Academic writing part 1

Academic writing
Part 1
By:
M. H. Farjoo M.D, Ph.D, Statistics Lecturer, Bioanimator
Pharmacology Dep., Faculty of Medicine, SBMU

Academic writing (Part 1)
 How to Start
 Generalizations and
Cautious Style
 Title
 Abstract
 Keywords
 Introduction
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Conclusion
 Acknowledgements
 References
 Supporting Information
 Read the Text out
to Yourself
 Publishing Ethics
 Cover Paper
 Questions of Reviewers
 Delay in Publishing
 What to do with Rejection?
 Letters to the Editor
 Posters

How to Start
 Establish one or a few regular places in which to
work.
 Minimize distractions and limit social interruptions.
 Make writing a daily activity and write while fresh.
 Write in small, regular amounts, and avoid ‘binge
sessions’.
 Schedule writing tasks in small sizes in order to keep
up.
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How to Start
 Make ideas on the back of an envelope, or record on
your phone.
 Share your writing with supportive, constructive
friends.
 Do not aim for perfection on the first draft. Let it
flow, and then come back to polish it.
 Start by reading what you have produced so far, and
rephrase things.
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How to Start
 Make a note of the structure of the text you want to
write and list its main headings, then work to these.
 Do NOT stop writing at the end of a section. Write
one or two sentences of the next one and then finish.
 Do not stop to correct and revise. Keep going and
then come back to do this later.
 Reward yourself for meeting your targets.
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How to Start
 The hallmarks of scientific writing are precision, clarity
and brevity, in that order.
 Try to write as if you were speaking to someone: “see a
face”.
 Write (your chapters) in four drafts:
1. Putting the facts together
2. Checking for coherence and fluency of ideas
3. Readability
4. Editing
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How to Start
 Start writing your Experimental Chapters first.
 If you have done a Literature Review, write it next.
 Then complete the rest: Conclusions, Introduction,
and Summary, in that order.
 The other bits and pieces like the Appendices may be
written as you go along.
 In the whole article try to use the first, rather than the
third person:
‘We suggest. . .’ instead of: ‘This paper suggests . . .’
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Title
Authors
Abstract
Keywords
Structure of Scientific articles:
Main text
• Introduction
• Methods
• Results and discussion
• Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Supplementary
material

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Correct article structure:
Figures /Tables (your data)
Methods Results Discussion
Conclusion Introduction
Title,Abstract & Keywords

Generalizations and Cautious Style
 Generalizations are often used to give a simple
introduction to a topic:
 The majority of smokers in Britain are women.
 Of all UK smokers, 56.2% are women and 43.8%
are men.
 Although the second sentence is more accurate, the
first is easier to understand and remember.
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 Generalizations can be made in two ways:
 Using the plural: Computers have transformed the
way we live.
 Using the singular + definite article (more formal):
The computer has transformed the way we live.
 You must avoid using generalizations that cannot be
supported by evidence e.g.:
Students tend to be lazy.
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 A cautious style is necessary in academic writing to
avoid statements that can be contradicted:
Demand for healthcare usually exceeds supply.
Most students find writing exam essays difficult.
Fertility rates tend to fall as societies get richer.
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 Avoid absolute statements such as:
unemployment causes crime.
Smoking causes lung cancer.
 Instead, use cautious style:
Unemployment may cause crime or tends to cause
crime.
Smoking can cause lung cancer.
 Avoid adverbs that show your personal attitude:
luckily, remarkably, surprisingly, interestingly.
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 Areas where caution is particularly important
include:
 Outlining a hypothesis that needs to be tested (e.g.
in an introduction).
 Discussing the results of a study, which may not be
conclusive.
 Commenting on the work of other writers.
 Making predictions (normally with may or might).
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 Caution is also needed to avoid making statements
that are too simplistic:
Crime is linked to poor education.
 Caution can be shown in several ways:
Crime may be linked to poor education.
Crime is frequently linked to poor education.
Crime tends to be linked to poor education.
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 Another way to express caution is to use quite,
rather or fairly, before an adjective:
A fairly accurate summary
A rather convenient location
Quite a significant discovery
 Quite, is often positive, while rather, tends to be
negative.
 Quite = Pretty
 Rather = Fairly
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Titles
 Reviewers do not like titles that fail to represent the
subject matter adequately.
