A03510108

International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention
ISSN (Online): 2319 – 7722, ISSN (Print): 2319 – 7714
www.ijhssi.org Volume 3 Issue 5ǁ May. 2014ǁ PP.01-08
www.ijhssi.org 1 | P a g e
Age and Emotional Intelligence of Healthcare Leaders: A Study
1,
Arunima Sengupta, 2,
Prof .( Dr) Ajeya Jha
Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology
1:
Ph.D Scholar 2:
HOD Management Department SMIT
ABSTRACT: Healthcare leaders are being challenged to change, adapt with age and improve their approach
to effectively lead their Helson, R., & Wink, P. (1987). As a result, many healthcare leaders are not prepared for
the current leadership demands of their roles. The use of EI has also been linked to positive results in healthcare
settings. As many researchers say that older adults experienced less negative affect than younger adults in work
environment their years of experience helps them to control their emotions. Older adults were able to maintain
positive moods for longer and negative moods were terminated more quickly than for younger adults. In this
study, which is empirical and descriptive in nature, we review evidence suggesting changes in emotional
experience across the adult lifespan and then present the relationship of emotional intelligence as measured by
the Schuttes Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) and the Multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ) and its
effect on age. Results are then presented from three cross-sectional samples of adults: Doctor , nurses and
paramedicals samples working in minimum 200 bed hospitals in parts of India. In this study, we review theories
and evidence suggesting changes in emotional experience across the adult lifespan and then present the
relationship of emotional intelligence as measured by the Schuttes Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) and the
Multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ) and its effect on age. Results are then presented from three cross-
sectional samples of adults: doctor, nurses and paramedicals samples working in minimum 200 bed hospitals in
parts of India. Comparison of age between below 30 yrs and above 30 yrs is Satisfaction and Emotional
intelligence differ significantly between below 30 yrs and above 30 yrs, above 30 yrs have higher Emotional
intelligence 124 vs 128 (p=.003). below 30 yrs have same satisfaction level as above 30 yrs median 5vs 5
(p=.019) .Comparison between above 30 years and below 30 years for attributes like transformational and
transactional leadership style above 30 years is higher but not very significant. Age effects in the emotional
intelligence might also have been attenuated somewhat by the self-report nature of the scale. Older people tend
to learn from their experiences .
KEY WORDS: Emotional intelligence, Leadership effectiveness, Transformational ,Positive mood
I. INTRODUCTION:
What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and age? This question has profound
implications for organizations as the workforce gets older and increasing emotional demands are made upon
leaders. As the healthcare environment continues to gain complexity, the past practices of healthcare leaders
may no longer be effective Kegan, R. (1982). Healthcare leaders are being challenged to change, adapt with
age and improve their approach to effectively lead their Helson, R., & Wink, P. (1987). As a result, many
healthcare leaders are not prepared for the current leadership demands of their roles. The use of EI has also
been linked to positive results in healthcare settings. Through using EI, physicians and caregivers are able to
recognize and use emotions to facilitate decision-making. EI has been shown to be critical to the delivery of
excellent patient care. The authors stated: Traditionally, the terms professionalism or professional behaviors
have been used synonymously by educators to imply emotional and social competence. Although there is clear
consensus that professional behaviors are important to evaluate, it is also clear that specific performance criteria
depending on age for self-awareness, initiative, empathy, conflict management, integrity, team management
and other professional behaviors are typically missing from clinical evaluation checklist of many hospitals.
Although EI has been shown to contribute to excellent patient care, much less research has been conducted on
the links between EI and physician leaders. Older adults face a variety of challenges that might be expected to
induce negative affect such as the loss of loved ones, diminished health and unrealized expectations. Yet,
paradoxically, the evidence suggests that older people are more able to maintain and even increase subjective
well-being than younger people thus experience teaches older people to control their emotions better.. In
general, negative affect declines with age while positive affect appears to increase Carstensen, L., Pasupathi,
M., Mayr, U, & Nesselroade, J. R. (2000). This paradox has been interpreted as showing that older adults are
more adept at self-regulating their emotions through either rearranging their environments or acquiring
strategies and capacities to manage their emotions Carstensen, L. L., Pasupathi, M., Mayr, U., & Nesselroade,

