AIDSTAR-One Case Study: Rwanda's Mixed Epidemics

AIDSTAR-One | CASE STUDY SERIES August 2012

Rwanda’s Mixed Epidemic
Results-based Strategy Refocuses Prevention Priorities

I
n 2009, Rwanda found itself in an unusual and enviable
position: its national HIV program was nearly fully funded for all
activities. With primary support from the Global Fund to Fight
AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (GFATM) and the U.S. President’s
Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR), Rwanda won an
Leigh Ann Evanson

additional GFATM grant to fill remaining budget gaps in its HIV
programming. Possibly for the first time ever, an African nation had
the financial resources to undertake a complete, comprehensive
HIV program, including prevention, care, treatment, and impact
One in a series of HIV prevention
billboards warning young Rwandans mitigation. How would Rwanda respond?
to avoid “sugar mamas” and
“sugar daddies”: adults who offer In many ways, the groundwork had been laid. Earlier that year, Rwanda
adolescents cash or gifts in exchange
for sex. The Rwandan Government had used newly available data to significantly revise its national
has been conducting research into strategic direction in HIV programming. The National Strategic Plan on
the factors that increase risk for
young women and girls, who have HIV and AIDS 2009–2012 (NSP 2009)1 was designed as a response to
higher HIV prevalence than males a modeling exercise, suggesting that Rwanda has a “mixed epidemic”
their age. with transmission occurring within both most-at-risk populations
(MARPs) and the general population (Republic of Rwanda 2009).
Commissioned by the government, new sources of data—a modes of
transmission study, a triangulation exercise, behavioral surveillance
research, and more—provided the evidence necessary for planning the
new strategy to address the realities of Rwanda’s epidemic (see Box
1). In fact, the GFATM granting application itself—the National Strategy
Application (NSA)—was a valuable undertaking that strengthened
the NSP 2009, helping Rwanda analyze its national HIV strategy,
By Leigh Ann Evanson operationalize its new program, and project its resource needs.
and Margaret Dadian 1
Throughout this case study, the National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS 2009–2012
is referred to as the NSP 2009, whereas its predecessor, the country’s first National
Strategic Plan (2005 to 2009), is referred to as NSP 2005.

AIDSTAR-One
John Snow, Inc. This publication was made possible through the support of the U.S. President’s
1616 North Ft. Myer Drive, 16th Floor Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) through the U.S. Agency for International
Arlington, VA 22209 USA Development under contract number GHH-I-00-07-00059-00, AIDS Support and
Tel.: +1 703-528-7474 Technical Assistance Resources (AIDSTAR-One) Project, Sector I, Task Order 1.
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www.aidstar-one.com States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.

AIDSTAR-One | CASE STUDY SERIES

What followed was a big step forward for public health in Rwanda.
BOX 1. NEW SOURCES Recognizing the need to focus on vulnerable groups, the Rwandan
OF DATA FOR government used the development of the new NSP to reorient
STRATEGIC DECISION prevention programming to target behaviors shown by research to be
MAKING driving new infections and fueling the country’s epidemic. In addition
to adopting this data-based approach to planning, the NSP 2009 and
To fully understand the drivers
other strategy documents provided concrete goals and objectives
of its epidemic before the NSP
for stakeholders, making all parties responsible for success. The
2009 planning process began,
broadly participatory nature of the planning process brought together
the Rwandan government
hundreds of stakeholders from many sectors, who contributed diverse
commissioned several key
perspectives and a broad array of experience and expertise. The
studies to gather new data on
result was a bold move away from planning based on re-implementing
MARPs, including:
traditional program activities toward an ambitious, evidence-based,
• An exploratory study comprehensive strategy responsive to the nature of Rwanda’s
looking at behaviors that put epidemic.
Rwandan men who have sex
with men (MSM) in Kigali at It is still too early to determine the overall effectiveness and impact
high risk (Binagwaho et al. of the NSP 2009 because many program components were slow to
2009). launch. But the strategic planning approach underlying Rwanda’s HIV
• A modes of transmission prevention programming redesign presents important lessons learned
study: a modeling exercise to and suggests promising practices for other countries with a similar
identify most-at-risk groups epidemiological profile.
and groups with rising rates of
HIV infection, including female
sex workers and their clients,
and MSM. Among other
Rwanda’s Mixed Epidemic
findings, it estimated that
With a population of over 10 million in an area about the size of
MSM would account for about
the U.S. state of Maryland, Rwanda is the most densely populated
15 percent of new infections
country in Africa. The country is landlocked and mountainous, and its
(Asiimwe et al. 2010).
economy is primarily agricultural, with 83 percent of the population
• The Rwandan HIV/AIDS Data living in rural areas. Rwanda has made impressive progress in
Synthesis Project: a data recovering from the genocide of 1994, during which more than
triangulation exercise that 800,000 of its citizens were killed, the economy was crippled, and
combined information from infrastructure—including much of the health care system—was
earlier research to detect destroyed.
epidemiological trends in
different populations (TRAC In 1983, Rwanda was one of the first countries in Africa to identify
Plus and the Ministry of cases of AIDS (Van de Perre et al. 1984). Today, Rwanda is among
Health 2008). a dozen or more sub-Saharan African countries whose epidemic
is characterized as “mixed” (see Box 2). The 2005 Demographic
Health Survey estimates Rwanda’s national HIV prevalence at 3
percent among the general adult population aged 15 to 49. Although
this is much lower than in most other East African countries, small

