Advanced Topics In Biomineralization J Seto
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- 5. ADVANCED TOPICS IN BIOMINERALIZATION Edited by Jong Seto
- 6. Advanced Topics in Biomineralization Edited by Jong Seto Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2012 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Romana Vukelic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer InTech Design Team First published February, 2012 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org Advanced Topics in Biomineralization, Edited by Jong Seto p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-0045-4
- 9. Contents Preface VII Part 1 Biomineralizing Schemes and Strategies 1 Chapter 1 Intrinsically Disordered Proteins in Biomineralization 3 Magdalena Wojtas, Piotr Dobryszycki and Andrzej Ożyhar Chapter 2 Single Amino Acids as Additives Modulating CaCO3 Mineralization 33 Christoph Briegel, Helmut Coelfen and Jong Seto Chapter 3 Control of CaCO3 Crystal Growth by the Acidic Proteinaceous Fraction of Calcifying Marine Organisms: An In Vitro Study of Biomineralization 49 M. Azizur Rahman and Ryuichi Shinjo Part 2 In Vivo Mineralization Systems 63 Chapter 4 The Chiton Radula: A Unique Model for Biomineralization Studies 65 Lesley R. Brooker and Jeremy A. Shaw Chapter 5 Cartilage Calcification 85 Ermanno Bonucci and Santiago Gomez Part 3 Applied Biomineralization 111 Chapter 6 Biomimetic Materials Synthesis from Ferritin-Related, Cage-Shaped Proteins 113 Pierpaolo Ceci, Veronica Morea, Manuela Fornara, Giuliano Bellapadrona, Elisabetta Falvo and Andrea Ilari Chapter 7 Biofilm and Microbial Applications in Biomineralized Concrete 137 Navdeep Kaur Dhami, Sudhakara M. Reddy and Abhijit Mukherjee
- 10. VI Contents
- 11. Preface Emerging from investigations of bone, shell, and tooth formation, the field of biomineralization has rapidly grown in the past decade—utilizing novel method and device developments that have resulted from advances in nano -science and - technology. These tools have enabled direct measurement, manipulation, and visualization of processes at or near the molecular level. Not only have the methods improved, but biomineralization has become multidisciplinary—relying on the active cooperation of molecular biologists, physical chemists, as well as materials scientists to approach questions from other perspectives. Active centers in biomineralization research are found throughout Germany, Israel, Japan, United Kingdom as well as the United States. Biomineralization has become not only an interdisciplinary matter but also an international one, which benefits tremendously from the cooperative as well as coordination of research efforts stretching around the world. Pooling together the expertise at these centers and disciplines to focus on key issues in biomineralization, our understanding of the formation, regulation of properties and application of biominerailized materials have dramatically improved. By examining biomineralized materials at smaller length scales, we can observe interfaces where organic and inorganic interactions occur. At these length scales, molecules have been found that can inhibit mineralization. Another category of molecules that can nucleate mineral are more elusive, but are believed to exist as well. The interactions of the organic with the developing mineral—in the form of ions and clusters of ions—have led to a better understanding of the influence of additives involved in mineralization. Several groups have also found the existence of amorphous phases and their significance in directing the formation of specific crystalline phases. If we fully understand these principles at the atomic and molecular levels, bottom-up construction schemes can be utilized to make materials that are tailored with specific properties. Some groups have even gone into exploring these schemes for building materials for use in construction of large structures like bridges and buildings. In the next decade, we hope that the biomineralization community will continue to grow and
- 12. VIII Preface develop, incorporating novel examples of Nature’s biomineralization toolkit to create functional materials that will create a more clean, safe, and livable society. Jong Seto Department of Chemistry, University of Konstanz, Konstanz Germany
- 15. Part 1 Biomineralizing Schemes and Strategies
- 17. 1 Intrinsically Disordered Proteins in Biomineralization Magdalena Wojtas, Piotr Dobryszycki and Andrzej Ożyhar Wroclaw University of Technology Poland 1. Introduction Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) have the potential to play a unique role in the study of proteins and the relationships between structure and function. Intrinsic disorder affects chemical and cellular events such as cell signaling, macromolecular self-assembly, protein removal and crystal nucleation and growth. This chapter explores the structural principles by which IDPs act and reveals the prevalence of IDPs in the field of biomineralization. It has been demonstrated that proteins involved in biomineralization are frequently very extended and disordered. Moreover, the disordered structure is integral to how these proteins fulfill their functions. We have focused on the analysis of polypeptide folding, the role of post- translational modifications, predictions of the structural disorder and the degree of disorder in secondary structures. Computational and biophysical strategies to analyze the secondary structures and evaluate the degree and nature of "disorder" in proteins are described. Biomineralization is the result of the orchestration of a series of protein-protein, protein- mineral and protein-cell interactions. Identifying unfolded functional domains in cell signaling may have a great impact in the study of tissue regeration and biomineral formation. IDPs are typically organic components of biominerals. It is believed that they could act as a regulatory coordinator for specific interactions of many proteins, and thus many physiological processes such as formation of dentin and bone, the formation of sea urchin and crusteacean exoskeletons. Here, we review what is currently understood about the molecular basis of biomineral formation. This includes protein interaction with metal ions, post-translational modifications, interactions with other proteins, or other factors that induce the formation of crystal shape and size along with the proper polymorph selection in relation to the role of IDPs. 2. Intrinsically disordered proteins The history of IDPs goes back to the 1960s, with Linus Pauling’s observation of the existence of regions in proteins with a disordered structure (Pauling & Delbruck, M., 1940). However, only a small group of researchers like Dunker, Uversky, Wright, Dyson, Tompa and others during the next forty years demonstrated that it was possible to depart from the paradigm that a protein’s function is closely affiliated with its structure (Dyson & P.E. Wright, 2005; Tompa, 2011; Uversky & Dunker, 2010; P.E. Wright & Dyson, 1999). Currently, it is believed
