Gizzard
Typhlosole
Intestine
Lumen of intestine
Anus
(b) Grasshopper
Foregut
(c) Bird
(a) Earthworm
Midgut Hindgut
Esophagus Rectum
Anus
Mouth
Crop
Gastric cecae
Esophagus
Mouth
Crop
Anus
Stomach
Gizzard
Intestine

Esophagus
Mouth
Pharynx
Crop -
storage Gizzard - mechanical digestion
Typhlosole
Increases surface area
for absorption
Intestine - chemical digestion
Lumen of intestine
Anus
(a) Earthworm

(b) Grasshopper
Foregut
Mouth
Crop
Gastric cecae
Hydrolytic enzymes produced
Esophagus Rectum
Anus
Midgut Hindgut

(c) Bird
Stomach
Gizzard
Intestine
Esophagus
Anus
Crop
Mouth

Organs specialized for sequential stages of food
processing form the mammalian digestive system
• The mammalian digestive system consists of
an alimentary canal and accessory glands that
secrete digestive juices through ducts.
• Mammalian accessory glands are the salivary
glands, the pancreas, the liver, and the
gallbladder.

• Food is pushed along by peristalsis, rhythmic
contractions of smooth muscles in the wall of
the alimentary canal.
• Valves called sphincters regulate the
movement of material between compartments.

human digestive system
Cecum
Anus Anus
Ascending
portion of
large intestine
Gall-
bladder
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Small
intestine
Rectum
Pancreas
Liver
Salivary glands
Tongue
Oral cavity
Pharynx
Esophagus
Sphincter
Stomach
pyloric
sphincter
Duodenum of
small intestine
Appendix
Liver
Pancreas
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
Stomach
Gall-
bladder
A schematic diagram of the
human digestive system
Esophagus
Salivary
glands
Mouth

Cecum
Anus
Ascending
portion of
large intestine
Gall-
bladder
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Small
intestine
Rectum
Pancreas
Liver
Salivary glands
Tongue
Oral cavity
Pharynx
Esophagus
Sphincter
Stomach
pyloric
sphincter
Duodenum of
small intestine
Appendix

A Schematic
Diagram
of the
Human
Digestive
System
Anus
Liver
Pancreas
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
Stomach
Gall-
bladder
Esophagus
Salivary
glands
Mouth

The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
• The first stage of digestion is mechanical and
takes place in the oral cavity.
• Salivary glands deliver saliva to lubricate
food.
• Teeth chew food into smaller particles. This is
mechanical digestion that increases the
surface area exposed to the enzyme:
salivary amylase, initiating breakdown of
glucose polymers = carbohydrate digestion.

• The tongue shapes food into a bolus and
provides help with swallowing.
• The region we call our throat is the pharynx, a
junction that opens to both the esophagus and
the trachea (windpipe).
• The trachea leads to the lungs.

• The esophagus conducts food from the
pharynx down to the stomach by peristalsis.
• Swallowing causes the epiglottis to block entry
to the trachea, and the bolus is guided by the
larynx, the upper part of the respiratory tract.
• Coughing occurs when the swallowing reflex
fails and food or liquids reach the windpipe.

From mouth to stomach: the swallowing reflex
and peristalsis
Larynx
Trachea
Epiglottis
up
Pharynx
Tongue
Glottis
Esophagus
Esophageal
sphincter
contracted
Food
To
stomach
To
lungs

and peristalsis
Larynx
Trachea
Epiglottis
up
Pharynx
Tongue
Glottis
Esophagus
Esophageal
sphincter
contracted
Food
To
stomach
To
lungs
Epiglottis
down
Esophageal
sphincter
relaxed
Glottis up
and closed

and peristalsis
Larynx
Trachea
Epiglottis
up
Pharynx
Tongue
Glottis
Esophagus
Esophageal
sphincter
contracted
Food
To
stomach
To
lungs
Epiglottis
down
Esophageal
sphincter
relaxed
Glottis up
and closed
Esophageal
sphincter
contracted
Sphincter
relaxed
Relaxed
muscles
Contracted
muscles
Relaxed
muscles
Stomach
Glottis
down
and open

Chemical Digestion in the Stomach
• The stomach stores food and secretes gastric juice,
which converts a meal to acid chyme.
• Gastric juice is made up of hydrochloric acid and the
enzyme pepsin.
• Parietal cells secrete hydrogen and chloride ions
separately.
• Chief cells secrete inactive pepsinogen, which is
activated to pepsin when mixed with hydrochloric acid
in the stomach.
• Mucus protects the stomach lining from gastric juice.