2 AIDSTAR-One | August 2012


studies of specific at-risk populations in Rwanda show much higher
HIV prevalence, including a population of sex workers in Kigali with BOX 2. THE DYNAMICS
57 percent prevalence (Ministry of Health [MOH] 2010). Vulnerable OF MIXED EPIDEMICS
subpopulations within the general population also show higher HIV
In recent years, the advent of
prevalence. For example, prevalence among women 20 to 24 years
improved and expanded data
old is five times that of men their age (2.5 percent versus 0.5 percent;
gathering in developing countries
Republic of Rwanda 2009), a pattern seen throughout much of East
has helped health experts
and Southern Africa. There is also geographic variability, most notably
identify the populations at
higher HIV prevalence in urban areas (7.3 percent) than in rural areas
greatest risk of HIV. One result
(2.2 percent; Republic of Rwanda 2009). has been the recognition that
some national epidemics are in
Rwanda’s recognition of the mixed nature of HIV transmission within fact several different epidemics,
its borders—in line with the global imperative promoted by PEPFAR or “mixed.”
for countries to collect and use data to better understand the drivers
of their own epidemics—prompted the country to reorient its priorities A mixed epidemic is
and redesign its strategies to be more targeted and cost-effective. operationally defined as low HIV
These efforts have put Rwanda among a handful of nations on the prevalence of 2 to 5 percent
continent whose governments are gathering evidence on MARPs and in the general population,
targeting prevention programming to them. combined with high prevalence
(15 percent or higher) among
In much of the world, MARPs—including sex workers, men who have MARPs and vulnerable groups
sex with men (MSM), and people who inject drugs—are not effectively within the general population.
reached by HIV prevention programming. MARPs are socially
marginalized and face intolerance, stigmatization, and imprisonment.
As a result, they tend to avoid health services, a situation worsened
by public health agencies that are unwilling or ill equipped to address
their specific needs, which exacerbates their vulnerability to HIV.
Less marginalized than MARPs are subpopulations within the general
population who are significantly more vulnerable to HIV infection due
to a mix of socioeconomic and contextual risk factors. These may
include serodiscordant couples, city dwellers, and mobile
populations.

Because these groups carry a disproportionate burden of the
epidemic, countries are developing targeted prevention programs
in hopes of decreasing HIV incidence. This requires a fundamental
change in program design. Mixed epidemics are dynamic and
complex, requiring a better understanding of the factors fueling
new HIV infections and a clear focus on targeted populations and
behaviors. Mixed epidemic planning requires that data measure actual
rather than perceived risk; these data should be regularly collected
from reliable sources to inform and adapt programs.

Rwanda’s Mixed Epidemic: Results-based Strategy Refocuses Prevention Priorities 3


Program implementers must develop sensitivities subsumed within the Rwanda Biomedical Center/
and skills to effectively work with new populations. IHDPC—which was responsible for clinical care
HIV program planners must commit to funding and research, and the MOH, which acts as the
prevention programs that respond to data, and principal recipient for all GFATM grants to Rwanda,
be prepared to reduce or eliminate programs that which total U.S.$379 million for 2010 through 2013
are proven ineffective. Programming for mixed (Dongier 2011a).
epidemics forces planners to deal with thorny
questions. Where funding is limited, which activities Decentralization: Since 2001, Rwanda
or regions will lose some or all of their support has pursued a policy of decentralization for
for prevention activities, and how will those cuts all development activities, including the HIV
be made? How will longstanding programs, built response. This strategy is designed to improve
on conventional wisdom, respond and adapt? the responsiveness, appropriateness, and
What is the right balance in reaching underserved accountability of programming by increasing local
populations while maintaining some support participation and consultation in development
for existing programs that reach the general initiatives. Although the national government
population? provides strategic leadership and technical
guidance, districts are charged with operationalizing
policies and plans with appropriate actions.
Rwanda’s Strategic District AIDS Control Commissions coordinate the
Response to HIV HIV response across Rwanda’s 30 districts. Each
commission has dedicated staff who work with
Since 2005, Rwanda’s Institute of HIV/AIDS representatives from local governments, various
and Disease Prevention and Control (IHDPC, ministries (health, education, planning), and civil
known before 2012 as the National AIDS Control society. Through district-level joint action forums,
Commission or CNLS, its French acronym) has the commissions conduct annual planning exercises
developed and coordinated two successive national and convene regular coordination meetings with
strategic plans to guide the country’s HIV response. local implementers and stakeholders.
A variety of stakeholders have implemented these
plans in a decentralized manner. Civil society: In the wake of the 1994 genocide,
the government monitors the activities of civil
Organizational structure: The IHDPC is a society organizations, including nongovernmental
component of the Rwanda Biomedical Center, a organizations (NGOs), the private sector, media,
coordinating body created in 2012 that is governed faith-based organizations, and groups for people
by a board of directors chosen by the office of the living with HIV. A U.S. Agency for International
prime minister. The IHDPC’s general directorate is Development-funded assessment published in
charged with monitoring the implementation of the 2002 described a passive civil society that focused
national strategic plan. Although all government on implementation rather than advocacy, and
agencies participate in Rwanda’s national response partially attributed that situation to the government’s
to HIV, two agencies in particular have been strong negative reaction to criticism (Management
deeply involved in the planning and coordination Systems International 2002). Since that time,
of HIV programs: the former Treatment, Research relations have improved but tend to focus more on
and AIDS Center Plus (TRAC Plus)—now consensus building than confrontation.



