Aacc comm. college completion challenge 2010-06

Rebalancing the Mission:
The Community College Completion Challenge
Christopher M. Mullin

AACC Policy Brief 2010-02PBL
June 2010

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The leadership and support of the AACC President and CEO George Boggs and Senior Vice President for
Government Relations and Research David Baime were invaluable to the completion of this manuscript. I am
grateful for the perspectives and ideas related to completion that were shared by attendees during the American
Association of Community Colleges annual convention in Seattle, WA.

The policy brief was supported in part by Lumina Foundation for Education. The views expressed in this
publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of Lumina Foundation for Education,
its officers, or employees. Lumina Foundation for Education works to ensure that 60% of Americans are college-
educated by 2025.

Without the aforementioned people this product would not have been possible. While their input was informative, I
take responsibility for the final product; any errors are my own.

About the Author
Christopher M. Mullin is the program director for policy analysis at the American Association of Community
Colleges in Washington, DC.

Preferred Citation
Mullin, C. M. (2010, June). Rebalancing the mission: The community college completion challenge (Policy Brief
2010-02PBL). Washington, DC: American Association of Community Colleges.

For more information, contact

Christopher M. Mullin
Program Director for Policy Analysis
American Association of Community Colleges
One Dupont Circle NW, Suite 410
Washington, DC 20036
Phone: 202-728-0200, ext. 258
E-mail: cmullin@aacc.nche.edu

Copyright
2010 © American Association of Community Colleges
Photocopying for nonprofit educational purposes is permitted.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
President Barack Obama has set forth an ambitious agenda workplace productivity for retoolers—students who enroll in
for U.S. postsecondary education: by 2020, to once again courses to expand their knowledge or skills. Examples include
have the highest proportion of college graduates in the learning a new welding technique, a new computer program,
world. In April 2010, the American Association of Community or the most recent changes in the Internal Revenue Code.
Colleges and five other community college organizations Retoolers can also earn continuing education units, which may
responded by reaffirming their commitment to completion while be essential to maintaining licensure in a profession.
maintaining their commitment to increasing access and quality
by issuing a joint statement, Democracy’s Colleges: Call to The credentials primarily awarded by community colleges—
Action. The partnering organizations were the Association certificates and associate degrees—play a unique role in
of Community College Trustees, the Center for Community advancing college completion rates. Given the current economic
College Student Engagement, the League for Innovation in climate and high unemployment rates, there exists a clear
the Community College, the National Organization for Staff demand for, and focus on, quickly returning people to a changing
and Organizational Development, and Phi Theta Kappa. work environment through education and training. In community
With this commitment to completion articulated, Rebalancing colleges, this demand manifests itself in heightened interest
the Mission: The Community College Completion Challenge in short-term, work-related certificates in specific programs.
addresses what it means for community colleges to embrace Community college leaders are faced with focusing either on
completion in the same way that they have historically (a) increasing completion rates using the traditional measures
embraced access. Because community colleges are, first (i.e., attainment of associate and bachelor’s degrees) used in
and foremost, oriented toward their communities, they may international comparisons or (b) getting people back to work with
need to modify their traditional ways of fulfilling their individual certificates and industry credentials that are not counted as a
missions, specifically in three areas: course enrollment, course success measure in those comparisons. Focusing solely on the
completion, and certificate and degree completion. former narrowly defines success while overlooking the needs
and achievements of a significant number of people, whereas
In terms of the enrollment mission, community colleges focusing solely on the latter will not increase the international
provide access to, and opportunity for, education through ranking of the United States. Community colleges are therefore
courses that serve as the foundation for a career, a new life, in the difficult position of balancing two completion agendas: the
or a new perspective. The belief in democratizing education person’s need to return to work and the nation’s desire to be a
by maintaining opportunity is paramount to the continuance of world leader in terms of a narrowly defined set of outcomes.
an educated citizenry. Support of the open-access philosophy
by policymakers has resulted in strong student demand at Aligning student success with future opportunities for
community colleges, where enrollment has been increasing continued career success should be part of any completion
dramatically. Meeting increased demand for more noncredit and agenda. Within the community college, courses generally
online courses is one challenge facing community colleges. relate well to each other, but when graduates look to study
at other institutions, they often face unanticipated difficulties.
Another challenge for community colleges is to help some Thus, one challenge is to more clearly define and facilitate
kinds of students to successfully complete courses, especially future education paths for students. Stackable credentials,
high school students, swirlers, and retoolers. For high school career pathways, and applied associate and bachelor’s
students, community colleges provide opportunities not only degrees have emerged as ways to provide opportunity
for the academically advanced but also for those who need to for continued academic progression for those who might
further develop their potential. Earning college credit while in high otherwise have enrolled in terminal training programs.
school has been shown to increase the likelihood that a student
will enroll and persist in a postsecondary education institution. Community colleges are committed to improving completion
The demand for community college courses is apparent in the rates while maintaining their commitment to access and
substantial growth of dual-credit programs in high schools. quality. This brief highlights some of the issues that community
Community colleges also assist students in completing high college leaders, working with their community partners, will
school or its equivalent, which is essential to increasing earnings have to navigate as they focus more squarely on improving
and future workplace, postsecondary, and military opportunities. completion rates, however they are defined. How each college
addresses these issues will vary, but a consistent factor is
Swirlers—students who attend 4-year institutions and enroll at that fiscal conditions will undoubtedly continue to influence
a community college for just one course—also reap economic policy and administrative decisions. Community colleges
benefits by earning credit that transfers at a much lower will have difficulty embracing the practices and perspectives
cost. The ability to take courses while enrolled concurrently needed to increase completion rates without additional fiscal
in a 4-year institution can also decrease time-to-degree. resources, especially at a time when they are facing double-
Community colleges also represent a means of increasing digit enrollment growth.