 If the title is not accurate, the appropriate audience
may not read your paper.
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Abstract
 The abstract is often written last, together with the
title.
 Structured abstracts are typically written using five
sub-headings:
 Background
 Aim
 Method
 Results
 Conclusions
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Abstract
 The quality of an abstract will strongly influence the
editor’s decision.
 The abstract summarizes in 50-300 words the
problem, the method, the results and the conclusion.
 The abstract gives sufficient details so the reader can
decide whether or not to read the whole article.
 Write the abstract last so it accurately reflects the
article.
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Keywords
 Keywords ae very important for indexing: they help
your article to be more easily identified and cited.
 Keywords should be specific, so avoid uncommon
abbreviations and general terms.
 Check guide-for-authors of your target journal for
specific keyword policy.
 Check Scopus to see how your peers use Keywords,
search for your subject area, filter results by keyword.
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Keywords
 To produce effective key words:
1. Use simple, specific noun clauses. For example,
use variance estimation, not estimate of variance.
2. Avoid terms that are too common, otherwise the
number of ‘hits’ will be too large to manage.
3. Do not repeat key words from the title. These will
be picked up anyway.
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Keywords
4. Avoid unnecessary prepositions, especially “in“
and “of”, e.g. use: “data quality” rather than
“quality of data”.
5. Avoid acronyms, they may be puzzling.
6. Spell out Greek letters and avoid mathematical
symbols, they are impractical for computer-based
searches.
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Keywords
7. Use the names of people if only they are part of a
terminology, e.g. Poisson distribution.
8. Include alternative or inclusive terminology
which encompasses all different forms of the
concept.
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Funnel shape of a typical introduction. Schematic depiction of the sequential
flow of questions to be addressed in the introduction

Introduction
 Provide a brief context to readers.
 Address the problem.
 Identify the solutions and limitations.
 Identify what the work is trying to achieve.
 Provide a perspective consistent with the nature of
journal.
 Write a unique introduction for every article. DO
NOT reuse introductions!
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Introduction
 Introductions are usually no more than %10 of the
total length of the assignment.
 An effective introduction explains the purpose and
scope of the paper to the reader and has 3 stages.
 Stage 1: establish a research territory:
 By showing that the general research area is important,
central, interesting, problematic or relevant in some
way (optional).
 By introducing and reviewing items of previous
research in the area (obligatory).
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Introduction
 Stage 2: establish a ‘niche’ by indicating a weakness
in the account so far.
 Indicate a gap in the previous research.
 Raise a question about it.
 Extend previous knowledge in some way (obligatory).
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Introduction
 Stage 3: occupy the niche by saying they are going to
put this right:
 By outlining the purposes or stating the nature of the
present research (obligatory).
 By listing research questions or hypotheses to be tested
(optional).
 By announcing the principal findings (optional).
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Methods
 Describe how the problem was studied.
 Include detailed information.
 Do not describe previously published procedures.
 Identify the equipment and materials used.
 Approval of the ethics committee should be specified
in the manuscript, and covering letter.
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Methods
 Method sections are usually subdivided (with
subheadings) into three sections:
1. Participants
2. Measures
3. Procedure(s)
 Write the method in such a way that readers can
repeat the method from the descriptions given.
 A useful device for clarifying the method for the
reader is to summarize it in a table or figure.
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Results
 Include only data of primary importance.
 Use sub-headings to keep results of the same type
together.
 Be clear and easy to understand.
 Highlight the main findings.
 Feature unexpected findings.
 Provide statistical analysis.
 Include illustrations and figures.
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Results
 The art of writing good results is to take the readers
through a story.
 You can present the results in several ways:
 State the main findings in order.
 State the subsidiary findings.
 An interweaving of the above– the first set of main
findings and related subsidiary ones, followed by the
second set, and so on.
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Discussions
 Discussion should correspond to the results.
 Compare published results with your own.
 Be careful NOT to use the following:
 Statements that go beyond what the results can
support.
 Non-specific expressions.
 New terms not already defined or mentioned in your
paper.
 Speculations on interpretations based on imagination.
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Discussions
 There are 5 steps for discussions:
1. Restate the findings and accomplishments.
2. Evaluate how the results fit with the previous
findings – do they contradict, agree or go beyond
them?
3. List potential limitations to the study.
4. Offer an interpretation of these results and ward off
counter-claims.