- 18. Advanced Topics in Biomineralization 4 that 20-50% of eukaryotic proteins contain at least one fragment belonging to the class of IDPs (Babu et al., 2011; Dunker et al., 2000). It is well known that globular proteins decrease their activity in a denatured state when a solution is subjected to high temperatures or chemical denaturants. The "structure-function" paradigm was not contested for many years until experimental data began to show that there was no stable three-dimensional structure for some protein fragments that had been attributed to particular functions. These proteins are in whole or in part, in contrast to globular proteins, heterogeneous ensembles of flexible molecules, unorganized and without a defined three-dimensional structure. According to these properties, the proteins are referred to as natively unfolded, intrinsically unfolded (IUP), intrinsically unstructured or intrinsically disordered (Dunker et al., 2005; Dyson & Wright, 2005; Tompa, 2005; Uversky, 2002). It has been previously shown that structural disorder is characteristic of proteins involved in important biological processes such as signal transmission, regulation of cell cycles, regulation of gene expression, activity of chaperone proteins, neoplastic processes, and biomineral formation (Dyson, 2011; Tompa, 2011; Uversky, 2010). These processes require a series of dynamic macromolecular interactions and IDPs seem to be specially created for their functions. An IDP’s meta-stable conformation allows it to bind to its protein partners as well as interact with high specificity and relatively low affinity. Furthermore, there is some experimental evidence showing that IDPs may interact with multiple partners, changing or adjusting the structures and functions of their partners (Tompa, 2005). Comparative analyses of the amino acid sequences of all currently known IDPs have shown common features. These proteins are characterized by amino acid compositions enriched with residues like A, R, G, Q, S, P, E and K that promote a disordered structure, with the small participation of other residues like W, C, F, I, Y, V, L and N, which simultaneously promote an ordered structure (Dunker et al., 2001). IDPs can be classified into five groups based on their relative functions: entropic chains, effectors, assemblers, scavengers, and display sites. Entropic chains act as flexible linkers between the globular domains of multidomain proteins. Effectors bind and modify the activity of a partner. Assemblers are able to simultaneously bind several ligands as multimolecular assemblies. Scavengers store or neutralize small ligands. Finally, display sites promote specific interactions within the active sites of enzymes that facilitate post-translational modifications (Tompa, 2002). 2.1 Methods for analyzing IDP structure Based on the amino acid composition of IDPs, a number of algorithms have been proposed that predict regions containing a disordered structure. The most frequently used are PONDR (Romero et al., 2001), DISOPRED 2 (Ward et al., 2004a, 2004b), IUPred (Dosztanyi et al., 2005), GLOBPLOT 2 (Linding et al., 2004) and FoldIndex (Uversky et al., 2000). More algorithms can be found in the DisProt database (Sickmeier et al., 2007). These algorithms operate on the principle of a neuronal network "trained" using amino acid sequences belonging to experimentally confirmed IDPs. It has been observed that sequences that have low complexity or are abundantly charged and/or freuquently post- translationally modified (e.g. phosphorylated) usually adopt a stretched, unordered conformation (Romero et al., 2001). IDPs are often characterized by charge-hydropathy
- 19. Intrinsically Disordered Proteins in Biomineralization 5 plots. Based on the normalized net charge and mean hydrophobicity, proteins can be categorized into either globular folded proteins or IDPs. IDPs are specifically localized within a unique region of charge-hydrophobicity proteins (Uversky et al., 2000). Figure 1A shows a charge-hydropathy plot for experimentally confirmed IDPs and globular proteins, while Figure 1B presents a charge-hydropathy plot for proteins involved in biomineralization. Fig. 1. Charge-hydrophobicity plots. The solid line represents the contractual boundary between disordered and ordered proteins. (A) Comparison of charge-hydrophobicity for IDPs (black dots) and globular proteins (white dots). (B) Proteins involved in biomineralization represented on the charge-hydrophobicity plot. Black triangles show experimentally confirmed IDPs, while white triangles represent proteins whose secondary structure has not been studied. Even this simple analysis indicates that many proteins involved in biomineralization could be IDPs. However, computer predictions themselves can not be relied on as the sole evidence of the absence of structural order in a protein. Such evidence only invites further experimental study, which could include X-ray diffraction analysis (Dunker & Obradovic, 2001), multidimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) (Bai et al., 2001), circular dichroism spectroscopy (CD) (Tompa, 2002), differential scanning microcalorimetry (DSC) (Mendoza et al., 2003), X-ray scattering at small angle (SAXS) (Millett et al., 2002). 3. IDPs found in calcium phosphate related mineralization In bone and dentin, collagen acts as a structural matrix whereas hydroxyapatite (HA) nucleation is regulated by the acidic phosphoproteins (Chen et al., 1992; Glimcher, 1989). These non-collagenous proteins (NCPs) play crucial roles in the organization of the collagen matrix and in the modulation of HA crystal formation (Ganss et al., 1999). NCPs
- 20. Advanced Topics in Biomineralization 6 are often classified as IDPs. Some examples of IDPs engaged in HA formation are presented below. 3.1 SIBLINGs Small integrin-binding ligand, N-linked glycoproteins (SIBLINGs) with NCPs are involved in the mineralization of bone and dentin (George & Veis, 2008; Qin et al., 2004). Within the family of human SIBLINGs there is limited sequence similarity; however, they share common features, such as: (i) similar gene organization and chromosome localization, (ii) RGD (arginine-glycine-aspartate) motifs mediating cell attachment/signaling via their interactions with cell-surface integrins, (iii) extensive post-translational modifications like phosphorylation and glycosylation, (iv) abundance of acidic residues, (v) calcium ions and collagen binding ability (George & Veis, 2008; Qin et al., 2004), (vi) intrinsically disordered molecular character (Tompa, 2002). The SIBLINGs family includes osteopontin (OPN), bone sialoprotein (BSP), dentin matrix protein 1 (DMP1), matrix extracellular phosphoglycoprotein (MEPE) and dentin sialophosphoprotein (DSPP). DSPP gives rise to two mature products, dentin phosphoprotein (also called phosphophoryn) (DPP) and dentin sialoprotein (DSP) (George & Veis, 2008; Qin et al., 2004). 3.1.1 DMP1 The highly acidic protein (D and E constitute 29% of all residues) DMP1 acts as a nucleator for HA deposition in vitro (He et al., 2003a). The disordered character of DMP1 has been shown using several methods (Tab. 1). CD and FTIR measurements have shown that DMP1 has a random structure in solution, however upon calcium ions binding DMP1 undergoes a slight conformational change to a more ordered structure. SAXS and DLS confirmed a calcium-induced disorder-to-order transition in DMP1 leading to oligomerization (Gericke et al., 2010; He et al., 2003b). Moreover, it has been shown that the DMP1 molecule assumes an elongated shape (He et al., 2005a). Further studies have revealed that two specific acidic clusters (ESQES and QESQSEQDS) in DMP1 are responsible for the calcium-induced oligomerization and in vitro nucleation of apatite crystals (He et al., 2003b). This calcium- induced conformational change of DMP1 could be the structural basis for biocomposite self- assembly (He et al., 2003b). The lack of a rigid structure enables DMP1 to serve multiple functions, not only in biomineralization, but also in osteoblast differentiation and maturation (Narayanan et al., 2003). Nonphosphorylated DMP1 is localized in the nucleus where it acts as a transcriptional component for the activation of matrix genes involved in mineralized tissue formation (Narayanan et al., 2003). It binds the DSPP gene promoter and activates DSPP gene expression. Calcium ions released from intracellular stores bind DMP1 and induce in DMP1 a conformational change and phosphorylation by casein kinase 2 (CK2). Finally, the phosphorylated protein is exported to the extracellular matrix, where it acts as a nucleator of hydroxyapatite (Narayanan et al., 2003). The DNA binding domain is localized within the C-terminal region of DMP1 (Narayanan et al., 2006). Extracellular DMP1 also has the ability to strongly bind the H factors, integrin αvβ3 and CD44 (Jain et al., 2002), and it is specifically involved in signaling via extracellular matrix-cell surface interaction (Wu et al., 2011).