Rebalancing the Mission: The Community College Completion Challenge
American Association of Community Colleges—Policy Brief 2010–02PBL
3


We believe education is essential for realizing the fullest potential of each member of our society
and that appropriate higher education should be available to all who can benefit from it.
— From the AACC Constitution

Introduction A galvanizing principle driving the focus on completion is that
education contributes to the development of human capital.
On February 24, 2009, President Barack Obama set forth Although building human capital unquestionably benefits
an ambitious agenda for U.S. postsecondary education: by the broader community, it is most commonly expressed in
2020, to once again have the highest proportion of college terms of its labor market benefits to the individual person:
graduates in the world.1 Five months later, at Macomb Decreased unemployment and increased earnings accrue
Community College in Michigan, the president placed the for each successive level of education a person attains.10 Not
spotlight on community colleges to meet this ambitious goal. surprisingly, research has shown that earnings increase not
Of the estimated 8.2 million additional graduates needed for only by level of education attainment but also by program of
the United States to become the world leader in education,2 study and standard industry wages.11 For example, 25% of
five million additional students would graduate from community those with a bachelor’s degree earn less than those with an
colleges.3 The president’s announcement in July 2009 of associate’s degree.12
the American Graduation Initiative, which was aimed at
providing the resources needed to meet the target, positioned Because community colleges are, first and foremost, oriented
community colleges front and center in the plan for the United toward their communities, they may need to modify their
States to become the world’s most highly educated nation.4 traditional ways of fulfilling their individual missions in light
of the completion imperative. In this brief, I examine the
Nine months later, however, the proposed program and rebalancing of the community college mission that needs
accompanying $12 billion in funding that energized the largest to occur; emphasizing less the curriculum that is offered
sector of postsecondary education was not enacted. In the (academic transfer, workforce development, developmental
aftermath, community colleges continue to focus on how to education, etc.)13 and more the objectives students seek
move more students toward the achievement of their goals, to complete (course enrollment, course completion, and
with a new emphasis on graduation. In April 2010, the American certificate and degree completion).
Association of Community Colleges and five other community
college organizations responded by reaffirming their commitment Course Enrollment
to completion while maintaining their commitment to increasing
access and quality by issuing a joint statement, Democracy’s On one level, the act of enrolling in a course is success for all
Colleges: Call to Action.5 The partnering organizations were those who desire education beyond high school,14 for those
the Association of Community College Trustees, the Center new to the country who need a place to develop career-related
for Community College Student Engagement, the League for skills, and for those who simply want to enrich their lives. As
Innovation in the Community College, the National Organization democratically oriented, egalitarian institutions, community
for Staff and Organizational Development, and Phi Theta colleges do not limit availability of courses to, nor design them
Kappa. With this commitment to completion clearly and broadly exclusively for, those populations who need it most. Indeed,
articulated, this policy brief addresses what it means for community colleges were initially conceptualized to serve
community colleges to embrace completion in the same way that as the first two years of a liberal arts higher education over
they have historically embraced access.6 100 years ago.15 In the century since, a substantial number
of academically strong students have started at community
Rebalancing the Mission colleges and transferred to continue and complete upper-
division course work and degrees. In addition to their role as a
In a remarkable confluence, federal7 and state governments8 starting point for higher education, community colleges serve a
and foundations9 are urging a paradigm shift for community large number of students from 4-year institutions who wish to
colleges and similar institutions, from one emphasizing access take classes at their local colleges during times when they are
to one emphasizing completion. Because of the egalitarian home with family.
philosophy guiding community colleges, this shift has complex
and challenging implications. Support of the open-access philosophy by policymakers is one
reason for stronger demand for community colleges, where