5. State the implications and recommend further
research.
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Conclusion
 The conclusion should provide a clear answer to any question
asked in the title.
 It should summarize the main points.
 Provide justification for the work.
 Do not repeat exactly what has been written in preceding
sections.
 Explain how your work advances the present state of
knowledge.
 Suggest future experiments.
 Do not over-emphasize your work.
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Acknowledgements
 Financial.
 instrumental/technical, e.g. statistical analysis.
 Conceptual, e.g. critical insight.
 Editorial, e.g. bibliographic assistance.
 Proof readers and typists.
 Suppliers who may have donated materials.
 Moral, e.g. the support of family.
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References
 Do not use too many references.
 Always ensure you have fully absorbed the material
you are referencing.
 Avoid excessive self-citations. (how many are OK?)
 Avoid excessive citations of publications from the
same region or same institute.
 Conform strictly to the style given in the “Guide for
Authors”.
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Supporting Information
 Extensive descriptions, experimental details, analyses
and datasets can be submitted as a separate file.
 They will be peer-reviewed and published with
article.
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Labelling
 The word ‘figure’ is used for almost every visual
information (maps, charts and graphs) except tables.
 Titles of tables are written above, while titles of
figures are written below the data.
 As with other data, sources must be given for all
visual information.
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Read the Text out to Yourself
 Reading the text out to oneself is a useful way of
seeing how well the text flows.
 Ask other people to read your drafts.
 Never regard the last version of the text as the final
one.
 Put this version on one side and then come back to it
a day or two later.
 Seeing the text with fresh eyes somehow suggests
further changes, but draw the line eventually!
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Publishing Ethics
 To avoid plagiarism 3 technics are used:
 Paraphrasing: rewriting a text while the content
stays the same.
 Summarizing: reducing the length of a text but
retaining the main points.
 Both of the above!
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Publishing Ethics
 Unacceptable issues are:
 Using exact phrases from the original source
without enclosing them in quotation marks
 Emulating sentence structure even when using
different words
 Emulating paragraph organization even when
using different wording or sentence structure
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Publishing Ethics
 Correct Citation Is the Key!
 Crediting the work of others (including your own
previous work) by citation is important for 3 reasons:
 To place your own work in context.
 To acknowledge the findings of others on which
you have built your research.
 To maintain the credibility and accuracy of the
scientific literature.
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Cover Paper
 This is your opportunity to convince the journal editor that
they should publish your study. Take that opportunity!
 Briefly describe:
 Yourself: your background, expertise research area, track
record
 Describe the research field, main developments, key-
players
 The main findings of this research and what is new
 The significance of this research
 The significance and relevance for journal
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Cover Paper
 Refer to previous papers on same topic in the journal.
 Keep it brief, but convey the particular importance of
your manuscript to the journal
 Suggest reviewers from different institutes/countries,
describe why you suggest them (e.g. their specific
expertise).
 Mention who should not review your paper and
explain why.
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Dear Sir, The development of this class of compounds is a
very active field of chemistry these days.
We have studied these materials for many years and have
published six papers on synthesis and properties….
Important contributions in this field have been made by….
Also in your journal several papers have focused on
elucidating the mechanism of ….
A better understanding of this phenomena will lead to more
environmentally-friendly….
Our laboratory has developed a specific technique that has
enabled us to study ….
Prof. Smith would be a suitable reviewer due to his
expertise in…
Cover Paper
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Questions of Reviewers
 Be prepared for common questions to reviewers.
 Editors want to know if a certain paper is worth
publishing.
 They want to know if:
 Paper is scientifically correct.
 If it reports something new.
 If it reports something significant.
 If the paper is of interest to the readers.
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 Does the topic of the paper fit within the journal?
 Are title and abstract in line with content?
 Is the introduction clear, balanced and well
organized?
 Are experiments correct? Can they be repeated based
on description?
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 Comment on quality of tables/figures/images.
 Are the results well-presented and analyzed?
 Is research put in appropriate context?
 Are references accurate, up-to-date, balanced,
accessible?
 Comment on importance, validity, generality of
conclusions
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Solutions for Delay in Publishing
 Always have other papers ‘on the go’, while
awaiting editors’ decisions.
 Ask the editor whether your paper is
appropriate for the journal before submitting it.
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What to do with Rejection?
 Calm down! which may take 2 weeks!