Age And Emotional Intelligence…
J. R. (2000).
It might be expected that such strategies and capabilities would be reflected in measures of emotional
intelligence that have been proposed to assess how we understand, use and manage emotions.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW:
One of the most systematic studies of emotional experience across the lifespan was conducted by
Carstensen et al. (2000). They sampled 184 adults aged from 18 to 94 years across one week using an
experience sampling method. Older adults experienced less negative affect than younger adults. Older adults
were able to maintain positive moods for longer and negative moods were terminated more quickly than for
younger adults. Older adults also experienced more mixed and complex emotions, more frequently
experiencing both positive and negative emotions simultaneously. This apparent capacity to more effectively
regulate emotions parallels evidence from studies suggesting neuroticism decreases with age (Costa, Herbst,
McCrae ,& Siegler, 2000). Socio emotional Selectivity Theory suggests that these changes result from a
growing awareness of the limited time that the person has left in their lives ( Carstensen et al.,2003 As people
realize they have little time left, they are more inclined to focus on immediate positive emotional experience
derived from social interactions than to invest in acquiring knowledge and experience to better manage the
future. Other studies have demonstrated other ways in which the salience of emotion increases with age. For
example, as people grow older they remember emotional material more easily (Carstensen & Tuk-
Charles,1994), use more emotional content in their representations of other people (Carstensen & Frederickson
,1998), and make more use of emotions in social problem solving (Blanchard-Fields,1997).
Labouvie-Vief and her colleagues (Labouvie-Vief & Medler, 2002 have proposed that there are two
orthogonal aspects of emotional experience during aging: affect optimization and cognitive-affective
complexity. Affect optimization involves the capacity to dampen negative affect and enhance and sustain
positive affect. Cognitive-affective complexity involves the capacity to coordinate positive and negative
emotions in more flexible and differentiated cognitive structures. These cognitive structures allow older adults
to differentiate more complex emotions, integrate positive and negative aspects of affective experience as well
as deliberately inhibit, evaluate or analyze aspects of their emotional experience and its relationship to their
identity. This approach to cognitive-affective complexity refers to the cognitive-affective processes through
which emotions are experienced. Increased cognitive-affective complexity allows people to differentiate
emotions more effectively, perceive themselves and others in a more flexible, open and tolerant way,
recognizing and accepting both negative and positive aspects of themselves and others. Complexity is not
simply indexed by the presence or absence of conflicting emotions (Cartensen et al, 2000) but rather by the
richness of schemata and cognitive processes for integrating experience with the self and managing emotional
experience. With increasing maturity:
“ The individual is able to acknowledge conflicting feelings within self and other. Overall, the language of self-
regulation becomes more vivid and specific, and less stereotypical. Mature cognitive-emotional complexity
thus is evidenced by a language that is complex, non-stereotypical and non-dualistic; that tolerates intra- and
inter-individual conflict; and that appreciates the uniqueness of individual experience." (Labouvie Vief et
al.,1989:426) .
The literature on ego development is relevant in other ways to the question of emotional change with
aging. Loevinger’s theory of ego development emphasizes four inter-related domains of development: character
development, cognitive style, interpersonal style, and conscious preoccupations (Loevinger,1976;Manners &
Durkin ,2001). Character development refers to changes in the focus of moral concerns and moral behaviors as
well as impulse control. Cognitive style refers most particularly to changes in conceptual complexity but is
reflected in increasing tolerance of ambiguity and more reflective and objective processing of experience.
Interpersonal style refers to the orientation and attitudes a person has towards others and relationships with
others, particularly with regard to belonging, independence and interdependence. It includes preferences in the
type of relationship and understanding of relationships. Conscious preoccupations refers to the focus of
attention of the persons thoughts and behavior and includes issues such as the extent to which they conform to
social rules, take responsibility, and seek and realize independence from others. In short, and emphasizing the
affective domain of most interest here, individuals at later stages of ego development have better impulse
control, have more complex and integrated cognitive-affective processes, are more likely to respect, tolerate and
collaborate with others, and are more likely to be able to differentiate, communicate and use emotions in their
thinking and problem solving. Manners and Durkin (2001:543) summarise this developmental trajectory as
follows: "Each sequential stage represents a restructuring of the self-system toward greater self and
interpersonal awareness, conceptual complexity, flexibility, personal autonomy, and responsibility."

The development of a positive identity, or core self, appears to be critical for integrating negative affect
and maintaining resiliency. Labouvie-Vief and Medler (2002) distinguished between 4 possible combinations of
affect optimization and cognitive-affective complexity: integrated (high optimization, high complexity),
complex (low optimization, high complexity), defended (high optimization, low complexity) and dysregulated
(low optimization, low complexity). They found evidence that older adults tended to be more integrated or
defended than younger adults. In other words, aging was consistently associated with increasing affect
optimization while cognitive-affective complexity peaked in mid-life and then, for some people at least,
declined in later life perhaps as a result of declining cognitive resources Labouvie-Vief and Medler (2002). This
result reflects the finding that older adults exhibit decreasing openness to experience (Costa et al., 2000).