- 21. Intrinsically Disordered Proteins in Biomineralization 7 Organism Protein pI Methods Reference Mammals DMP1 4.0 CD, DLS, FTIR, SAXS (Gericke et al., 2010; He et al., 2003a, 2003b) DPP 2.8 CD, NMR, SAXS (Cross et al., 2005; Evans et al., 1994; Fujisawa & Kuboki, 1998; George & Hao, 2005; He et al., 2005b; Lee et al., 1977) BSP 4.1 CD, NMR, SAXS (Fisher et al., 2001; Tye et al., 2003, 2005; Wuttke et al., 2001) OPN 4.4 CD, NMR, FTIR (Fisher et al., 2001; Gorski et al., 1995) amelogenin 6.6 CD, NMR (Buchko et al., 2010; Delak et al., 2009b; Ndao et al., 2011;Shaw et al., 2008) statherin 8.0 CD, NMR (Long et al., 2001; Naganagowda et al., 1998; Raj et al., 1992) lithostathine 5.7 CD (Gerbaud et al., 2000) Haliotis rufescens AP7 5.2 CD, NMR (Kim et al., 2004, 2006a; Michenfelder et al., 2003; Wustman et al., 2004) AP24 5.3 CD, NMR (Michenfelder et al., 2003; Wustman et al., 2004) Lustrin A 8.1 NMR (Wustman et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2002) Picntada fucata n16 7.5 CD, NMR (Amos et al., 2011; Collino & Evans, 2008; Kim et al., 2004, 2006b) ACCBP 4.7 CD (Amos et al., 2009) PFMG1 7.9 CD (Liu et al., 2007) Atrina rigita Asprich 2.7- 3.5 CD, NMR (Collino et al., 2006; Delak et al., 2009a, 2008; Kim et al., 2008; Ndao et al., 2010) Procambrus clarkii CAP-1 3.9 CD (Inoue et al., 2007) Strongylocentrotus purpuratus SM50 10.8 CD, NMR (Xu & Evans, 1999; Zhang et al., 2000) PM27 8.1 CD, NMR (Wustman et al., 2002) Danio rerio Stm 4.1 CD, gel filtration (Kaplon et al., 2008, 2009) Table 1. IDPs involved in biomineralization of calcium carbonate and phosphate for which a disordered structure has been confirmed experimentally. 3.1.2 DSPP DSPP undergoes proteolytic cleavage to DPP and DSP. DPP is most abundant in dentin, but also present in bone (George & Hao, 2005; Lee et al., 1977). At least 75% of the DPP sequence (isolated from dentin) is composed of S and D residues and 85-90% of the S residues are phosphorylated (George & Veis, 2008; He et al., 2005b; Huq et al., 2000). In solution DPP isolated from dentin behaves as a fairly extended, random-chain molecule due to electrostatic repulsion (Table 1), as has been shown by CD studies (Lee et al., 1977). The
- 22. Advanced Topics in Biomineralization 8 presence of calcium ions reduces DPP solubility, which indicates aggregation of the protein (Lee et al., 1977). It has been demonstrated that nonphosphorylated DPP has lower calcium binding ability than the phosphorylated form and induces amorphous calcium phosphate formation, while the phosphorylated form promotes plate-like apatite crystals (He et al., 2005b). SAXS studies revealed a calcium-induced conformation change from an extended structure to a more compact one, but only in phosphorylated DPP. Nonphosphorylated DPP was disordered irrespective of the presence of calcium ions at various concentrations (George & Hao, 2005; He et al., 2005b). NMR spectroscopy also confirmed high mobility and flexibility of DPP in the absence of calcium ions, and decreased mobility in the presence of calcium ions (Cross et al., 2005; Evans et al., 1994). Solid-state NMR spectroscopy enabled investigation of the DPP structure when bonded to HA. The secondary structure of DPP bound to crystal was very extended and largely disordered. A majority of DPP residues interacted with crystal. (Fujisawa & Kuboki, 1998). This disordered molecular structure facilitates DPP’s extension across the surface of a crystal and allows it to cover the surface with only a small number of molecules, all of which results in a highly inhibitory effect on crystal growth (Fujisawa & Kuboki, 1998). While DPP structure has been extensively explored, DSP structural studies are still unavailable. However, bioinformatic predictions strongly suggest that DSP is also an IDP (Table 2). Overall percent disordered Organism Protein pI IUPred DISOPRED2 PONDR Mammals DSP 4.5 100 100 73 MEPE 8.6 95 60 64 Picntada fucata Aspein 1.5 100 100 100 Prismalin-14 3.9 0 0 9 Patinopecten yessoensis MSP-1 3.2 97 98 96 Pinna nobilis Calprismin 4.9 12 0 74 Crassostrea nippona MPP1 2.2 100 98 97 Nautilus macromphalus Nautilin-63 9.2 66 4 41 Procambrus clarkii GAMP 4.2 63 73 63 CAP-2 4.2 18 2 45 Casp-2 4.3 33 8 68 Orchestia cavimana Orchestin 4.5 58 34 69 Cherax quadricarinatus GAP 65 5.0 2 0 11 GAP 10 5.5 4 0 37 Penaeus japonicus Crustocalcin 3.9 45 37 81 Strongylocentrotus purpuratus SM30 6.2 25 0 28 SM32 8.3 44 44 47 SM37 10.4 60 43 56 phosphodontin 3.9 96 94 94 Oryzias latipes Stm-like 3.8 100 98 94 Oncorhynchus mykiss OMM-64 3.5 97 96 92 Gallus gallus Ovocleidin-116 6.6 91 57 78 Table 2. Bioinformatic predictions of a disordered structure in proteins involved in biomineralization.