 Revise the manuscript than just sending it without
changes to another journal.
 Meet requirements of the new journal, as well as to pre-
empt the criticisms made by the original referees.
 Keep working on your papers after submitting, especially
if they come across some new and relevant findings.
 This will help to respond to any referees’ criticisms.
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Letters to the Editor
 Remind the reader of the contents of the paper to be
commented on.
 Raise the explicit criticism.
 Give evidence for the criticism.
 Urge colleagues not to take at face value the specific
point made in the earlier paper.
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Letters to the Editor
 For answering the letters to the editor, use:
 Belittling the point to which your are responding
(e.g. poorly conceived, mistaken, not well thought
out, inappropriate, unsupported).
 ‘Boosters’ to strengthen your own position (e.g.
show clearly, demonstrate, confirm the fact that).
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Posters
 Conference organizers specify how large posters can
be.
 The conventional size is about 120 cm by 75 cm.
 It is essential to find out what size is allowed before
designing a poster.
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 Have a clear, short title.
 Avoid acronyms in the title (and the text).
 Use a 24–30 point font size and try reading your
poster from 90 to 180 cm away.
 Use no more than three columns of text and make the
flow/organization of the text clear.
Posters
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Posters
 Do not use all capital letters for headings, and titles.
 Do not underline headings.
 Use only one or two type font.
 Set the text ‘unjustified’ with equal word spacing and
a ragged right-hand edge (as in this slide).
 Use short sentences and ‘bulleted’ lists.
 Do not set the text single-spaced.
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Posters
 Use one, two or at most only three colors, and only if
each color has a didactic purpose.
 Do not use 3D graphics.
 Prepare a handout specifying your name, affiliation,
date, and place of the presentation which can be given
to people who pass by.
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Components and Structure of a
Manuscript
 The objective of a scientific paper is to narrate the story with
sufficient details to allow the reader to:
 Evaluate the interpretations derived.
 Reprise the research.
 Judge if the conclusions drawn are accurate.
 Components of Research Paper:
 Introduction (What was the question asked?)
 Methods (How was that studied?)
 Results (What were the findings?)
 And Discussion (What do they mean and what is their
implication?)
 Refer to “Instructions to the Authors” page before you start writing
the manuscript.
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Manuscript
 See also these links for Preparing a Manuscript for
Submission to a Medical Journal:
http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/manuscri
pt-preparation/preparing-for-submission.html
 https://www.bmj.com/sites/default/files/attachments/reso
urces/2018/05/BMJ-InstructionsForAuthors-2018.pdf
 For Systematic Reviews see:
https://libguides.library.usyd.edu.au/c.php?g=516278&p=
3529739
 For Critical Appraisal Tools see:
https://joannabriggs.org/ebp/critical_appraisal_tools
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Manuscript
 Introduction
 The introduction is the first component of research
publication after title and abstract. It is usually
brief and communicates precisely the scope (what
was the rationale and aim of the study) of the
paper. It should describe the study background (the
available base of knowledge), significance, and
aims. It should clearly define or describe what
research questions/hypothesis being tested,
respectively.
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Manuscript
 Methodology: The Methodology section consists of two parts:
“Materials” and “Methods.”
 The “Materials” section provides answer to:
 Who/what was examined (e.g., humans, animals, cadavers, tissue
 preparations)?
 What interventions were employed (e.g., oral, injectable, gases)?
 What instruments were used (e.g., HPLC, hemoglobinometers)
in the study?
 The “Methods” section provides information on how subjects were
manipulated to answer the experimental question, how
measurements and calculations were carried out, and how the data
were managed and analyzed.
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Manuscript
 Methodology: Subsections of Methodology
 Study design
 Study setting
 Selection of participants (inclusion and exclusion criteria)
 Sample size calculation and sampling techniques adopted
 Variables included in the study and their methods of
measurement
 Data collection and data management process
 Loss of data such as dropouts or patients lost to follow-up
 Outcome measures: primary and secondary
 Data management and statistical methods used
 Ethical guidelines followed by the investigators
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Manuscript
 Methodology:
 It is a good practice to refer to checklists available
like “Strengthening the Reporting of Observational
Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE)”:
https://strobe-
statement.org/index.php?id=available-checklists
 For articles presenting with results of randomized
clinical trials see: http://www.consort-
statement.org/
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Manuscript
 The Results section is the easiest section to write. One has to
describe the findingsof the intervention/observation in this
section. Usually, the Results section consistsof three
components: Text, Tables, and Graphs. The text should be
used to conveyunique information and highlight the most
important aspects of the figures andtables so that unnecessary
duplication of data presented in tables and figures isavoided in
the text. Only important observations need to be emphasized
or summarized.The same data need not be presented both in
tables and figures.