NGOs especially continue to be beholden to the
government for legitimacy, direction, and funding.
This is evidenced by Rwandan legal requirements
that international and national NGOs register
annually at both the national and district levels.
NGOs are also legally required to align their
strategic plans with key national policy documents
outlining economic development goals and to
document their commitment to these plans. The
Rwandan government also created umbrella

Leigh Ann Evanson
organizations to coordinate the different facets of
civil society participation.

Civil society organizations, which often have deep
A 2011 conference in Kigali on improving Africa’s national
roots in the communities they serve, typically health care systems. Rwanda is among the African nations
have better access to MARPs than public sector that has worked hardest to build the evidence base for its
national HIV strategy.
agencies or service providers. Yet a 2009 situation
analysis noted that Rwandan civil society lacks
a full understanding of MARPs and their needs; understanding of: 1) the nature of HIV in a country
its response was deemed largely ad hoc, lacking (“Know Your Epidemic”) and 2) the achievements
rigorous evaluation and quality assurance (Rwanda and gaps in current HIV programming (“Know Your
NGO Forum 2009). Response”; UNAIDS 2007).2 The first encourages
countries to use available data, supplemented with
Funding sources: External financial support for modeling, to understand what drives their epidemic
Rwanda’s HIV programs currently comes from two and what impedes access to HIV services. The
main sources: GFATM and the U.S. Government second identifies which organizations and agencies
through PEPFAR. As part of the national strategic are working in HIV prevention and identifies
plan/NSA development process, the CNLS costed programmatic gaps in coverage and service
out the NSP 2009. The total cost for fiscal year delivery for high-priority areas or populations.
2009 through fiscal year 2013 was estimated
at U.S.$934 million, with GFATM and PEPFAR “Know Your Epidemic”: A systematic and
commitments combined providing U.S.$649 million. comprehensive review of important data helped
The costing exercise estimated the government’s identify the populations in Rwanda at the greatest
contribution to be 13 percent, with the remainder risk of infection, which in turn helped define
coming from the United Nations and other donors. priorities for the NSP 2009. Led by the MOH and
TRAC Plus, the Rwandan HIV/AIDS Data Synthesis
Project reviewed more than 100 independent
Collecting the Evidence Base sources of information to discern HIV trends among
different population groups, as well as potential
In 2008, as Rwanda embarked on the design of causes for these differences (TRAC Plus and
its new HIV strategic plan, planners embraced 2
Later encapsulated in PEPFAR’s Guidance for the Prevention
the Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) of Sexually Transmitted HIV Infections as the “Four Knows”—
guidelines, which were designed to foster a better know your epidemic, context, response, and costs.