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- 24. vessels at Havre, I was anxious to have an explanation of his offensive tone. He replied that, tired himself of not knowing where the blame lay, he had the honor to send you a memoir by M. Lee, and that the latter reported that Your Excellency had clearly assured him that for a long while there had been no obstacle on the part of the ministry and that if I said there was, it could only be an imposture of mine or of M. Montieu. Pardon, M. le Comte, if after swallowing all the other bitter pills without complaint, this rests in my throat and strangles me in passing. Your Excellency will perhaps be so good as to cast a glance over the four letters that I join to this, written by me to M. de Sartine the 3rd, 18th, 22d and 29th of January. They will inform you of the true state of affairs if it is possible that you are ignorant of it, and you will tell me afterwards up to what point you order me to keep silent and sacrifice myself. This blow crushes me and makes me desire that my whole conduct as a vigilant man and faithful servitor be promptly examined and with the utmost rigor. It is impossible for me to take an instant’s repose until you have accorded me this grace. Read, I beg you, my letters to M. de Sartine and judge of my suffering.” Vergennes immediately replied, and the whole situation grew brighter. Beaumarchais wrote the next day, February 1, 1777, “I sincerely thank you for your goodness in tranquilizing me. I have force against everything except your discontent. Never judge me without hearing me, this is the only favor I ask. I know well that you are accused of irresolution, which is very far from your character. Afterwards they cast upon me the reflections of their discontent, making you speak, so that I may feel it more keenly—I will never believe anything again. I have the intimate consciousness that I do my best and even the best that can be done under the circumstances. Across all the obstacles that surround me, a small success pays me for great labor. I feel myself already light-hearted again since yesterday’s letters have told me that three of my vessels have started.” Beaumarchais was thus after so many delays given full power to act. On the 4th of February, 1777, he wrote to
- 25. Vergennes: “At last I have my delivery.... It is a pity that the Dutch should be destined to have the principal gain from the transport of these materials. No matter, the most important thing is, not to let America come to grief through lack of good munitions....” By the beginning of March ten vessels of Roderigue Hortalès et Cie. were floating towards America. The seventh of that month he announced the fact to Vergennes: “Never,” he wrote, “has commercial affair been pushed with so much vigor, in spite of obstacles of every nature which have been encountered. May God give it good success!” “Beaumarchais,” says M. de Loménie, “naturally expected soon to receive very many expressions of gratitude from Congress, as well as very much Maryland and Virginia tobacco. He did not even receive a reply to his letters.” Nevertheless, he continued to send out ships laden with supplies, all through the spring and summer, receiving from his agents alone information of their safe arrival. The failure of Congress to ratify the conditions offered by its commissioner would have brought to ruin the commercial house of Roderigue Hortalès et Cie. in spite of the subsidy of two millions with which it had been founded, had not the Government again come to its assistance. But though the ministers in general, and Vergennes in particular, never entirely deserted Beaumarchais, other and wholly different measures for aiding the Americans were now seriously occupying their attention. The colonies in declaring themselves free from British rule had forced upon France the necessity of coming to some definite decision. This she was slow in doing, but so inevitable was it that she should take an active part in the great struggle that already the measures necessary for the arming and equipping of her forces were being discussed in her councils, while the nation, gone mad with enthusiasm, was urging her forward in the pathway which could lead to nothing but open war.
- 26. LAFAYETTE CHAPTER XX “Never Greece, never Rome, never any people of the ancient world, exposed the motives of its independence with a more noble simplicity, nor based them upon more evident truths.” Gudin de la Brenellerie, Histoire de Beaumarchais. The Declaration of Independence and Its Effect in Europe— Beaumarchais’s Activity in Getting Supplies to America— Difficulties Arise About Sailing—Treachery of du Coudray—
- 27. “ T Lafayette’s Contract with Deane—His Escape to America— Beaumarchais’s Losses—Baron von Steuben Sails for America in Beaumarchais’s Vessel, Taking the Latter’s Nephew, des Epinières, and His Agent, Theveneau de Francy—The Surrender of Burgoyne—Beaumarchais Finds Himself Set Aside While Others Take His Place—Faces Bankruptcy—Vergennes Comes to His Assistance. HE Act,” says Doniol (I, p. 561), “which proclaimed to the civilized world the institution of the American Republic and which was destined to open a new phase of civilization, was announced in Europe only as an incident, secondary to the resistance of the rebels. “The English Government would not admit that the solemn act produced any visible emotion in London. In the beginning Garnier, the French Ambassador, was no more struck than the cabinet of London by the page of political philosophy put into being by the declaration of Congress, and which was to respond so loudly in the country of Voltaire and the Encyclopædia.” In France, “when it became known,” continues Doniol, “it produced the most vivid sensation which was possible to create a century ago by the means of publicity then existing.” But though the action of the colonies was greeted with wild enthusiasm by the populace, the government remained cold and undemonstrative. Silas Deane had written to Congress, January 17, 1777, “The hearts of the French people are universally for us and the opinion for an immediate war with Great Britain is very strong, but the court has its reasons for postponing a little longer.” The chief cause of the apparent inaction of the government arose from the ruined condition of its finances. Beaumarchais, as was seen in the last chapter, already had been commissioned to draw up a plan of finance which should aid in the present crisis. This he had done, basing his scheme of reform upon the wise and prudent measures adopted by the great Sully. He endeavored to prove that these reforms would, if put into execution, cause such an
- 28. increase of revenue as would enable France safely to declare war, without increasing the rate of taxation or incurring the risk of bankruptcy. His scheme, however, had been set aside. On the 30th of March, 1777, he addressed a lengthy memoir to the prime minister, M. le Comte de Maurepas, of which the following is an extract: “... I have doubtless explained badly my ideas of help for the Americans, since it seems that you have not adopted them. The fear of giving you too much to read makes me concise to the point of being perhaps obscure.... Read the letter of M. Deane.... Judge if a good Frenchman, a zealous subject of the King, a good servitor of M. de Maurepas, who respects him and wishes to see his administration honored among all the people of the world, judge if he can support your constant refusal to lend him a hand, the earnest solicitations of America at bay, and the insolent triumph of armed England.... M. le Comte, spare your servitors the sorrows of one day hearing you reproached with having been in a position to save America at small cost and you have not done it, to tear her from the yoke of England and to unite her to us by commerce, and that you have neglected it. “Hear me, I pray you; you distrust too much your own powers and my resources; and above all I fear that you do not sufficiently esteem the empire, which your age and your wisdom gives you over a young prince whose heart is formed, but whose politics are still in the cradle. You forget that that fresh young soul has been turned and brought back from very far. He is tractable, helpless, weak in his whole being. You forget that while dauphin, Louis XVI had an invincible repugnance to the old parliaments, yet that their recall honored the first six months of his reign; you forget also that he swore never to be vaccinated, yet that eight days afterwards he had the vaccine in his arm. No one is ignorant of this, and no one will excuse you for not employing the beautiful power of your place in causing to be adopted the great things which you have in your mind. “If you find my liberties too daring, go back to their respectful motives, and you will pardon them to my attachment.