 It is a common mistake that the authors commit as they tend to
describe the meaning/interpretation of the data in the Results
section. The best part to describe the interpretation of the
findings is the Discussion section.
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Manuscript
 The Discussion section:
 Discussion is one of the most difficult sections to write in a
manuscript.The discussion provides value to the paper and compares
the work of the authorswith other scientists. The discussion should deal
with the interpretation (findings aresimilar/consistent with other studies
or dissimilar with other reported literatures) ofresults without repeating
information which has already been presented under theResults section.
The discussion should review how the study observations add to
thecurrent scientific literature, offer explanations for the findings,
compare the study’sfindings with other literatures, and discuss the
limitations and, if possible, the implicationsfor future research. The
discussion usually ends with a brief summarystatement.Authors should
avoid presenting general statements which are not emergingfrom the
research study as conclusion. Sometimes depending upon the results,
theauthors may recommend future work to be done in the area and
provide way forward.This component can also be included toward the
end of the Discussion section.Utmost care should be taken in drafting
the Discussion section as it providesvalue to the paper.
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Manuscript
 Acknowledgment:
 People who don’t meet the authorship criteria
should be acknowledged. Acknowledgment should
be brief and intended to be made for specific
scientific or technical assistance and financial
support only. It is not required to acknowledge
individuals for providing routine departmental
facilities and not mandatory for help in the
preparation of the manuscripts without actually
contributing to scientific content.
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Manuscript
 References
 The total number of references depends upon the
type and nature of the manuscript.It is always a
good practice to refer to the “Instructions to the
Authors” page forclear guidance. References cited
should be numbered consecutively as they
appearin the text and should be placed at the end of
the manuscript. Style of referencingalso depends
upon the journal; hence, considerable attention
should be paid beforewriting references.
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Components and Structure of a Manuscript

Title
 Key points:
 The title, abstract, and keywords often hold the key to publication success.
 The title of an article should be simple, precise, and catchy.
 The title should contain pertinent, descriptive words pertaining to the research.
 The three most commonly used types of titles are declarative, descriptive, and interrogative
titles.
 Running title is an abbreviated form of the main title, usually cited at the top of each published
page or left-hand text pages.
 Running title serves to guide a reader while scanning through a journal or toggling through
multiple pages of the journal online.
 Title page is the first page of the manuscript which contains general information about the
article and the authors.
 Title page generally consists of 11 main components mainly the title, running title, author
names, affiliations, number of pages of the manuscript, no. of figures, tables, references,
conflict of interest, source of funding, acknowledgments, and disclaimers.
 The covering letter is a vital document, which serves to create an important first impression on
the editor.
 The goal of a covering letter is to convey to the editor how the manuscript meets the criteria of
the journal to which it is submitted.
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Title
 There Are Three Basic Rules to Be Followed While Writing a
Title:
 The title should be simple, precise, and catchy.
 The title should contain pertinent, descriptive words
pertaining to the research.
 Avoid abbreviations/numerical parameters in the title.
 The title generally should not exceed 150 characters or 12–16
words, though this should be tailored to the instructions of the
specific journal.
 The following format can be used as a rough guide for writing
a title: research question + research design + population +
geographic area of study (what, how, with whom, where). The
last two may be excluded in case of word constraints.
 There is no full stop at the end of the title.
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Types of Titles
 There are 3 types:
 Declarative Titles – Declarative title state the main
findings stated in the paper. These titles convey the
most information and are the most appropriate for
research articles.
 Descriptive Titles – Descriptive title describes the
subject of the research without revealing the
conclusions. It includes the relevant information of the
research hypothesis which is studied (e.g., participant,
intervention, control, and outcome; PICO).
 Interrogative Titles – Interrogative title poses the
subject of research as a question. They are more
appropriate for literature reviews.
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Types of Titles
 Descriptive titles are the most commonly used.
 A longer title is more likely to contain a given search
term and is therefore identified more easily. Since
most of the journals have a limit on the number words
which can be used in a title.