4 American Association of Community Colleges—Policy Brief 2010–02PBL

fall enrollment increased almost eightfold from 1963 to 2008.16 students need academic remediation.27 The Developmental
Federal actions to support access include continued funding Education Initiative, funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates
for the Pell Grant and other Title IV student aid programs,17 aid Foundation and Lumina Foundation, was created in 2009 to
to institutions serving underrepresented populations,18 various address this problem by working with community colleges and
tax provisions,19 and judicial decisions that support diversity state policymakers to increase necessary academic support
on campus.20 States have improved access by including in through course redesign.28
master plans community colleges located within commuting
distance of potential students, by granting fiscal support for Swirlers
institutions and students,21 and by implementing policies and
actions to assist in preparing K–12 students for college and Swirlers—students who attend 4-year institutions and enroll at
careers. Support for access continues to come from private a community college for even just one course—reap economic
foundations such as the Atlantic Philanthropies, Bill & Melinda benefits. Not only do these students receive a quality learning
Gates Foundation, Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, the Ford experience that is portable to their native institutions, but
Foundation, the Joyce Foundation, the Walmart Foundation, students who take the same course at a local community
the W.K. Kellogg Foundation, the Kresge Foundation, Lumina college pay, on average, $447 less in tuition than at their
Foundation for Education, and numerous local, regional, and public 4-year institution.29 The taxpayer benefits in that total
national foundations dedicated to providing opportunity for federal, state, and local operating fund revenue provided
education. Most importantly, access to courses is the result of for community colleges is just 19% that of public 4-year
institutional admission policies. institutions.30 Finally, the ability of students to take courses
while either enrolled concurrently in a 4-year institution or
The belief in democratizing education by maintaining during the summer also contributes to decreasing time-to-
opportunity is paramount to the continuance of an educated degree by providing the courses students need, where they
citizenry. The importance of open-access to course content is need them, when they need them.
currently evident in the push for more online courses and those
offered for non-credit.22 While each institution will determine the Retoolers
degree to which it continues the practice of open access and
the way it is provided, time has shown the need for and benefits A lesser-known category of community college students
of open access to postsecondary education. consists of working adults who enroll for a course to retool
their knowledge or skills.31 As a result, workplace productivity
Course Completion increases for those who learn a new welding technique, a
new computer program, or the most recent changes in the
While it takes an act of courage for many people to enroll in Internal Revenue Code. A corollary to courses taken by
courses, it takes institutional effort as well to help students retooling students is continuing education units (CEUs) in the
successfully complete them. People of all academic abilities professional community.32 In many professions,33 maintaining
enroll in community colleges for a multitude of reasons. Three licensure is contingent on expanding one’s knowledge via
primary groups are high school students, swirlers, and retoolers. CEUs earned in courses or at seminars.