MOH 2008). Among its findings were that rapid Rwanda’s NSP 2005 (CNLS 2008). The review
urbanization may be responsible for increases in found that although access to HIV treatment and
HIV prevalence; prevalence among youth overall is prevention services increased during the period
low, although young women have higher prevalence of the NSP 2005, HIV prevalence remained high.
than young men; and refugees and truckers self- To respond to this persistent challenge, Rwanda
report decreasing levels of risk behaviors. reoriented the NSP 2009 and gave it the primary
goal of halving HIV incidence.
A modes of transmission modeling exercise
conducted by CNLS and MEASURE Evaluation The NSP 2009 fits into the national government’s
added to the knowledge base (Asiimwe et al. strategic planning framework, which demonstrates
2010). It used behavioral, demographic, and the government’s larger commitment to planning
epidemiological data to examine an individual’s and program design, as well as its prioritization of
risk, creating groupings of low-, medium-, and HIV. This commitment is embodied in a series of
high-prevalence populations to reveal what may documents that lay out long-term goals and develop
be driving new infections in Rwanda. The exercise operational plans to achieve them. These include
identified high-risk groups and subpopulations Rwanda Vision 2020, which “seeks to fundamentally
within the general population with rates of HIV that transform Rwanda into a middle income country
are elevated or trending upward. The modeling by the year 2020” (Republic of Rwanda Ministry
process included different scenarios and varying of Finance and Economic Planning 2000, 9) and
HIV prevalence and size of different risk groups; includes goals to reduce HIV prevalence. The
it used the best available data to predict how HIV medium-term strategy to improve Rwandans’ quality
infections would change between scenarios and of life—the government’s Economic Development
to look for commonalities. Notably, estimations and Poverty Reduction Strategy 2008–2012—is
showed that MSM accounted for about 15 percent woven into Rwanda’s overall development planning
of new infections across a range of scenarios (Republic of Rwanda 2007). The Health Sector
modeled. This finding prompted researchers to Strategic Plan 2009–2012 outlines the MOH’s HIV
conduct an exploratory study of a population of response, which reflects the goals and objectives
MSM in Kigali (see Box 3) and emphasized the laid out in the higher level documents (MOH 2008a).
need to focus on MSM in the NSP 2009. The The MOH also worked with districts to develop the
data also indicate that female sex workers, both District Health System Strengthening Framework, a
commercial and transactional, will make a major costing and strategic planning tool for use in public
contribution to new infections in Rwanda. health facilities (MOH 2008b).

These studies confirmed that Rwanda is experiencing
a mixed epidemic and pointed to the need to
address new HIV infections among high-prevalence
Constructing a New Policy
groups. These findings, as well as an assessment
of Rwanda’s existing programmatic response and In early 2009, armed with a clearer understanding
capacity, were essential in developing the new, of the epidemic and potential responses as a result
evidence-based strategic direction for the NSP 2009. of these exercises, Rwanda sped up the extensive
planning process that created the NSP 2009.
“Know Your Response”: To prepare for the Combined with the results-oriented approach, the
development of the NSP 2009, in 2008 CNLS data collected during the planning process were
gathered all stakeholders for a joint review of critical in reorienting Rwanda’s HIV strategy.



BOX 3. MSM RESEARCH SHOWS HIGH VULNERABILITY AND SIGNIFICANT NEEDS

Throughout Africa, very little is known about populations of MSM. Because of profound stigmatization and
discrimination, African MSM have been nearly invisible to the public health establishment and the larger public. Some
political and health leaders question the existence of MSM within their societies, whereas others seek to pass laws
criminalizing homosexual acts.

In recent years, Rwanda has become one of a handful of African nations to recognize their MSM populations and
conduct research to learn more about them. When the modes of transmission study suggested that 15 percent
of new HIV infections stem from homosexual sex (Asiimwe et al. 2010), many rejected those findings. To test this
assertion, CNLS and MEASURE Evaluation conducted a study from 2008 to 2009, gathering exploratory behavioral
research on MSM in Kigali (Binagwaho et al. 2009). The researchers recruited a cohort of 98 MSM aged 18 to 52
years. To understand risk factors for this MARP, the researchers asked about their sexual partnerships (including
commercial and transactional), their HIV testing and sexually transmitted infections history, as well as attitudes about
possible HIV prevention strategies for MSM.

Findings from this research show significant HIV risk for this population, with widespread sexual networks, a high
frequency of casual sex, low levels of condom use, and high levels of alcohol consumption. One in 10 respondents
reported exchanging sex for money. One-quarter of MSM said that they had also had sex with women within the past
year.

Based on these preliminary data, the researchers recommended several directions for Rwanda’s programming
for MSM. First, all prevention programming should be conducted within a human rights framework, with great care
to ensure privacy and safety for this stigmatized population. Second, health services should be MSM-friendly and
should focus on the specific health needs of MSM, with increased access to counseling sensitive to their sexuality.
Finally, wider distribution of condoms and lubricants is needed to promote safe sex. The minimum package of health
services for MSM recently developed by CNLS/IHDPC reflects these priorities, but further research is needed to
design responsive programs that will engender behavior change.