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Running Title
 Many journals require a short title, which should not
exceed 60 characters (including spaces). This is the
running title/short title/running head which is an
abbreviated form of the main title.
 Being catchy is not important for a running title;
instead, clarity and precision are important.
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Title Page
 Title page is the first page of the manuscript which contains general
information about the article and the authors. A title page includes
the following components:
 1. Title
 2. Abbreviated or running title
 3. Author names and affiliations and order of authorship
 4. Number of pages of the manuscript
 5. No. of figures, tables, multimedia, or 3D models
 6. No. of references
 7. No. of words in abstract, main text, and references
 8. Conflict of interest
 9. Sources of support
 10. Acknowledgments
 11. Disclaimer
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Title Page
 Only the corresponding author has the right to
withdraw, correct, or make changes to the
manuscript.
 Most of the journals have a conflict of interest
declaration form. Despite this, editors will sometimes
require a conflict of interest declaration on the title
page. If there are no conflicts, the usual wording is
“the authors declare no competing financial
interests.” Any source of funding, honorarium
received, or post held by any of the authors which
could pose a possible conflict of interest should be
mentioned.
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Covering Letter
 The goal of a covering letter is to convey to the editor
how the manuscript meets the criteria required by the
journal.
 ‫ببین‬ ‫را‬ ‫اسالید‬ ‫این‬ ‫نویس‬ ‫زیر‬
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Conclusions
 Scientific writing should be kept simple. While writing a
scientific article, you should recall more than once
Einstein’s famous quote “If you can’t explain it simply,
you don’t understand it well enough.”
 Most often, maximum time and effort are spent on writing
the main text of the article with little thought and effort
spared for writing other parts of a research, like the title,
running title, title page, and covering letter. The editor
spends a relatively short time for reviewing the relevance
of your work. Giving due time and consideration for these
three vital parts of a research holds the key to publication
success. Hence every effort must be spared to create these
critical parts of the document.
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Abstract and Keywords
 Key Points:
 An abstract of a scientific article is a precise, clear, and stand-alone
statement that provides an overview of the work to the reader and plays
an important role in increasing the visibility.
 An effective abstract should encapsulate the essence of the article and
give all essential information about the study/paper, as it’s often only
the abstract that’s scrutinized by potential readers and reviewers.
 An abstract can be descriptive or informative. Informative abstracts
can again be divided as structured and unstructured abstracts.
 The components of an abstract are introduction/background, methods,
results, and conclusion. The discussion is not necessarily a part of the
abstract unless specified. Results followed by methods should be the
main emphasis of the abstract.
 The title of an article is keyed and hence the specific words/phrases
that are used repeatedly in the manuscript can be used as keywords.
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 A good abstract is important for numerous reasons which
can be summarized as “selection and indexing” [3].
Many a times an abstract is the only component of the
manuscript that is read by the readers while doing an
electronic database search or while leafing through the
printed journals [2]. Very often, articles are cited solely
based on abstracts. The abstract is sometimes the only
part that is scrutinized by reviewers for journals or
selection for presentation in conference platforms. The
abstract sets the tone and entices the potential readers to
gain access to your full work. Hence it should
encapsulate the essence of the article and give all
essential information about the study/paper.
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 There are 2 types of abstracts:
 Descriptive: used in social science and humanities.
 Informative: used for scientific papers with 250–300 word.
It is usually one-tenth the length of the original manuscript,
and has 2 types:
 Unstructured: there are no pre-labeled sections in the
abstract. However, all the details required in the abstract are
included similar to a structured abstract. This is more
commonly used for case reports rather than original articles.
 Structured: The layout of these abstracts has distinct and
labeled sections. structured abstracts are now the preferred
layout
 It is important to note that although an abstract is a reflection
of the paper, the discussion is not a part of an abstract.
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| 88
Flowchart demonstrating the “reverse
outlining” process for writing an effective
abstract

How to Avoid Pitfalls in Abstract?
 Avoid the direct use of abbreviations, as it will
require explanation, which will unnecessarily use up
space for other relevant information. Avoid jargon
and superfluous vocabulary in the abstract to avoid
confusion among the readers. Do not include any
references or citations while writing the abstract.
Importantly, there should not be any misleading
speculations stated in the abstract.
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Academic writing part 1

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Academic writing part 1