High School Students Thus, classifying success solely in terms of course
completion is incongruent with synoptic views of educational
Community colleges straddle two historically distinct silos attainment. A way to broaden one’s viewpoint is to examine
of education: secondary and postsecondary. This creates the counterfactual: What if educational opportunity were
unique opportunities and responsibilities for the colleges. not available at the course level? Under such conditions, a
Earning college credit while in high school has been shown to computer programmer would have to earn another degree
increase the likelihood that a student will enroll and persist in a to stay current in the field. Or a sole proprietor would have
postsecondary education institution.23 Furthermore, the demand to earn a business degree to learn the accounting skills to
for college courses is apparent in the substantial growth of dual- manage business more effectively.
credit programs in high schools.24
Many other examples could be given, but the point remains
Taking courses while in high school can also help students in the same: There is value to completing a course. As
obtaining a high school diploma or its equivalent. Attaining a community colleges focus on improving completion rates,
high school diploma is necessary, if by no means sufficient, to they may need to reconsider the impact of packaging learning
attain a middle-class lifestyle, with strong returns to students opportunities one course at a time.
and their families in terms of further workplace, postsecondary,
and military opportunities. Over the last decade, high school Certificate and Degree Completion
completers consistently earned nearly 50% more than those
who did not complete high school.25 As with all levels of Completing course work to obtain a credential, whether it is
postsecondary attainment, these increased earnings result in a certificate, work-related certification, or a degree, signifies
greater tax revenues for government and societal benefits.26 an acquisition of knowledge and skills in a given discipline,
but the world of credentials is mesmerizing in its scope and
To be successful in college-level courses, students must have complexity. The credentials primarily awarded by community
acquired the knowledge and skills provided by a rigorous K–12 colleges—certifications and associate degrees—play a unique
learning experience. Yet many students lack the academic role in advancing college completion rates.
preparation to be successful in college, as is evidenced by the
fact that, in 2004, approximately 60% of community college

5

Certificate Programs One challenge is to more clearly define and facilitate future
education paths for students. As is evidenced in Florida
Given the current economic climate and high unemployment and most recently applied in Tennessee,41 common course
rates, there exists a clear demand for, and focus on, quickly numbering across all postsecondary sectors, a clear
returning people to a changing work environment through statement of transferability, and a higher education system
education and training. In community colleges, this demand that guarantees acceptance to public 4-year institutions
manifests itself in heightened interest in short-term, work- for associate degree completers are ways to encourage
related education certificates in a specific program. The degree completion and better align state systems. Highly
trend toward short-term training predates current economic structured, accelerated learning experiences, such as short-
conditions, however: From 1997 to 2007 there was a 58.4% term certificate and 1-year associate degree programs, have
increase in short-term certificates awarded at community been embraced by some as a way to increase program
colleges as compared to an 18.7% increase in associate completion. These accelerated programs can help young
degrees, a 28.5% increase in moderate-term certificates, and and adult learners meet President Obama’s ambitious 2020
a 9.8% decrease in long-term certificates.34 It appears that this goal;42 however, these learners have to juggle work and family
trend will continue: The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects that responsibilities that limit their ability to forego earnings as may
eight of the top 10 occupations with the largest employment be required to complete accelerated programs.
growth by 2018 will require less than a bachelor’s degree,35
with six requiring less than an associate degree. A challenge for community colleges in accepting highly
structured programs is the contentious issue of diminishing
The focus on putting people back to work with short- and student aspirations—especially of traditionally disadvantaged
moderate-term certificates and associate degrees does pose populations. The process, known as “cooling-out,”43 occurs
a problem for the workhorse of higher education: community when advisors encourage students to matriculate in less
colleges. Community college leaders are faced with focusing rigorous programs that they may believe the students would
either on (a) increasing completion rates using the traditional be more successful at completing. This issue has yet to be
measures (i.e., attainment of associate and bachelor’s resolved conclusively, but recent research has shown that
degrees) established by the Organisation for Economic advising has a positive impact on completion, especially for
Cooperation and Development in international comparisons those with academic deficiencies.44 Furthermore, stackable
or (b) getting people back to work with certificates and credentials, career pathways, and applied associate and
industry credentials that are not counted as a success bachelor’s degrees have emerged as ways to provide
measure in international comparisons.36 Focusing solely on opportunity for continued academic progression for those who
the former narrowly defines success while overlooking the might otherwise have enrolled in terminal training programs.
needs and achievements of a significant number of people,
whereas focusing solely on the latter will not increase the Conclusion
international ranking of the United States. Community
colleges are therefore in the difficult position of balancing two Community colleges are committed to improving completion
completion agendas: the person’s need to return to work and rates while maintaining their commitment to access and
the nation’s desire to be a world leader in terms of a narrowly quality. This brief highlights some of the issues that community
defined set of outcomes. college leaders, working with their community partners, will
have to navigate as they focus more squarely on improving
Community colleges have been addressing this completion completion rates, however difficult that may be to define. How
disconnect by, for example, developing stackable credentials, each college addresses these issues will vary, but a consistent
defined as a “series of certificates, licenses, diplomas or other factor across all community colleges is that current fiscal
credentials that ‘stack’ on top of one another and designate conditions will undoubtedly continue to influence policy and
advancement along career pathways.”37 For example, the administrative decisions.
Shifting Gears Initiative, funded by the Joyce Foundation, has
begun the difficult work of merging training in workplace skills Any conversation about national education attainment goals
with the academic foundation needed to progress along a is also a conversation about national priorities. As such, it
college and career pathway.38 warrants an examination of the types of public investment
necessary to produce the desired public good. Community
Associate Degrees colleges will have difficulty embracing the practices and
perspectives needed to increase completion rates without
Aligning student success with future opportunities for additional fiscal resources, especially at a time when they are
continued career success should be part of any completion facing double-digit enrollment growth.45 Funding community
agenda: It is estimated that a person will hold, on average, colleges at one fifth the amount that public 4-year institutions
10.8 jobs between the ages of 18 and 42 and will therefore receive and expecting community colleges to provide the
need the requisite skills to be productive during these services and opportunities needed to reach an ambitious
transitions.39 Within the community college, courses national completion goal is a problematic proposition.
generally relate well to each other, but when community
college graduates look to study at other institutions, they
often face unanticipated difficulties.40