- 29. “It was not play on my part, M. le Comte, when attaching myself to you, I said with feeling: ‘I shall never have a day of true happiness, if your administration passes away without having accomplished the three greatest acts which could illustrate it: the humiliation of England by the union of America and France; the re- establishment of the finances, following the plan of Sully, which I have placed several times at your feet, and the rendering of civil existence to protestants.... These three things are to-day in your hands; I wish only the honor of having often recalled them to you. What work, M. le Comte, what success more beautiful, could crown your career? After such actions, there is no death. The dearest existence of man, his reputation, survives all and becomes eternal. Hear me then, I beg you, in favor of the Americans. Remember that the deputies await my answer to dispatch a courier who will carry encouragement or desolation into Congress.... Do not render my pains unfruitful, through not concurring in them, and may the recompense of my works be the honor of having made them acceptable to you! “I am, with the most respectful devotion, M. le Comte, “Your very, etc., “de Beaumarchais.” To all this Maurepas made no reply, and the unhappy agent, still harassed and thwarted in his plans, wrote to Vergennes: “April 13, 1777. “... If I do my duty, as M. de Maurepas had before the goodness to say to me, in presenting without ceasing and under all its faces, the picture of so important an affair, permit me to represent to you, M. le Comte, what you know better than I, that loss of time, silence and indecision are even worse than refusal. Refusal is a deed, one can act afterwards, but from nothing, nothing ever comes—it remains nothing....”
- 30. GENERAL JOHN SCHUYLER In the same letter he warmly pleaded his own cause. “In so far as I work alone,” he said, “my secret is secure. If the indiscretion of the officers of the Amphitrite and their foolish chief make known the destination of the vessel, what can I do more than you? I defy any man in this country, beginning with the ministers themselves, to cite either what name, what charge, from what port and for what
- 31. destination I have sent the vessels dispatched since.... In a word, M. le Comte, now that all is in operation, when the first pains and labors of so vast an establishment have obtained a certain success, when my profound disdain for the idle gossip of society has turned aside the babblers and now that I can assure the happy consequence of the enterprise, do you refuse to concur any longer? and does my active perseverance inspire the same in no one?... In the name of Heaven, of honor, of the interests of France, retard no longer your decision, M. le Comte! Confer again with M. de Maurepas. No object is more important, and none so pressing. “In the instant of closing this letter, I receive one from Nantes, by which I am informed of the refusal to provide sailors, and so my richest ship is stopped at the moment it is ready to sail.... I implore you, M. le Comte, promptly to arrange with M. de Sartine what is necessary for the departure of my vessel.... I hope to go myself for your orders upon very many objects Thursday evening, if you do not send them before. I recommend the Americans to your remembrance and their advocate to your good will.... The hour of the post has passed while I was writing. I send this therefore by a man on horseback.” In striking contrast to the outspoken and independent tone assumed by Beaumarchais when addressing the ministers, is the friendly yet authoritative manner which he employs when it is question of a subordinate. To de Francy, his confidential agent, he had written February 28, 1777, in relation to the dispatching of the Amphitrite, after it had been brought back by du Coudray: “We shall have to say, like Bartholo (one of the characters in the Barbier de Séville) ‘le diable est entré dans mon affaire,’ and remedy as best we may the evil that is past, by preventing its happening again. Give the enclosed letter to M. du Coudray. I send it to you open, in order that you may reply in my behalf to his objections, should he make any. Show to Captain Fautrelle, the enclosed order which we give him, in quality of proprietor of the vessel which he commands, and take his word of honor to conform to it entirely. I received yesterday a letter
- 32. from my nephew along with yours. As unreasonable as the rest of them, my nephew seems to be unwilling to go back to his place on the Amphitrite. You can understand the little attention which I pay to such childishness. Simply recommend him again to the special care of M. de Conway and to the Chevalier de Bore. Command the captain to receive on board M. le Marquis de la Rouërie, who comes to us with special recommendations. Give to the Captain the general rule and the secret of the route. If the force of circumstances obliges him to put into Santo Domingo, arrange with him and M. de Conway not to stop there, but to write to the governor of the island in order to notify him that the fear of some unlucky encounter, alone prompted the drawing up of the fictitious order in regard to the destination of the Amphitrite, and take from him a new fictitious order for France, in order to shelter yourself by that order in case you encounter an English vessel between Santo Domingo and the true destination of the ship. You know very well that all the precautions of the Ministry are taken in accord with us; it is upon this that we can count. “As soon as the Amphitrite has set sail, go on to Nantes, where, by the way, you will probably find le Mercure started, because it is ready now to set sail. Good-bye, my dear Francy. Come quickly back to Paris. You have trotted about enough for this time; other work awaits you here: but I will be there to divide it with you. Bring me back this letter.” The fear of a possible reconciliation of the colonies with Great Britain, which constantly haunted the agent of the French Government, had of late been greatly augmented. The 8th of March, 1777, he had written to Vergennes: “Sunday morning. “M. le Comte; Another letter you will say. Will they never stop! Eh! how can I stop, M. le Comte, when new objects unceasingly excite my attention and my vigilance? A private secretary of Lord Germaine arrived yesterday, secretly sent to Messrs. Deane and
- 33. Franklin. He brings propositions of peace. The most superb recompenses are promised him if he succeeds.”... Monday morning, he wrote ... “America is doing the impossible to hold her own. But be sure that she cannot go much farther without you, or without a reconciliation with Great Britain.... While I am treating with you, I warn you that England is secretly attempting to treat with M. Franklin.... Deane is regarded as a formidable obstacle to any project of adjustment: They will attempt to dislodge him at whatever price. My news is so positive as to the intention of the ministers that my conjectures become facts. They have the project to compel Deane to leave France, and to make of him the expiatory victim.” A short time before Beaumarchais had written to the same minister: “The doctor Franklin at this moment, wishes to send away M. Deane from France. My special object is to prevent his leaving. The manly firmness of this Republican alone, can arrest the insinuations of every kind employed against the doctor.” As a matter of fact, Franklin was well aware of the dismay which the noise of his secret communications with agents of Great Britain had caused the ministers, nor did he desire to allay their suspicions. He knew well the value for France of an alliance with the colonies, at least supposing the fact of their independence. He knew, also, how far it was to the interest of England to prevent such an alliance. So long as France remained outwardly inactive, Franklin did nothing to allay the fears of the one government nor to weaken the hopes of the other, although there can be no doubt that in his heart he was bent only upon concluding a treaty with France. In March, 1777, he wrote: “I did not come to make peace, but to procure the aid of European powers to permit us to defend our liberty and our independence, which it is certainly to their interest to guarantee, because our great and growing commerce will be open, and cease to be the monopoly of England.... I think we shall be capable with a little help, of defending our possessions long enough, so that England will be ruined if she persists in destroying us.... I flatter myself to live to see my country established in peace and prosperity,