The stomach
and its
secretions
Interior surface
of stomach
Esophagus
Chief cells
Small
intestine
Epithelium
Stomach
Sphincter
Parietal cell
Pepsinogen
and HCl
are secreted.
HCl converts
pepsinogen to
pepsin.
Pepsin activates
more pepsinogen.
Chief cell
Folds of
epithelial
tissue
Pepsin
Sphincter
Pepsinogen
HCl
H+
Cl–
Parietal cells
Mucus cells
Gastric gland
1
2
2
3.
3
3
1
5
µm

• Gastric ulcers, lesions in the lining, are caused mainly
by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.
• Coordinated contraction and relaxation of stomach
muscle churn the stomach’s contents.
• Sphincters prevent chyme from entering the
esophagus and regulate its entry into the small
intestine.

Digestion in the Small Intestine
• The small intestine is the longest section of
• It is the major organ of digestion and
absorption.

Enzymatic hydrolysis in the human digestive system
Oral cavity,
pharynx,
esophagus
Stomach
Lumen of
small
intestine
Epithelium
of small
intestine
(brush
border)
Carbohydrate digestion
Polysaccharides
Smaller polysaccharides,
maltose
Polysaccharides
Maltose and other
disaccharides
Disaccharides
Protein digestion Nucleic acid digestion Fat digestion
Proteins
Small polypeptides
Pepsin
Pancreatic amylases
Salivary amylase
Disaccharidases
Monosaccharides
Small peptides
Amino acids
Amino acids
Polypeptides
Smaller
polypeptides
Pancreatic trypsin and
chymotrypsin
Pancreatic carboxypeptidase
Dipeptidases, carboxypeptidase,
and aminopeptidase
DNA, RNA
Pancreatic
nucleases
Fat globules
Nucleotides
Fat droplets
Nucleosides
Nitrogenous bases,
sugars, phosphates
Nucleotidases
Nucleosidases
and
phosphatases
Glycerol, fatty
acids, monoglycerides
Bile salts
Pancreatic lipase
(starch, glycogen) (sucrose, lactose)

• The first portion of the small intestine is the
duodenum, where acid chyme from the
stomach mixes with digestive juices from the
pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and the small
intestine itself.

Hormonal
control of
digestion
Secretin
and CCK
Stomach
Gallbladder
Liver
+
Duodenum
of
small intestine
Bile
Gastrin
Secretin
Pancreas
CCK
CCK
Key
Stimulation
Inhibition
+
–
+
+
+ –

Pancreatic Secretions
• The pancreas produces proteases trypsin and
chymotrypsin, protein-digesting enzymes that
are activated after entering the duodenum.
• Its solution is alkaline and neutralizes the acidic
chyme.

Bile Production by the Liver
• In the small intestine, bile aids in digestion and
absorption of fats. Bile emulsifies fat. This is
physical NOT chemical digestion. Fat
emulsification increases the surface area for
chemical digestion of fats by lipases.
• Bile is made in the liver and stored in the
gallbladder.

Secretions of the Small Intestine
• The epithelial lining of the duodenum, called
the brush border, produces several digestive
enzymes.
• Enzymatic digestion is completed as peristalsis
moves the chyme and digestive juices along
the small intestine.
• Most digestion occurs in the duodenum; the
jejunum and ileum function mainly in
absorption of nutrients and water.

Absorption in the Small Intestine - Villi
• The small intestine has villi and microvilli that
increase the surface area for absorption. Villi
and microvilli are exposed to the intestinal
lumen = space / cavity.
• The enormous microvillar surface area greatly
increases the rate of nutrient absorption.

Structure of the small intestine
Muscle layers
Microvilli (brush
border) at apical
(lumenal) surface
Vein carrying blood
to hepatic portal vein
Villi
Intestinal wall
Key
Nutrient
absorption
Large
circular
folds
Blood
capillaries
Epithelial
cells
Villi
Lymph
vessel
Basal
surface
Lacteal
Epithelial cells
Lumen

Small
Intestine
Muscle layers
Vein carrying blood
to hepatic portal vein
Villi
Intestinal wall
Key
Nutrient
absorption
Large
circular
folds

Small
Intestine
Microvilli (brush
border) at apical
(lumenal) surface
Key
Nutrient
absorption
Blood
capillaries
Epithelial
cells
Villi
Lymph
vessel
Basal
surface
Lacteal
Epithelial cells
Lumen

• Each villus contains a network of blood vessels
and a small lymphatic vessel called a lacteal.
• After glycerol and fatty acids are absorbed by
epithelial cells, they are recombined into fats
within these cells.
• These fats are mixed with cholesterol and
coated with protein, forming molecules called
chylomicrons, which are transported into
lacteals.

• Amino acids and sugars pass through the
epithelium of the small intestine and enter the
bloodstream.
• Capillaries and veins from the lacteals
converge in the hepatic portal vein and
deliver blood to the liver and then on to the
heart.

Absorption in the Large Intestine
• The colon of the large intestine is connected
to the small intestine.
• The cecum aids in the fermentation of plant
material and connects where the small and
large intestines meet.
• The human cecum has an extension called the
appendix, which plays a very minor role in
immunity.