However, it is worthwhile noting that age effects in the studies mentioned above were usually very small. For
example, Labouvie-Vief et al( 1989) reported a significant effect of age on levels of emotional understanding
after controlling for ego development. However, this effect disappeared when the 10-18 year old groups were
excluded from the analysis and only adults were considered. The authors concluded that affective “development
in adulthood is not best indexed by age Labouvie-Vief and Medler (2002) also showed no effect of age on
cognitive-affective complexity after controlling for education, SES and relationship quality, although they did
demonstrate a significant relationship between age and affective optimization. Carstensen et al (2000) reported a
nonsignificant correlation of .07 between age and positive emotion. This was comparable to the significant
correlation of .10 in a much larger sample reported by Mroczek and Kolarz (1998) Thus the relationship
between age and emotional variables are has been modest even in studies that relied upon the collection of much
more extensive and detailed data than the self-report measure.
Research Design: Research design is descriptive and analytical. In this study, we review theories and evidence
suggesting changes in emotional experience across the adult lifespan and then present the relationship of
emotional intelligence as measured by the Schuttes Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) and the Multifactor
leadership questionnaire (MLQ) and its effect on age. Results are then presented from three cross-sectional
samples of adults: Doctors, nurses and paramedicals samples working in minimum 200 bed hospitals in parts of
India.
Nature of Research: This research-work is empirical in nature as conclusions have been drawn by carefully
collecting relevant data and analyzing the same.
Statement of the Problem: The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between emotional
intelligence, leadership style and leadership effectiveness. The problem is the recognition that while a
significant amount of research on leadership exists ( Stogdill, 1974; Yukl, 1998; Yukl & VanFleet, 1992), the
emotional intelligence research is comparatively thin and the relationship between leadership and emotional
intelligence is smaller yet.
Sample Size: Confidence limit 95%; margin of error 5%.The respondents had an average age of 28 years, and
an average work experience of 5 years, holding their current position for 2-3 years on an average. The
questionnaire was distributed in separate sets assuring participant of complete confidentiality.
Research question: Investigate whether the total emotional intelligence score and leadership score will be
significantly same or higher for age above 30 years than for age below 30years of health care
professionals.
HOA: The total emotional intelligence score will be significantly same or higher for age above 30 years than for
age below 30years of health care professionals.
HaA: The total emotional intelligence score will not be significantly same or higher for age below 30 years than
for age above 30years of health care professionals.
HOB: The transformational leadership score will be significantly same or higher for age above 30 years than for
HaB: The transformational leadership score will not be significantly same or higher for age above 30 years than
for age below 30years of health care professionals.
HOC: The transactional leadership score will be significantly same or higher for age above 30 years than for age
below 30years of health care professionals.
HaC: The transactional leadership score will not be significantly same or higher for age above 30 years than for
Hod : The Laissez -Faire leadership score will be significantly same or higher for age above 30 years than for

Had : The Laissez -Faire leadership score will not be significantly same or higher for age above 30 years than for
Hoe : The extra effort leadership score will be significantly same or higher for age above 30 years than for age
Hae : The extra effort leadership score will not be significantly same or higher for age above 30 years than for
Hof : The effectiveness leadership score will be significantly same or higher for age above 30 years than for age
Haf : The effectiveness leadership score will not be significantly same or higher for age above 30 years than for
Hog : The satisfaction leadership score will be significantly same or higher for age above 30 years than for age
Ha7g : The satisfaction leadership score will not be significantly same or higher for age above 30 years than for
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis of the data was carried out using the SPSS statistical package version 20.Descriptive
statistics and inferential statistics were calculated and are reported on in the results section below. The
descriptive statistics are intended to present a snapshot of the data while the Spearman’s Rho was used to
evaluate the relationships between Emotional Intelligence, and Leadership effectiveness.
