![4
Insertion Sort Algorithm (cont.)
INSERTION-SORT(A)
1. for j = 2 to length[A]
2. do key A[j]
3. //insert A[j] to sorted sequence A[1..j-1]
4. i j-1
5. while i >0 and A[i]>key
6. do A[i+1] A[i] //move A[i] one position right
7. i i-1
8. A[i+1] key](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/introduction-210408145618/85/Algorithm-Design-and-Analysis-4-320.jpg)
![5
Correctness of Insertion Sort Algorithm
• Loop invariant
– At the start of each iteration of the for loop, the
subarray A[1..j-1] contains original A[1..j-1] but in
sorted order.
• Proof:
– Initialization : j=2, A[1..j-1]=A[1..1]=A[1], sorted.
– Maintenance: each iteration maintains loop invariant.
– Termination: j=n+1, so A[1..j-1]=A[1..n] in sorted
order.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/introduction-210408145618/85/Algorithm-Design-and-Analysis-5-320.jpg)
![6
Analysis of Insertion Sort
INSERTION-SORT(A) cost times
1. for j = 2 to length[A] c1 n
2. do key A[j] c2 n-1
3. //insert A[j] to sorted sequence A[1..j-1] 0 n-1
4. i j-1 c4 n-1
5. while i >0 and A[i]>key c5 j=2
n tj
6. do A[i+1] A[i] c6 j=2
n(tj –1)
7. i i-1 c7 j=2
n(tj –1)
8. A[i+1] key c8 n –1
(tj is the number of times the while loop test in line 5 is executed for that value of j)
The total time cost T(n) = sum of cost times in each line
=c1n + c2(n-1) + c4(n-1) + c5j=2
n tj+ c6j=2
n (tj-1)+ c7j=2
n (tj-1)+ c8(n-1)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/introduction-210408145618/85/Algorithm-Design-and-Analysis-6-320.jpg)
![9
Merge Sort –merge function
• Merge is the key operation in merge sort.
• Suppose the (sub)sequence(s) are stored in
the array A. moreover, A[p..q] and
A[q+1..r] are two sorted subsequences.
• MERGE(A,p,q,r) will merge the two
subsequences into sorted sequence A[p..r]
– MERGE(A,p,q,r) takes (r-p+1).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/introduction-210408145618/85/Algorithm-Design-and-Analysis-9-320.jpg)
Algorithm Design and Analysis
- 1. 1 Introduction to Algorithm design and analysis Example: sorting problem. Input: a sequence of n number a1, a2, …,an Output: a permutation (reordering) a1', a2', …,an' such that a1' a2' … an '. Different sorting algorithms: Insertion sort and Mergesort.
- 2. 2 Efficiency comparison of two algorithms • Suppose n=106 numbers: – Insertion sort: c1n2 – Merge sort: c2n (lg n) – Best programmer (c1=2), machine language, one billion/second computer A. – Bad programmer (c2=50), high-language, ten million/second computer B. – 2 (106)2 instructions/109 instructions per second = 2000 seconds. – 50 (106 lg 106) instructions/107 instructions per second 100 seconds. – Thus, merge sort on B is 20 times faster than insertion sort on A! – If sorting ten million numbers, 2.3 days VS. 20 minutes. • Conclusions: – Algorithms for solving the same problem can differ dramatically in their efficiency. – much more significant than the differences due to hardware and software.
- 3. 3 Algorithm Design and Analysis • Design an algorithm – Prove the algorithm is correct. • Loop invariant. • Recursive function. • Formal (mathematical) proof. • Analyze the algorithm – Time • Worse case, best case, average case. • For some algorithms, worst case occurs often, average case is often roughly as bad as the worst case. So generally, worse case running time. – Space • Sequential and parallel algorithms – Random-Access-Model (RAM) – Parallel multi-processor access model: PRAM
- 4. 4 Insertion Sort Algorithm (cont.) INSERTION-SORT(A) 1. for j = 2 to length[A] 2. do key A[j] 3. //insert A[j] to sorted sequence A[1..j-1] 4. i j-1 5. while i >0 and A[i]>key 6. do A[i+1] A[i] //move A[i] one position right 7. i i-1 8. A[i+1] key
- 5. 5 Correctness of Insertion Sort Algorithm • Loop invariant – At the start of each iteration of the for loop, the subarray A[1..j-1] contains original A[1..j-1] but in sorted order. • Proof: – Initialization : j=2, A[1..j-1]=A[1..1]=A[1], sorted. – Maintenance: each iteration maintains loop invariant. – Termination: j=n+1, so A[1..j-1]=A[1..n] in sorted order.