Digital
image of a
human
colon

• A major function of the colon is water
reabsorption, recovering water that has entered
• Wastes of the digestive tract, the feces,
become more solid as they move through the
colon
• Feces pass through the rectum and exit via the
anus.

• The L.I. colon houses strains of the bacterium
Escherichia coli, some of which produce
vitamins ++.
• Feces are stored in the rectum until they can
be eliminated.
• Two sphincters between the rectum and anus
control bowel movements.

Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive
systems correlate with diet
• Digestive systems of vertebrates are variations
on a common plan. There are intriguing
adaptations, often related to diet.
• Dentition, an animal’s assortment of teeth, is
one example of structural variation reflecting
diet. Mammals have varying dentition that is
adapted to their usual diet.
• The teeth of poisonous snakes are modified as
fangs for injecting venom. All snakes can
unhinge their jaws to swallow prey whole.

Dentition
and diet Incisors
(c) Omnivore
Molars
(b) Herbivore
(a) Carnivore
Canines
Premolars

Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations
• Herbivores generally have longer alimentary
canals than carnivores, reflecting the longer
time needed to digest vegetation.

Alimentary
canals
of a
carnivore
(coyote)
and
herbivore
(koala)
Cecum
Small intestine
Herbivore
Carnivore
Colon
(large
intestine)
Stomach
Small
intestine

Mutualistic ++ Adaptations
• Many herbivores have fermentation chambers,
where symbiotic microorganisms ++ digest
cellulose.
• The most elaborate adaptations for an
herbivorous diet have evolved in the animals
called ruminants.

Ruminant digestion
Esophagus
Omasum
Abomasum
Intestine
Rumen Reticulum
1 2
4 3

Homeostatic mechanisms contribute to an
animal’s energy balance
• Food energy balances the energy from metabolism,
activity, and storage.
• Nearly all of an animal’s ATP generation is based on
oxidation of energy-rich molecules: carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats.
• Animals store excess calories primarily as
glycogen in the liver and muscles.
• Energy is secondarily stored as adipose, or fat, cells.
• When fewer calories are taken in than are expended,
fuel is taken from storage and oxidized.

Homeostatic
regulation of
cellular fuel
Homeostasis:
90 mg glucose/
100 mL blood
Stimulus:
Blood glucose
level rises
after eating.
Stimulus:
Blood glucose
level drops
below set point.

Overnourishment and Obesity
• Overnourishment causes obesity, which results from
excessive intake of food energy with the excess
stored as fat.
• Obesity contributes to diabetes (type 2), cancer of the
colon and breasts, heart attacks, and strokes.
• The complexity of weight control in humans is evident
from studies of the hormone leptin.
• Mice that inherit a defect in the gene for an appetite
regulation hormone, leptin, become very obese.

• Researchers have discovered several of the
mechanisms that help regulate body weight.
• Homeostatic mechanisms are feedback circuits
that control the body’s storage and metabolism
of fat over the long-term.
• Hormones regulate long-term and short-term
appetite by affecting a “satiety center” in the
brain.

appetite-
regulating
hormones
Leptin
PYY
Insulin
Ghrelin

Obese mouse with mutant
ob gene (left) next to wild-type
mouse.
EXPERIMENT
RESULTS

Obesity and Evolution
• The problem of maintaining weight partly stems
from our evolutionary past, when fat hoarding
was a means of survival.
• A species of birds called petrels become obese
as chicks; in order to consume enough protein
from high-fat food, chicks need to consume
more calories than they burn.

Fat cells from the abdomen of a human
100 µm

Review
Bloodstream
Veins to heart
Lymphatic
system
Small intestine
Esophagus
Stomach
Lipids
Mouth
Hepatic portal vein
Absorbed food
(except lipids)
Absorbed
water
Secretions from
the gastric glands
of the stomach
Secretions from the
pancreas and the liver
Liver
Rectum
Anus
Large
intestine

You should now be able to:
1. Name the three nutritional needs that must be
met by an animal’s diet.
2. Describe the four classes of essential
nutrients.
3. Distinguish among undernourishment,
overnourishment, and malnourishment.
4. Describe the four main stages of food
processing.
5. Distinguish between a complete digestive
tract and a gastrovascular cavity.

6. Follow a meal through the mammalian
digestive system:
– List important enzymes and describe their
roles
– Compare where and how the major types of
macromolecules are digested and absorbed
7. Relate variations in dentition with different
diets.
8. Explain where and in what form energy-rich
molecules may be stored in the human body.

41_lecture_presentation_ggggggggggg0.ppt

More Related Content

Similar to 41_lecture_presentation_ggggggggggg0.ppt (20)

Recently uploaded (20)

41_lecture_presentation_ggggggggggg0.ppt

Editor's Notes