- 34. while Great Britain will no longer be so formidable a figure among the powers of Europe.” There also seems no doubt but that he had at last secretly concurred with Deane in aiding the escape of Lafayette from the restrictions imposed upon him by the French government, although subsequently, the whole blame was allowed to rest upon Deane alone. The situation in regard to Lafayette was as follows: Some time during the year 1775, the young Marquis who was then scarcely eighteen, and who was serving under the Comte de Broglie at the garrison of Metz, was present at a dinner given in the fortress where the English Duke of Gloucester was guest. The latter was bitterly opposed to the policy of George III in regard to America, and at table spoke freely of the uprising among the colonists; it was then, so Lafayette tells us in his memoirs, that he formed the resolution of offering his services to the insurgents. Through the intervention of De Broglie, the Baron von Kalb, a Prussian general serving in France, introduced to Silas Deane on November 5, 1776, the young marquis with two of his cousins who had formed the same determination to offer their services to America. Silas Deane received them with enthusiasm, and promised all high positions in the American Army (see Doniol Vol. II, p. 63). Eleven other officers were added and the entire group were to sail from Havre on La Seine, one of the fleet of Hortalès et Cie. when the order already spoken of, came from the government to prevent further operations of the house. Moreover, a special prohibition was issued regarding the young officers, because it was of great importance for the French Government to seem to oppose the enlistment of such prominent members of the high nobility as Lafayette and his colleagues. Nothing daunted, Lafayette, whose fortune made him independent, bought a vessel of his own, La Victoire, and having decided “to go in spite of everything and without regard to consequences” secretly negotiated with Deane, and set sail, April 20, 1777, with some twenty other commissioned officers. The agreement which had been drawn up between them was signed by Lafayette, the Baron von Kalb, and Silas Deane; it bore the
- 35. date of December 7, 1776, although it was not really issued until February, 1777. This discrepancy was owing to the fact that since the arrival of Franklin in December, Deane’s commission had changed in nature, so that he no longer was empowered to enlist officers for the American service. The date of December 7, 1776 had been chosen because on that day the two noblemen had been presented to the American Commissioner and an informal engagement entered into. This was immediately before the arrival of Franklin in France. The true patriotism which inspired Deane led him to adopt this subterfuge, feeling as he did that the services of so brilliant an officer as Lafayette, and one belonging to such an illustrious house, would be of sufficient value to his country to warrant the irregularity of the act. The Baron von Kalb had originally, it would seem, stipulated with Deane for a considerable salary, part of which was to be paid in advance. (See Our French Allies, Stone, p. 39.) Deane rightly understood the effect which would be produced in the different courts of Europe by the daring deed of the young nobleman and foresaw the consequent fury of the English which could not help but hasten the final decision of the ministry. Therefore he willingly concurred in the designs of Lafayette, aiding them to the utmost of his power (Doniol, Vol. II, Chap. VII). Congress afterwards disavowed all the commissions granted by Deane, so that most of the officers were obliged to return to France. Lafayette and the Baron von Kalb, having fortunes of their own, were willing to serve without pay; they were therefore given appointments. The romantic escape of the young nobleman caused all the commotion that was expected of it. The Capital went wild with exultation, openly vindicating his act, while the anger of the English knew no bounds. England, indeed, had good grounds for discontent with the conduct of her rival. “Public opinion in London,” says Doniol, “was more and more for war. France everywhere was accused of aiding the colonies.... It was said that open war was preferable to the insidious peace which we pretended to maintain while according every advantage to the revolted colonies.”—(Doniol II, p. 455.) Other
- 36. causes of grievance, especially in regard to the protection granted to American vessels in all French ports, were constantly coming up. “England,” says Doniol, “incriminated especially the authorities of Martinique. According to Lord Weymouth, the Americans armed openly in the island, favored by the most notable persons. So much pressure was brought to bear upon the French Government by the English Ambassador, that, not yet ready for war, it was forced to grant the satisfaction which was demanded. As in previous instances, the blow fell heaviest upon Beaumarchais. July 1, 1777, he wrote: “I have just received news that afflicts me.... M. de Bouille, the new governor of Martinique, has notified the merchants that it is agreed between the courts of France and England, that the English Navy seize the French vessels coming from their islands, taking all the commodities of America which they find.... This is so impossible, that though I have read it, I still cannot believe it! “Afternoon.... I am indeed, in despair to receive the confirmation of that trying announcement. It seems certain that France has ceded to the English the right to seize all French vessels coming from the islands, which are charged with American commodities. What distress, M. le Comte, could have brought about such an arrangement?... I learn by letters from Cape Francis of the 18th of May, that the cargo of the Amétie, happily arrived in that port, has started for America, divided on several American and Bermudan vessels, bought at my cost at Santo Domingo for.... “P. S. You are not to blame, M. le Comte, for the consequences of that sorrowful convention with the English. Your hands were tied to sign it. But I am in despair. I made my payment of the 30th yesterday, selling all the paper money which I had, at a disadvantage. A quarter of an hour is so important, that a million arriving the next day could not repair the lack of but thirty thousand louis d’or. I was compelled to pay yesterday £184,328 2s., and £21,864 8s. 4d. remain unpaid from the 15th on which I have only received £200,000 instead of £221,864 8s. 4d. From now until the
- 37. 15th, I must pay £268,304 8s. 3d. I am lacking therefore £490,168 16s. 7d. with the loss of my paper money, and the three last payments which I must replace so as to be abreast of my affairs. I therefore beg you to send me an order for 5,000,000 fr., after that I can go forward, but as my destination is not a matter of indifference, I shall have the honor of conferring with you about it.” The documents deposited in the bureau of foreign affairs, show that M. de Vergennes “taking into consideration the desperate situation into which Beaumarchais found himself thrown, owing to the obstinate refusal of Congress to send him returns, had advanced successively, the 13th May, 1777, 400,000 livres, the 16th of June, 200,000 livres, and the 3rd of July 474,496 livres.” (Loménie II, p. 145.) By this means alone, Beaumarchais was able to continue his active services in the cause of America. Although the court of Louis XVI were making pretense of not favoring the Americans, they already had decided on war and were endeavoring to bring the court of Spain to a similar decision. “The 26th of June,” says Doniol, “a memoir was addressed to the Spanish cabinet explaining the seasonableness of associating themselves positively with the colonies, and in consequence, of making war upon England.” “By the means so far employed,” wrote Vergennes, “the reconciliation of the colonies with Great Britain cannot be prevented; those means have been all that have been prudent, but they will not suffice any longer; it is necessary that the assistance become sufficiently effective to assure a total separation and so compel the Americans to gratitude.” Madrid was finally forced to follow the course laid out for it at Versailles; but before openly declaring their alliance, both courts awaited some decisive act of the Americans. The capture of Burgoyne determined the King, although several months more elapsed before the treaty was actually signed.