The NSP 2009 took shape between January workshop, participants convened and reconvened
and March 2009, three months packed with in small working groups to discuss multiple issues
workshops and meetings organized by the from a wide range of perspectives, with workshop
executive secretariat of CNLS to discuss the full organizers often rushing from group to group
range of strategy options. The first gathering— to communicate different positions and to help
the “Know Your Epidemic, Know Your Response” participants seek a common ground. The Economic
workshop in Kigali—was a hectic but productive Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy
two-day collaboration. Attended by more than was used extensively to correlate planning with
100 stakeholders, including government officials, Rwanda’s existing economic and development
district-level HIV coordinators, civil society goals.
organizations, donors, and international partners,
its purpose was to review available evidence from This intensive immersion in the planning process
Rwanda and around the world to identify program was followed by weeks of meetings of small
strategies for the Rwandan context. During the technical working groups to formulate key strategies



and to design the basic components of the NSP in the NSP 2005. The NSP 2005 prioritized
2009. This work was facilitated by a team of prevention activities, but the joint review noted
international consultants with skills and experience that the prevention-related objective—“to reinforce
in strategic and operational planning, modeling, measures of preventing HIV/AIDS transmission”—
and HIV programming. Operational plans, an lacked direction and made it difficult to objectively
analysis of resource needs, and a budget came conduct evaluations (CNLS 2008). In contrast,
next. The monitoring and evaluation plan was also the NSP 2009 used a results-based approach
developed during this stage, a key program activity and established a clear goal for prevention with
rarely integrated into strategic planning. Final steps measurable indicators: halving HIV incidence in the
included a situation analysis that examined the role general population by 2012 (Republic of Rwanda
played by Rwandan civil society organizations in the 2009).
nation’s HIV activities, the current capacity of civil
society organizations to implement HIV programs
at scale, and proposed strategies to strengthen that
sector.
The National Strategy
Application: A Catalyst for
Defining high-priority populations: The NSP the NSP 2009
2009 identifies five high-priority populations for HIV
prevention: female sex workers, clients of female The development of the NSP 2009 was further
sex workers, serodiscordant couples, women accelerated when GFATM invited Rwanda to submit
aged 20 to 24 years, and MSM. Epidemiological an application for its new experimental granting
data demonstrate higher levels of HIV infection in module, the NSA, which would allow CNLS to
these groups than in the general population. Other fully fund all the activities in the NSP 2009. The
populations also referenced as vulnerable are NSA was designed to strengthen national HIV
prisoners, truck drivers, people with disabilities, frameworks by using the grant application process
members of the military and uniformed services, to bolster areas of policy development that have
and refugees. However, evidence demonstrates typically been weak.
that HIV prevalence is lower in some of these
subpopulations (such as refugees) and that some The NSA had three basic components: a rigorous
also report fewer risky behaviors (such as truck costing exercise, a “gap analysis” to identify the
drivers). Despite these data, the organizations program elements not covered by other funding,
working with these subpopulations successfully and a national operational plan to show how
advocated for their inclusion in the NSP, citing the application could be integrated into existing
inherent vulnerability (in the case of refugees) or programs. The NSA process unfolded as the NSP
regional impact on HIV (members of uniformed 2009 was being developed, and the two activities
services and truck drivers), which underscores the became intertwined, prompting the planning team to
balancing act required to plan a program for mixed speed their work to quickly operationalize and cost
epidemics. out the NSP 2009. The amount of work required
was significant because each of the dozen or more
Emphasizing results-based planning: of the proposed implementing partners had to
The NSP 2009 also marks a shift toward results- submit program plans and budgets. Time pressures
based planning and management, a significant were also a challenge because the planning team
change from the activity-based planning used had only two weeks to complete the gap analysis.



Despite these challenges, completion of the NSA was invaluable in
helping Rwanda reorient to results-based planning. One particularly CHRONOLOGY OF NSP
useful element of the NSA’s gap analysis was the consolidation 2009 DEVELOPMENT
process, which unified all GFATM grants under one agreement, AND NSA AWARD
helping Rwanda detect programming weaknesses and duplication of
activities. • August to December 2008:
joint review of NSP 2005
The final result was a successful NSA for Rwanda, which was the • January to March 2009:
first country to receive this form of GFATM support for its national workshops and consultations
HIV strategy. Although operationalizing strategic plans often takes for NSP 2009
many months to accomplish, the NSA rapidly turned the newly minted
NSP 2009 from a planning document into a working blueprint for • April 2009: submission of NSP
implementation. The NSA learning process has also helped Rwandan 2009 to GFATM for initial NSA
health leaders build budgeting and planning skills that will strengthen review
the country’s planning efforts in the future.
• May to July 2009: NSP
2009 costing gap analysis
completed; monitoring
What Worked Well and evaluation framework
designed
The most successful elements of Rwanda’s intensive HIV strategy-
building efforts are valuable for other countries to review and adapt to • August 2009: NSA proposal
their own context. submission

• November 2009: GFATM
Government leadership: All statements from high-level approval of Rwanda HIV NSA
government officials (including President Paul Kagame’s June 2011
speech at the UN General Assembly) indicate that HIV remains a • November 2010: completion
priority in the government’s agenda. Moreover, the political leadership of post-award negotiations;
that built and maintained momentum for the NSP 2009 process signing of grant award.
remains in place. The current minister of health is the former head
of the CNLS, which indicates that HIV will likely retain its importance
for the government. Government officials have demonstrated their
willingness to fight to ensure the success of the new plan. For
instance, when members of the Rwandan Parliament presented
legislation in 2009 to criminalize MSM behavior, CNLS and civil
society advocates successfully lobbied for the withdrawal of the
proposed clause, using research findings to explain the negative
impact the law would have on prevention programming.