Notes
Rebalancing the Mission—14

NOTES

1
Remarks of President Barack Obama – As Prepared for Delivery Address to Joint Session of Congress, February 24, 2009, para.
66.
2
Martha Kanter, "What You Need to Know About President Obama's Graduation Initiative" (plenary session presentation at the
annual convention of the American Association of Community Colleges, Seattle, WA, April 17-20, 2010).
3
Remarks by the President on the American Graduation Initiative, July 14, 2009, para. 25.
4 th st
Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2009, H.R. 3221, 111 Cong., 1 Sess. (2009).
5
American Association of Community Colleges, the Association of Community College Trustees, the Center for Community
College Student Engagement, the League for Innovation in the Community College, the National Institute for Staff &
Organizational Development, and Phi Theta Kappa Honor Society, Democracy’s Colleges: Call to Action (Washington, DC:
American Association of Community Colleges, April 20, 2010).
6
What constitutes success is being defined for community colleges, by community colleges in a way that will allow them to be
judged by the merit of their mission through the Voluntary Framework of Accountability. As such, this brief was not developed
to define what constitutes completion.
7 th st
Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2009, H.R. 3221, 111 Cong., 1 Sess. (2009).
8
See for example, Texas’ Closing the Gaps by 2015 (http://www.thecb.state.tx.us/index.cfm?objectid=858D2E7C-F5C8-97E9-
0CDEB3037C1C2CA3) or Tennessee’s Complete College Act of 2010 (http://www.tbr.state.tn.us/news/default.aspx?id=6290).
9
See, for example, Lumina Foundation for Education’s “Big Goal” of increasing the percentage of Americans with high-quality
degrees and credentials to 60 percent by the year 2025 (www.luminafoundation.org/goal_2025/index.html); The Bill & Melinda
Gates Foundation’s goal is to help double the number of low-income adults who earn a college degree or credential with
genuine marketplace value by age 26 (www.gatesfoundation.org/postsecondaryeducation/Pages/default.aspx).
10
I refer here to Walter McMahon’s concept of modern human capital which includes “…not just narrowly defined economics
of job markets and earnings…. [but] the use of human capital at home and in the community during leisure-time hours…” See,
Walter W. McMahon, Higher Learning, Greater Good: The Private and Social Benefits of Higher Education (Baltimore, MD: The
Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009): 5-10.
11
For discussion of programs of study on earnings, see Louis Jacobson and Christine Mohker, Pathways to Boosting the Earnings
of Low-Income Students by Increasing Their Educational Attainment (Washington, DC: The Hudson Institute and CNA, January
2009). As it relates to what herein is referred to as standard industry wages or– the “firm effect” – is informative to note that
researchers have found “[t]here are three distinct components of wages: human capital, a firm effect and an unexplained
residual. Because the human capital measure and the firm effect are virtually uncorrelated, when measured at the level of an
individual job, an individual’s earnings may be due to who they are or where they work… demographic characteristics - such as
education, occupation, age, sex, marital status and even include some firm characteristics such as firm size and industry – are
typically able to explain some 30% of earnings variation. Longitudinal data on workers and firms explain closer to 90% of
earnings variation” from U.S. Census Bureau, Longitudinal Employer – Household Dynamics Program, A Layman’s Guide to the
LEHD Human Capital Measures (Informational Document No. ID-2003-04) (Suitland, MD: Author, January 2003).
12
Anthony P. Carnevale, Jeff Strohl, and Nicole Smith, “Help Wanted: Postsecondary Education and Training Required” New
Directions for Community Colleges, No. 146 (Summer2009): 21-31.