- 38. But if the court was thus apparently inactive, Beaumarchais continued as assiduous as ever in aiding the Americans, and this notwithstanding the coldness of the commissioners, the total absence of returns and the unbroken silence of the Continental Congress. The Hon. John Bigelow, in his admirable paper Beaumarchais, the Merchant, speaking of Beaumarchais at this period, said: “He received no tobacco, nor money, nor thanks, nor even a letter from Congress.... His funds were exhausted, and all his expectations of returns were disappointed.... At last, reduced to extremities, he resolved to send a confidential agent to the United States, to obtain, if possible some explanation of results so chilling to his enthusiasm, and for which he was so poorly prepared. For this mission he selected a young man named Theveneau de Francy, a person of considerable talent, generous and enthusiastic, but poorly trained for the delicate duty assigned him. De Francy embarked for the United States at Marseilles on the 26th of September, 1777, on board of one of Beaumarchais’s ships, carrying twenty-four guns, called Le Flammand.” “De Francy,” says Loménie, “went out with the double mission of obtaining justice from Congress for the past, and to prevent cargoes from being delivered gratis in the future.” But before entering into a consideration of his mission, let us pause to note among the passengers of the Flammand a now justly celebrated personage, who was destined to render such effective aid in training the American troops; this was Baron von Steuben. In his life of that famous Prussian officer, Frederick Kapp has given a detailed account of the incidents which led up to his entering the American service. The French minister of war, the Comte de St. Germain, had long been a pronounced admirer of the military tactics employed by the king of Prussia. He had endeavored to have those tactics introduced into the French army but without success. Being on intimate terms with the Baron, the latter made a halt in Paris with the intention of visiting his friend at Versailles on the occasion of a voyage to England in the spring of 1777. Having notified the count of his desire to wait upon him, the Baron was surprised to be requested
- 39. not to come to Versailles, but to meet him at the arsenal in Paris. “You have arrived very apropos,” the count said; opening a map and pointing to America, he continued, “Here is your field of action, here is the Republic you must serve. You are the very man she needs at this moment. If you succeed, your fortune is made and you will acquire more glory than you can hope for in Europe for many years to come.” He then pictured the bravery, the resources of the Americans, and intimated the possibility of an open alliance. After this he sketched the other side of the situation; spoke of the disadvantages under which the Americans labored: bad training, lack of order and discipline among the troops, and ended by saying “You see now why you must not be seen at Versailles.” The Baron, however, seemed but little touched by the eloquent appeal of his friend. He told the count that he was no longer young, that he had no ambition; though he was without fortune, yet his position was all that he desired. After a second interview, his interest seemed somewhat aroused. The Count gave him a letter to Beaumarchais, who introduced him to Deane; and Deane took him to Passy to see Franklin. Both commissioners seemed anxious that Steuben should enter the service. “But,” says his biographer, “when Steuben mentioned a disbursement for the expenses of his journey, they expressed some doubts of their power to grant it. Mr. Deane made no difficulties; Franklin, however, made several. He spoke a great deal of presenting him with a couple of thousand acres of land,... but Steuben did not care for them.... As to any advances, Franklin positively declared that it was out of the question; he told him this with an air and manner to which Steuben, as he remarked in a letter written at that time, ‘was then little accustomed,’ whereupon he immediately took leave, without any further explanation. “He went thence to M. de Beaumarchais, telling him that he intended to set out immediately for Germany, and that he did not wish to hear any more of America. As soon as Beaumarchais was informed of the cause of Steuben’s resolution, he said to him, that if he wanted nothing but money, a thousand louis d’or and more were
- 40. at his disposal. Steuben thanked him for his generous offer, but said his determination was fixed. The Count of St. Germain endeavored to dissuade him, but to no effect. “Arrived at Rastadt, he found a very persuasive letter from M. de Beaumarchais, who wrote that the Comte de St. Germain expected his prompt return to Versailles; that a vessel was ready at Marseilles for his embarkation, and that Beaumarchais’s funds were entirely at the Baron’s disposal. “Prince William of Baden, with whom Steuben conferred, urged him to accept; accordingly he returned to Paris, August 17, 1777.” On the 26th of September he set sail. Beaumarchais wrote to Congress: “The art of making war successfully being the fruit of courage combined with prudence, knowledge and experience, a companion in arms of the great Frederic, who stood by his side for twenty-two years, seems one of the men best fitted to second M. Washington.” Baron von Steuben was well received in America. As he asked for no pay, and wished to enter the army as a simple volunteer, no objection was made to his enlistment. He soon was raised to a position suitable to his rank and talents. A little more than a year after his arrival, Beaumarchais, overjoyed at the success which had attended the Baron, wrote to his agent, Theveneau de Francy: “Recall me often to the memory of M. the Baron von Steuben. “I congratulate myself from that which I learn of him, to have given so great an officer to my friends, the free men of America, and to have forced him in a way to follow that noble career. I am in no way disquieted about the money that I lent him for his voyage. Never have I made an investment which gave me greater pleasure, because I have been able to put a man of honor in his true place. I learn that he is Inspector General of all the American troops. Bravo! Tell him that his glory is the interest of my money, and that I do not doubt but at that title, he will pay me with usury.”