Table 1- Spearman’s rho correlation :
Overall Medical Professionals Locality Age
Doctor Nurse Paramed
ical
Bangalo
re
Kolkata Gangtok Below
30years
Above
30years
Idealized
Influence (A)
0.255** 0.180 0.240 0.407 0.141 0.321 0.380 0.272 0.228
Idealized
Influence (B)
0.300** 0.404 0.254 0.203 0.158 0.353 0.506 0.330 0.305
Inspirational
Motivation
0.317** 0.419 0.196 0.368 0.362 0.166 0.429 0.228 0.448
Intellectual
Stimulation
0.142** 0.189 0.078 0.134 0.085 0.180 0.199 0.083 0.240
Individual
Consideration
0.133* 0.073 -0.030 0.354 0.062 0.177 0.288 0.057 0.232
Transformation
al Leadership
0.310** 0.312 0.238 0.409 0.214 0.308 0.471 0.286 0.350
Contingent
Reward
0.212** 0.216 0.185 0.275 0.240 0.093 0.299 0.138 0.349
Mgmt by
Exception
(Active)
0.043 0.082 -0.118 0.143 -0.037 0.117 0.185 -0.055 0.227
Mgmt by
Exception
(Passive)
-0.036 0.169 -0.110 -0.261 -0.022 -0.037 -0.004 -0.047 -0.020
Transactional 0.123* 0.292 -0.017 0.059 0.094 0.040 0.279 0.021 0.314
Laissez -Faire -0.102 -0.016 -0.075 -0.297 -0.100 -0.038 -0.132 -0.074 -0.120
Extra Effort 0.096 0.035 0.002 0.285 0.133 -0.029 0.164 0.484 0.181
Effectiveness 0.273** 0.261 0.229 0.375 0.302 0.244 0.247 0.324 0.216
Satisfaction 0.089 0.060 0.187 0.255 0.056 -0.012 0.303 0.048 -0.040
Reliability – leadership N of Items = 45 Alpha = 0.8106
Reliability – EI N of Items =33 Alpha = 0.8539
III. RESULTS:
Spearman’s correlation was done to examine the relationship between the domains of leadership and Emotional
intelligence for age below 30years showed Idealized Influence (A) (r=0.272), Idealized Information (B)
(r=0.330), Inspirational Motivation (r=0.228), Transformational Leadership (r=0.286), Contingent Reward
(r=0.212), Effectiveness (r=0.324), where as Management by Exception (active) (r=0.043), Management by
Exception (passive) (r=0.047), Transactional (r=0.021), Laissez Faire (r=0.102), Extra Effort (r=0.096),
Satisfaction(r=0.089) are not significant age above 30years showed results Idealized Influence (A) (r=0.228),

Idealized Influence (B) (r=0.305), Inspirational Motivation (r=0.448), Intellectual Stimulation (r=0.240),
Individual Consideration(r=0.232), Transformational Leadership (r=0.350), Contingent Reward (r=0.349),
Management by Exception (active) (r=0.227), Transactional (r=0.314), Extra Effort (r=0.181), Effectiveness
(r=0.216).Spearman’s correlation was done to examine the relationship between the domains of leadership and
Emotional intelligence in medical professionals .
In Doctors group the results indicated that some of the domain that were correlated with Emotional intelligence.
There was a positive correlation between Emotional intelligence and Idealized Influence (A) (r=0.180) and
Idealized Influence (B) (r=0.404), Inspirational motivation (0.419), Intellectual Stimulation (r=0.189),
Individual Consideration (r=0.073), Transformational Leadership (r=0.312), Contingent Reward (r=0.216),
Transactional (r=0.292).
For Nurses group the results indicated that some of the domain that were correlated with Emotional intelligence.
There was a positive correlation between Emotional intelligence and Idealized Influence (A) (r=0.240) and
Idealized Influence (B) (r=0.254), Inspirational Motivation (r=0.196), Transformational Leadership (r=0.238),
Effectiveness (r=0.229).
For Paramedical group the results indicated that some of the domain that were correlated with Emotional
intelligence. There was a positive correlation between Emotional intelligence and Idealized Influence (A)
(r=0.407) and Idealized Influence (B) (r=0.203), Inspirational Motivation(r=0.368), Individual Consideration
(r=0.354), Transformational Leadership (r=0.409), Contingent Reward (r=0.275), Laissez Faire (r=0.297), Extra
Effort (r=0.285), Effectiveness (r=0.375), Satisfaction (r=0.255).
Spearman’s Correlation was done to examine the relationship between domain of leadership and Emotional
Intelligence on Locality-Bangalore results showed Inspirational Motivation (r=0.362), Transformational
Leadership (r=0.214), Contingent Reward (r=0.240), Effectiveness (r=0.302).
In Locality Kolkata results showed Idealized Influence (A) (r=0.321), Idealized Influence (B) (r=0.353),
Transformational Leadership (r=0.308), Effectiveness (r=0.244).
In Locality Gangtok results showed Idealized Influence (A) (r=0.380), Individual consideration (r=0.288),
Transformational Leadership (r=0.471), contingent Reward (r=0.299).