13 th
Arthur M. Cohen and Florence B. Brawer, The American Community College, 5 ed. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2008).
14
K-12 education in 27 states has been determined to be inequitable and/or inadequate, see “Equity” and “Adequacy” School
Funding Liability Court Decisions, March 2010 (New York: National Access Network, 2010). www.schoolfunding.info.

7


15
Allen A. Witt, James L. Wattenbarger, James F. Gollattscheck, and Joseph E. Suppinger, America’s Community Colleges: The
First Century (Washington, DC: American Association of Community Colleges, 1994).
16
Tom D. Snyder and S. A. Dillow, Digest of Education Statistics 2009 (NCES 2010-013) (Washington, DC: National Center for
Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U. S. Department of Education, 2010): Figure 11.
17
Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008 (Pub. L. No. 110-315 § 401 to 498).
18
Public Law 110-315, Title III – Institutional Aid and Title V – Developing Institutions.
19
For more information see, for example, Department of the Treasury, Internal Revenue Service, Tax Benefits for Education: For
Use in Preparing 2009 Returns (Pub. No. 970) (Washington, DC: Author, January 25, 2010).
20
Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 US 306 (2003); Gratz v. Bollinger 539 U.S. 244 (2003).
21
Public fiscal support for community colleges has been recorded since 1966 in the Grapevine Database,
http://www.grapevine.ilstu.edu/historical/index.htm. Data collection by sector of postsecondary education ended in 2009 with
the merger of the Grapevine and the State Higher Education Finance survey of the State Higher Education Executive Officers.
22
Open courses were given priority in the American Graduation Initiative. The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation has a continued
interest in open-courses for the 20 to 25 highest demand developmental and/or general education courses.
23
Melinda Mechur Karp, Juan Carlos Calcagno, Katherine L. Hughes, Dong Wook Jeong and Tom Bailey, The Postsecondary
Achievement of Participants in Dual Enrollment: An Analysis of Student Outcomes in Two States (St. Paul, Minnesota: National
Research Center for Career and Technical Education, University of Minnesota, October 2007).
24
Southern Regional Education Board, New Data Reveal Percent of College Credits Taken by High School Students (Fact Book
Bulletin 10E01) (Atlanta, GA: Author, March 2010); T. Waits, J. C. Setzer, and L. Lewis, Dual Credit and Exam-based Courses in
U.S. Public High Schools: 2002–2003 (NCES Report No. 2005-009) (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National
Center for Education Statistics, 2005).
25
From 1998 to 2008 the percent increased range was from 43 to 52%. See, U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey,
Educational Attainment in the United States: 2009 (Washington, DC: Author, April 2010): Table A-3.