- 41. On the same vessel went also the nephew of Beaumarchais, the son of his elder sister married to the watchmaker, De Lépine, who on entering the American service took the name of des Epinières. It was the same of whom Beaumarchais had spoken impatiently on the occasion of his refusing to continue his voyage upon the Amphitrite, when du Coudray had brought that vessel back to port. That he had his way, is proved by the fact that his name is mentioned amongst the six aids who accompanied the Baron von Steuben to America. An idea of the young man’s character may be gained from the following brief extract of a letter written by him the evening of an engagement: “Your nephew,” he wrote, “my very dear Uncle, may perhaps lose his life, but he will never do a deed unworthy of one who has the honor of belonging to you. This is as certain as the tenderness which he always will have for the best of uncles.” According to Loménie, he never returned to France, but died on the field of battle, after having attained the rank of Major. At the time when the Baron von Steuben set sail for America, Beaumarchais was no longer the confidential agent of the government. As has been seen, Franklin had from the first, refused to treat with him, while Lee’s influence at home and abroad was at all times used to bring about his ruin. More than this “everything,” says Doniol, “seemed to cost too much; they (Franklin and Lee) had allowed themselves to be persuaded that Beaumarchais ought to serve them for nothing. The Barbier de Séville, as he was called familiarly, passed with too many people for gaining great profit, for there not to be many interested in ruining him. It was also of the utmost importance to England to interfere with his operations, and the English Ambassador fed the flames.... Dubourg had his part to play ... but whatever the reasons, it remains true that Franklin never missed an opportunity openly to contest the operations of Roderigue Hortalès et Cie., and to attempt to bring them to naught.” (Doniol II, 611.) Other intermediaries, therefore, began to be employed. Although less recognition was given to Beaumarchais by the government, the ministers continued to make use of his advice. “At the moment,” says Doniol, “when he was treated with the greatest
- 42. coldness, his counsels were appropriated.... They used his political estimates almost in the terms in which he expressed himself, sometimes textually. At the end of October he was admitted to discuss with Vergennes and Maurepas the definite stand to take in offering propositions of alliance with the American colonies. Three months later when the King was about to sign the treaty, it was evident that the Secretary of State had demanded of Beaumarchais a résumé of their discussion. This résumé entitled, Mémoire particulière pour l’Etat,” was drawn up by Beaumarchais under circumstances peculiarly distressing. It was at the moment when he first realized with absolute certainty that his coöperation in the aid soon to be freely and openly accorded the Americans was no longer desired. Nevertheless, he continued to express himself with the same manly vigor as previously. After setting forth the actual situation of France and Spain with regard to England, he said: “What remains for us to do? “Three courses are open to us. The first is worth nothing, the second is the most sure, the third, the most noble; but a wise combination of the third and second could instantly raise the King of France to be the first power of the civilized world. “The first course, which is worth nothing, absolutely nothing, is to continue to do what we are doing, or rather what we are not doing; to remain longer passive by the side of the turbulent activity of our neighbors, and obstinately to refuse to take sides while still awaiting events.” After setting forth at length the actual condition of affairs in England, the perils which menaced France, the desire which actuated all parties in Great Britain to make peace with America while wreaking their vengeance upon France, he continues warningly, “But the first step towards peace being once taken, be sure that it will be too late for France to declare in favor of America.” Then follows a narration of preparations then making in England to take France unawares. “After having become the laughing stock of all Europe,” cries the daring advocate of the alliance, “a fatal war and the bankruptcy of America will be the worthy reward of our inaction.
- 43. “The worst course therefore, of all the courses, is now, to take no course and to attempt none in conjunction with America, waiting until England shall have closed up every way; something which will certainly happen very shortly. “The second course which I regard as the most sure, would be to accept publicly the treaty of alliance proposed to us for more than a year by America,... As soon,” he says, “as the English learn that there is no longer any hope to treat with a country which has treated with us, they will instantly make war upon us, declaring us to be aggressors.”... One objection after another that might present itself to the minds of the ministers is then taken up and weighed, especially in relation to the ignorance which existed among them with regard to the “extent of the powers entrusted to the legation at Passy, the uncertainty of the consent of Congress, the possible mobility of an assembly of which the majority was the only law, and which made them fearful that France might have to regret too late, a step which naturally would exasperate the English. “These fears, Beaumarchais knew how to turn aside by reasons and considerations (Doniol II, p. 742) which would not have been out of place in the mouth of a minister.” The third course open to France, “the noblest of all,” was to declare to the English in a manifesto which should be announced at the same time to the other potentates of Europe, that the King of France, after having, through delicacy and regard to England, long remained a passive spectator of the war existing between England and America, to the great disadvantage and injury of French Commerce; “that conditions being so and so,” which he proceeded to clearly define, “His Majesty obliged by circumstances to decide upon some definite course ... and not wishing to declare war against England, nor to insult her ... His Majesty contents himself with declaring that he will hold the Americans for independent, and desires to regard them as such from henceforward, relatively to their commerce with France, and the commerce of France with them.”... “After drawing up his manifesto, Beaumarchais entered into the exposition of the measures to take, and discussed the shades of
- 44. opinion of each minister exactly as though he had been part of the council.... It is not one of the least singularities of the times to see the author of the Barbier de Séville deliberating as it were with the ministers, saying ‘I would do’ and putting himself naïvely in the place of the King of France.” (Loménie, II, p. 160.) It was early in December that news of the surrender of Burgoyne reached Europe. “The joy of the news of Saratoga brought Beaumarchais to Passy, in spite of the bitter griefs which he had against the Commissioners.” (Doniol II, 646.) The same day he wrote to Vergennes: “December 5, 1777. “Monsieur le Comte: “... Yesterday I was at Passy with the courier who arrived from Congress, and I passed the morning in comforting my heart with the excellent news of which we had that moment received the announcements. “I came back to Paris, bringing M. Grand in a light carriage with a postillion and two horses. The carelessness of my postillion ... caused us to be overturned.... Mr. Grand had his shoulder broken; the violence of the fall made me bleed profusely at the nose and mouth;—a piece of broken glass entered my right arm—the negro who followed was badly hurt. See me then prostrated, but more ill in mind than body ... it is not the postillion who kills me, but M. de Maurepas. Nevertheless the charming news from America is a balance to my soul.... I am the voice which cries from the depths of my bed, ‘De profundis clamavi ad te Domine; Domine exaudi orationem meam.’ Although you received the Gazette of Boston yesterday, I will send you the extract which I myself made to insert in le Courrier d’Europe. It is just that I give them in England by my phrases all the poniard thrusts which their Ambassador gives me here with his. I salute you, respect and cherish you, and will sign, if I can with my wounded arm, the assurance of the unalterable devotion with which I am, etc.
- 45. “Beaumarchais.” Two days later, he wrote: “M. le Comte: “Your honorable and sweet interest consoles me for everything. In thanking you for the counsels which you have been so good as to give me I can assure you that I did not allow myself to be too vivacious in the letter of which I sent you a copy; I cannot explain myself in writing, but you will be much more surprised than I, because you are less acquainted with the persons of whom it is a question, when I give you an account of all that has happened. I always have put a great difference between the honest deputy Deane, and the insidious Lee, and the silent Dr. Franklin. “The movement which the news of America has given to all idle heads is inconceivable; the English of the cafés do not know where to hide themselves;—but all that is nothing like so curious as what will take place in London from the shock of the different reports. I await the details with a pleasure equal to all the trouble which they have tried to make me. I thank you for the interest which you take in my health. I am getting up to-day for the first time, and to- morrow I hope to go out.... Receive with your ordinary goodness the assurances of the very respectful devotion with which I am, etc. “Beaumarchais.” Wounded in body and sick at heart, the zealous patriot and vigilant friend of America continued to give notice to the government of the news which, through his agents and friends in London, he received before anyone else. Thursday, the 11th of December, he wrote: “To M. le Comte de Vergennes, to be communicated, if he pleases, to M. le Comte de Maurepas. “M. le Comte:
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