AGE Below 30 years Above 30 years
Idealized Influence (A) 0.272 0.228
Idealized Influence (B) 0.330 0.305
Inspirational Motivation 0.228 0.448
Intellectual Stimulation 0.083 0.240
Individual Consideration 0.057 0.232
Transformational Leadership 0.286 0.350
Contingent Reward 0.138 0.349
Mgmt by Exception (Active) -0.055 0.227
Mgmt by Exception (Passive) -0.047 -0.018
Transactional 0.021 0.314
Laissez -Faire -0.074 -0.124
Extra Effort 0.484 0.181
Effectiveness 0.324 0.216
Satisfaction 0.048 -0.036
Transforma
tional
Leadership
Transaction
al
Leadership
Laissez -
Faire
Extra Effort
Effectivene
ss
Satisfaction
Series1 0.310 0.123 -0.102 0.096 0.273 0.089
-0.200
-0.100
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
EI
Overall Leadership Summary

Red =Above 30 years and Blue = Below 30 years.
Comparison- Employing Mann and Whitney Test
Age Below 30 years Above 30 years
Median
(Interquartile Range))
Median
(Interquartile Range)
Outcome of Statistical
Analysis*
Leadership
attributes
Transformational 51 (26 - 76) 5 2 (14-73) U=12266.00
P=0.579
Transactional 26 (9-42) 27 (11-37) U=12366.500
P=0.664
Laissez -Faire 5 (0-16) 3(0-16) U=10802.500
P=0.020
Extra Effort 8 (0-12) 8 (0-12) U=12619.500
P=0.894
Effectiveness 11 (0-16) 11 (4-16) U=12223.500
P=0.543
Satisfaction 5 (0-8) 5 (0-8) U=10791.000
P=0.019
Emotional
Intelligence
Overall Score 124 (87-155) 128 (68-154) U=10281.500
P=0.003
* Employing Mann and Whitney Test for independent samples
Ideal
ized
Influ
ence
(A)
Ideal
ized
Influ
ence
(B)
Inspi
ratio
nal
Moti
vatio
n
Intell
ectu
al
Stim
ulati
on
Indiv
idual
Cons
idera
tion
Tran
sfor
mati
onal
Lead
ers…
Cont
inge
nt
Rew
ard
Mg
mt
by
Exce
ptio
n…
Mg
mt
by
Exce
ptio
n…
Tran
sacti
onal
Laiss
ez -
Faire
Extra
Effor
t
Effec
tiven
ess
Satis
facti
on
Series1 0.27 0.33 0.22 0.08 0.05 0.28 0.13 -0.0 -0.0 0.02 -0.0 0.48 0.32 0.04
Series2 0.22 0.30 0.44 0.24 0.23 0.35 0.34 0.22 -0.0 0.31 -0.1 0.18 0.21 -0.0
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
EI Leadership Attribute Based On Age
Transfor
mational(
26 - 76)
Transacti
onal(9-42
)
Laissez -
Faire(0-
16)
Extra
Effort(0-
12)
Effective
ness(0-1
6)
Satisfacti
on(0-8)
Emotiona
l
Intelligen
ce(87-1…
Leadership attributes 51 26 5 8 11 5 124
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
LeadershipScore
Age Below 30 years

IV. RESULTS:
Comparison of age between below 30 yrs and above 30 yrs is Satisfaction and Emotional intelligence differ
significantly between below 30 yrs and above 30 yrs, above 30 yrs have higher Emotional intelligence 124 vs
128 (p=.003). below 30 yrs have same satisfaction level as above 30 yrs median 5vs 5 (p=.019) .Comparison
between above 30 years and below 30 years for attributes like transformational and transactional leadership
style above 30 years is higher but not very significant.
Age effects in the emotional intelligence might also have been attenuated somewhat by the self-report
nature of the scale. Older people tend to learn from their experiences .As discussed above, there is evidence that
older adults pay more attention to, and remember more emotional material ( Carstensen et al 2000) point out that
global self-report measures evaluating one's own performance are going to be highly cognitive, involve
comparisons with the past and present and involve idiosyncratic standards. It is possible that older adults adopt
higher standards for judging the success of their attempts to control emotions or even for what is considered to
be a difficult situation. If, for example, older adults have higher expectations of themselves with regard to
emotional control, then they might be more likely to report a higher frequency of being unable to control their
strong emotions adequately In terms of further research, there is a need to explore the finding that older, female
medical professionals were more likely to control their emotions than younger or male medical professionals to
self-report using emotions in decision-making, problem-solving and memory. Further research is also required
regarding the significant decline in emotional control found across the lifespan in the largest sample in this
study. Given the strength of the literature arguing for increases in emotional control, it seems most likely that
this result arose from memory and emotional salience effects associated with the way in which items within a
self-report measure of emotional intelligence are construed.
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Transfor
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Transacti
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Laissez -
Faire(0-
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Extra
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Effective
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LeadershipScore
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