Donor support: Donors supported the NSP 2009 process; they
worked together to align their activities with government priorities
and to ensure minimal overlap and adequate coverage. The
development of the NSP 2009 paralleled the development of the
PEPFAR Partnership Framework with Rwanda, and NSP 2009 goals,



strategies, and timeframes are directly reflected in guide the development of the NSP 2009, including
the partnership framework. epidemiological and programming data that
revealed the priority populations, if and how they
Commitment to planning and priorities: were reached, and impact. Planners used modeling
The logical framework consistent throughout all and proxy data when information was not available,
government policies and documents (Rwanda and current research activities are filling information
Vision 2020, the Economic Development and gaps. The midterm review, scheduled for release
Poverty Reduction Strategy, and The Health in late 2012, will provide important information on
Sector Strategic Plan) gave coherence and clear the effectiveness of the NSP 2009 and point to any
direction to the NSP 2009. The commitment necessary adjustments.
to comprehensively address HIV is especially
evident in the Economic Development and Poverty Asking the right people the right
Reduction Strategy, in which all development questions: The exploratory study of MSM
sectors explicitly identify HIV as a cross-cutting in Kigali is an example of using rigorous data
issue. All three documents demonstrate the collection methods to gather information about
government’s commitment to planning and goal marginalized MARPs. During a validation exercise,
setting and identify HIV as a national development researchers presented initial results to MSM
issue. The government’s investment of time, effort, respondents, who provided invaluable insights
and money in developing the NSP inspired civil that refined the analysis and pointed the way to
society, donors, and district governments to be appropriate approaches for prevention among
actively involved in the process. MSM. This study and its methodology also
underscore the importance of engaging members
A forward-moving participatory of these populations to describe their own lives and
process: The NSP 2009 was developed with discuss their own risk behaviors and prevention
the active participation of stakeholders from needs. It is critical to engage MARPs in this way to
all sectors involved in health, although some gain knowledge and understanding, particularly in a
groups (notably MARP advocates) did not feel mixed-epidemic setting.
adequately represented. A balance was struck by
using dedicated technical staff to complete the Results-based planning: The NSP 2009’s
documents while at the same time implementing results-based approach provided clear direction
participatory mechanisms that gave opportunities for Rwanda’s response to HIV. The broader results
for CNLS to check in and for stakeholders to allow for successful programs to continue and
validate the outcomes. The consultative/validation expand, and for new programs to rationally fill in the
process happened multiple times during the gaps. The simultaneous design of the monitoring
development of the NSP 2009. These meetings and evaluation system links all performance
were not perfunctory but resulted in changes to the indicators and data sources to an NSP 2009 result.
documents based on the validation exercises. For This approach allows stakeholders to understand
example, the results of the MSM study provided and demonstrate how their work contributes to
new data that influenced the strategies and larger objectives. Finally, the monitoring and
activities included in the NSP 2009. evaluation plan design requires that each result
include indicators and data sources, which means
Use of data for decision making: The that all results have to be measurable and realistic.
planning process used all available evidence to This in turn facilitated the costing exercise.



Challenges high-priority populations as sex workers, MSM, and
serodiscordant couples are relatively new and may
not yet be fully disseminated. These documents
Little impetus to streamline
are critical for implementers seeking to provide
programming: Because Rwanda’s HIV activities
appropriate services.
are fully funded, there is no imperative to streamline
or reduce the activities within the prevention
Lack of program data: The Data Synthesis
portfolio. The current approach, which simply adds
Project noted the lack of high-quality program
activities to the current prevention portfolio, may
data. Most programs collect output data (e.g.,
only maintain the current levels of service delivery
number of people trained) but do not rigorously
without achieving the desired impact on incidence.
evaluate programs to determine their impact. Even
with the NSP 2009 in place, key data elements
Weak civil society: Through CNLS and TRAC
remain uncollected. For instance, size estimations
Plus (now the IHDPC) and MOH, the government
for MARPs—which provide a baseline and allow
of Rwanda has played a remarkable leadership role
implementers to establish targets for program
in driving the NSP 2009 process by ensuring donor
coverage—are still in process. In addition, better
alignment with national strategies and priorities and
analysis of program data can reduce programmatic
by managing GFATM grants. However, this leaves
overlap, fill programming gaps, and promote more
limited space for other actors, particularly those within
efficient scale-up. This is increasingly important in
civil society. For example, the government is the sole
light of pending funding reductions.
principal recipient for all GFATM monies. Although
the justification for this is that civil society is currently
A rushed planning process: Although the
too weak to take on this role, this arrangement
NSA process sparked intense activity and an
conflicts with GFATM’s stated preference for a co-
investment of time and effort, the fast pace of the
principal recipient structure—with both civil society
process forced the NSP 2009 to move forward
and government managing funds—as a check on
without adequate background documents or
the power of a single entity and a diversification of
information. With more time, the missing technical
local capacity. Allowing the government to control
guidance could have been developed along with
significant funding for civil society organizations
the NSP 2009, reducing the gap between the NSP
undermines the role those organizations could
2009 launch and the start-up of activities.
play as government watchdogs or advocates for
marginalized populations. Also, few organizations
have experience working with MARPs in Rwanda,
and the organizations led by these populations require Recommendations
significant capacity building. It is unclear who is
responsible for building local organizational capacity Rwanda’s experience in planning for mixed
to work with these newly targeted populations. epidemics provides valuable lessons learned and
recommendations both for Rwanda as it nears
Insufficient technical guidance and the end of the NSP 2009 and for other countries
capacity: The lack of technical guidance from working in similar contexts.
the Rwandan government has delayed roll-out of
prevention programs targeting MARPs. Rwanda’s Commit to a comprehensive planning
minimum packages of prevention services for such process: Although the investment in time and