26
See, for example, Walter W. McMahon, Higher Learning, Greater Good: The Private and Social Benefits of Higher Education
(Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009); Howard R. Bowen, Investment in Learning: The Individual and Social
Value of American Higher Education (San Francisco: CA, Jossey-Bass, 1977).
27
John Wirt, Susan Choy, Patrick Rooney, Stephen Prevasnik, Anindita Sen, and Richard Tobin, The Condition of Education 2004
(NCES 2004-077) (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education
Statistics, 2004): Table 18-1.
28
For more information see, http://www.deionline.org/.
29
This value reflects the difference of reported tuition and fees per 3 credit course. Tuition and fees per 3 credit course was
derived by first dividing tuition and fees by 30 [number of credits for full-time equivalent student], then multiplying by 3
[number of credits per course]. Data from Tom D. Snyder and S. A. Dillow, Digest of Education Statistics 2009 (NCES 2010-013)
(Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U. S. Department of Education,
2010): Table 335. A difference of $448 was observed when conducting the same analysis on data presented in, College Board,
Trends in College Pricing 2009 (Washington, DC: Author, October 2009).
30
Author analysis 2006-07 data from column 4 of Tom D. Snyder and S. A. Dillow, Digest of Education Statistics 2009 (NCES
2010-013) (Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U. S. Department of
Education, 2010): Table 352.
31
Christopher M. Mullin and Kent Phillippe, Community College Enrollment Surge: An Analysis of Estimated Fall 2009 Headcount
Enrollments at Community Colleges (2009-01PBL) (Washington, DC: American Association of Community Colleges).



32
Continuing Education Units are defined by the International Association for Continuing Education and Training (IACET) as “ten
contact hours of participation in an organized continuing education experience under responsible sponsorship, capable
direction, and qualified instruction.” (http://www.iacet.org/content/continuing-education-units.html). The American Council on
Education is a partner to IACET.
33
CEU requirements generally apply to professions which require licensure, and as such may be required to maintain one’s
license. These requirements can vary by field and state. A few examples of professions where CEUs are required include
architects, building inspectors, educators, engineers, nurses, and well drillers.
34
Short-term refers to certificates requiring less than one academic year, moderate-term refers to awards requiring at least one
but less than two years, and long-term require more than two academic years to complete. See, Laura Horn and Xiaojie Li,
Changes in Postsecondary Awards Below the Bachelor’s Degree: 1997 to 2007 (Stats in Brief, NCES 2010-167) (Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Education, Institute for Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, November 2009): Table
2.
35
U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment Projections 2008-2018 (DL-09-1503) (Washington, DC:
Author, December 11, 2009): Table 6.
36
Email correspondence, OECD statistician, January 5, 2010. For further information about mapping educational attainment
see, OECD data file “2765339.xls” obtained from www.oecd.org/dataoecd/11/18/2765339.xls.
37
Minnesota Career and Technical Education, Minnesota FasTRAC (Training, Resources and Credentialing) Supplement
Background Information (St. Paul, MN: Minnesota State Colleges & Universities, 2009): 1.
38
For more information on the Shifting Gears initiative see www.shifting-gears.org.
39
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Number of Jobs Held, Labor Market Activity, and Earnings Growth
Among the Youngest Baby Boomers: Results From a Longitudinal Survey Summary (USDL 08-0860) (Washington, DC: Author,
June 27, 2008).
40
Associate degree attainment has a varied history, influenced in part by state policies and relationships with other sectors of
postsecondary education. If a state does not have a transfer policy built upon the acquisition of an associate’s degree, the
incentive for transfer-oriented students to pursue one is diminished. It is the case in some states that 4-year institutions wish
for transfer students only to complete their general education requirements at the community college and then transfer. For
further discussion, see Community Colleges and Baccalaureate Attainment (AACC Statement) (Washington, DC: American
Association of Community Colleges, October 19, 2009).
41
For more information see Complete College Tennessee Act of 2010, http://www.tbr.state.tn.us/news/default.aspx?id=6290
42
One estimate places 70% of the increased awards will have to come from the adult learners. See, State Higher Education
Executive Officers, The College Degree Gap: One Million More Degrees Annually, 2009-2025 (Boulder, CO: Author, 2009).
43
Burton R. Clark, The “Cooling-out” Function in Higher Education,” The American Journal of Sociology, 65, No. 6 (1960): 569-
576; Burton R. Clark, The “Cooling-out” Function Revisited,” in New Directions for Community Colleges, No. 32, ed. George B.
Vaughan (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1980): 15-31.
44
See, Peter R. Bahr, “Cooling Out in the Community College: What is the Effect of Academic Advising on Students’ Chances of
Success?” Research in Higher Education 49 (2008): 704-732.

45
Christopher M. Mullin and Kent Phillippe, Community College Enrollment Surge: An Analysis of Estimated Fall 2009
Headcount Enrollments at Community Colleges (2009-01PBL) (Washington, DC: American Association of Community Colleges).

9

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