money to complete a comprehensive planning Continue to build the evidence base:
process is significant, it is worthwhile. The final Although the NSP 2009 and associated data
report on the operationalization of the NSA (Dongier analysis exercises clearly identified MARPs,
2011b) concludes that, although Rwanda was able more research is needed to better understand the
to speed up many of the steps of the NSP 2009, drivers of risk for those populations. For instance,
a similar planning process would normally take up all women aged 15 to 24 are not uniformly at risk
to two years. In addition, planning is well worth the for HIV infection, and further research is needed
cost. Although the report estimates Rwanda’s NSP/ to understand the specific characteristics and risk
NSA external costs for planning (workshops and behaviors to effectively target these women with
international consultants) at over U.S.$500,000, prevention interventions. Similarly, serodiscordant
this represents only 0.07 percent of the entire NSP couples may need different approaches, depending
2009 budget. on which partner is infected. In addition, more data
are needed on such marginalized groups as MSM
Do not wait for perfect data: Rwanda’s to develop appropriate programs and activities and
commitment to building an evidence base provided ensure adequate coverage of these populations.
sufficient information for analysis. Although the
data available were neither perfect nor complete,
Rwanda’s investment in compiling and analyzing Current Status of
available information yielded important and
surprising findings that, among other things, Implementation and Next
highlighted the contribution of MSM to new
infections, prompting Rwanda to recognize and
Steps
address this prevention gap. Rwanda was also able
Although the NSA represented full funding for
to use data and information gathered from other
Rwanda’s comprehensive HIV prevention strategy,
parts of East Africa that served as an adequate
there have been significant delays in starting
substitute for actual data from Rwanda. Although
up new activities. The NSP 2009 was officially
this proved sufficient for initial planning purposes,
launched in June 2010, but the time needed for
program planners understand that these information
gaps must be filled over time. post-award negotiations and the consolidation of
all GFATM grants into one agreement meant the
Remain flexible: The speed required to final grant was not signed until November 2010. The
complete the NSA application required Rwanda competitive selection process used to choose the
to budget for activities that were not yet well subrecipients also caused delays to the subgranting
defined. As these new activities became clearer, program. As a result, many disbursements were
the estimated costs changed, prolonging budget held up; some recipients did not receive their first
negotiations. Fortunately, the consolidation process tranche of funding until June 2011.
identified a number of cost savings that provided
flexibility to adjust the budgets, and the granting In fiscal year 2012, PEPFAR funding was reduced
mechanism allowed Rwanda to shift funds. Funding by 10 percent, compelling the U.S. Government to
agencies should recognize the need for this funding examine its funding priorities. Through intensive
flexibility, which is key to responding to the dynamic consultation with the government and implementers,
shifts that characterize mixed epidemics. some programs in Rwanda had to be scaled back.



New and continuing prevention activities: and building monitoring and evaluation systems,
Because most new activities were to be funded with particular focus on the evaluation component.
through the NSA, the bulk of activities up and
running in 2011 represent continuations or scale- District activities: Given the push toward
up of activities from the NSP 2005. Programs that decentralized programming, it was critical that
focus on newly identified populations have been the NSP 2009 provide an initial roadmap for
slower to launch. This is due in part to delayed implementers and local government entities that
funding, and also because the development coordinate HIV programming at the district level.
of technical guidelines, especially for MARPs, Districts used the NSP 2009 as the basis for the
was delayed as well. For example, the minimum annual district-level HIV action plan, a process
package of HIV prevention services for female sex coordinated by the 30 District AIDS Control
workers was not finalized until October 2010; the Commissions. These plans were completed by April
minimum packages for other groups were finalized 2010. HIV prevention activities are now integrated
in early 2011. into the district economic and social development
plans. The commissions have put in place planning,
Research: Rwanda’s research agenda continues coordination, and monitoring tools to track local
to move apace, driven by the gaps in research and programs and partners, including quarterly
evidence identified through the national strategic coordination meetings and annual supervisory
planning process. The gaps in data previously noted visits. Some civil society partners, however,
have informed the government’s current research question whether the commissions have adequate
agenda. Studies to estimate the population size guidance and skills to coordinate implementation of
and HIV infection rates for sex workers and truck the entire NSP 2009, particularly activities targeting
drivers—critical for setting goals for outreach and MARPs.
coverage, and for assessing reductions of incidence
within these groups—were scheduled for 2009; in Evaluation: A midterm review of the NSP 2009 is
2010, the same studies were planned for prisoners scheduled for release in late 2012. As with the first
and MSM. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control joint review, stakeholders will see how much of the
and Prevention supports the MOH to conduct NSP 2009 is operational and identify major gaps
another behavioral surveillance survey for MSM in implementation. This will provide an opportunity
using a different methodology to recruit a broader for refocusing and prioritizing resources. The final
array of respondents. Other operational research report on the operationalization of the NSA also
priorities include size estimation studies for MSM, calls for another round of budgeting, which will likely
truck drivers, prisoners, and sex workers. In coincide with the review.
addition, further research is planned to understand
the broader sociocultural and environmental drivers The promise of the NSP 2009 remains strong,
of vulnerability to HIV infection, particularly to but it is still too early to assess its impact on HIV
understand why young women are at such high risk in Rwanda. For it to be successful, all actors will
for infection. Rwanda will evaluate progress made need to stay the course. The IHDPC and the
toward the Millennium Development Goals on HIV government of Rwanda will need to persevere in
prevention in the coming years. The final evaluation their commitment to prevention strategies built
is scheduled to be completed by 2015; the IHDPC on an ever growing evidence base. Implementers
is currently adapting UNAIDS evaluation guidelines will need to be nimble to respond to the changing



dynamics of the epidemic, and funding agencies will Geneva, Switzerland: Joint UN Programme on
need to remain flexible to allow funding shifts based HIV/AIDS. Available at http://data.unaids.org/pub/
on new information on the actual costs of effective Manual/2007/20070306_prevention_guidelines_
strategies implemented in Rwanda. All actors must towards_universal_access_en.pdf (accessed
maintain an open and collaborative dialogue to September 2011).
share lessons learned, to raise and solve issues
together, and to continue to work together to reduce Management Systems International. 2002.
HIV incidence in Rwanda. g Rwanda Democracy and Governance Assessment.
Produced for the USAID Office of Democracy
and Governance. Washington, DC: Management
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Republic of Rwanda. 2009. National Strategic and Disease Prevention and Control, as well as
Plan for HIV and AIDS 2009-2012. Available at other government officials who graciously gave
http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Js18409en/ their time to meet with the authors. Thanks to
(accessed September 2011). the numerous civil society and implementing
partner representatives who provided insight and
analysis, particularly FHI 360’s ROADS staff for
Republic of Rwanda Ministry of Finance and
arranging a site visit. Staff at the U.S. Agency
Economic Planning. 2000. Rwanda Vision 2020.
for International Development (USAID)/Rwanda
Kigali, Rwanda: Republic of Rwanda. and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention/Rwanda provided invaluable support
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the Role of Civil Society in the Response to HIV/ field work, particularly Stephanie Joseph de Goes.
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Report. Kigali, Rwanda: Republic of Rwanda.
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appreciation goes to John Snow, Inc./Rwanda
Van de Perre, Philippe, Philippe Lepage, Philippe colleague, Daniel Hanyurwimfura, who tirelessly
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RECOMMENDED CITATION
RESOURCES Evanson, Leigh Ann, and Margaret Dadian. 2012.
Rwanda’s Mixed Epidemic: Results-based Strategy
AIDSTAR-One. 2012. PEPFAR Technical Refocuses Prevention Priorities. Case Study Series.
Consultation on HIV Prevention in Mixed Epidemics, Arlington, VA: USAID’s AIDS Support and Technical
Accra, Ghana, February 8–10, 2011. Available at Assistance Resources, AIDSTAR-One, Task Order 1.
www.aidstar-one.com/sites/default/files/AIDSTAR-
One_MeetingReport_MixedEpidemics_Ghana_ Please visit www.AIDSTAR-One.com for
Feb2011.pdf (accessed July 2012) additional AIDSTAR-One case studies and other
HIV- and AIDS-related resources.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are indebted to dozens of Rwandans
and others who agreed to be interviewed
for this case study. These include Dr. Anita
Asiimwe, Dr. Placidie Mugwaneza, and their
colleagues at Rwanda’s Institute of HIV/AIDS


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