- 6. 6 Analysis of Insertion Sort INSERTION-SORT(A) cost times 1. for j = 2 to length[A] c1 n 2. do key A[j] c2 n-1 3. //insert A[j] to sorted sequence A[1..j-1] 0 n-1 4. i j-1 c4 n-1 5. while i >0 and A[i]>key c5 j=2 n tj 6. do A[i+1] A[i] c6 j=2 n(tj –1) 7. i i-1 c7 j=2 n(tj –1) 8. A[i+1] key c8 n –1 (tj is the number of times the while loop test in line 5 is executed for that value of j) The total time cost T(n) = sum of cost times in each line =c1n + c2(n-1) + c4(n-1) + c5j=2 n tj+ c6j=2 n (tj-1)+ c7j=2 n (tj-1)+ c8(n-1)
- 7. 7 Analysis of Insertion Sort (cont.) • Best case cost: already ordered numbers – tj=1, and line 6 and 7 will be executed 0 times – T(n) = c1n + c2(n-1) + c4(n-1) + c5(n-1) + c8(n-1) =(c1 + c2 + c4 + c5 + c8)n – (c2 + c4 + c5 + c8) = cn + c‘ • Worst case cost: reverse ordered numbers – tj=j, – so j=2 n tj = j=2 n j =n(n+1)/2-1, and j=2 n(tj –1) = j=2 n(j –1) = n(n-1)/2, and – T(n) = c1n + c2(n-1) + c4(n-1) + c5(n(n+1)/2 -1) + + c6(n(n-1)/2 -1) + c7(n(n-1)/2)+ c8(n-1) =((c5 + c6 + c7)/2)n2 +(c1 + c2 + c4 +c5/2-c6/2- c7/2+c8)n-(c2 + c4 + c5 + c8) =an2+bn+c • Average case cost: random numbers – in average, tj = j/2. T(n) will still be in the order of n2, same as the worst case.
- 8. 8 Merge Sort—divide-and-conquer • Divide: divide the n-element sequence into two subproblems of n/2 elements each. • Conquer: sort the two subsequences recursively using merge sort. If the length of a sequence is 1, do nothing since it is already in order. • Combine: merge the two sorted subsequences to produce the sorted answer.
- 9. 9 Merge Sort –merge function • Merge is the key operation in merge sort. • Suppose the (sub)sequence(s) are stored in the array A. moreover, A[p..q] and A[q+1..r] are two sorted subsequences. • MERGE(A,p,q,r) will merge the two subsequences into sorted sequence A[p..r] – MERGE(A,p,q,r) takes (r-p+1).
- 10. 10 MERGE-SORT(A,p,r) 1. if p < r 2. then q (p+r)/2 3. MERGE-SORT(A,p,q) 4. MERGE-SORT(A,q+1,r) 5. MERGE(A,p,q,r) Call to MERGE-SORT(A,1,n) (suppose n=length(A))
- 11. 11 Analysis of Divide-and-Conquer • Described by recursive equation • Suppose T(n) is the running time on a problem of size n. • T(n) = (1) if nnc aT(n/b)+D(n)+C(n) if n> nc Where a: number of subproblems n/b: size of each subproblem D(n): cost of divide operation C(n): cost of combination operation
- 12. 12 Analysis of MERGE-SORT • Divide: D(n) = (1) • Conquer: a=2,b=2, so 2T(n/2) • Combine: C(n) = (n) • T(n) = (1) if n=1 2T(n/2)+ (n) if n>1 • T(n) = c if n=1 2T(n/2)+ cn if n>1
- 13. 13 Compute T(n) by Recursive Tree • The recursive equation can be solved by recursive tree. • T(n) = 2T(n/2)+ cn, (See its Recursive Tree). • lg n+1 levels, cn at each level, thus • Total cost for merge sort is – T(n) =cnlg n +cn = (nlg n). – Question: best, worst, average? • In contrast, insertion sort is – T(n) = (n2).
- 14. 14 Recursion tree of T(n)=2T(n/2)+cn
- 15. 15 Order of growth • Lower order item(s) are ignored, just keep the highest order item. • The constant coefficient(s) are ignored. • The rate of growth, or the order of growth, possesses the highest significance. • Use (n2) to represent the worst case running time for insertion sort. • Typical order of growth: (1), (lg n), (n),(n), (nlg n), (n2), (n3), (2n), (n!) • Asymptotic notations: , O, , o, .
- 16. 16 f(n) = ( g(n)) n n0 c1g(n) c2g(n) f(n) f(n) = O( g(n)) n n0 f(n) cg(n) f(n) = ( g(n)) n n0 cg(n) f(n) There exist positive constants c1 and c2 such that there is a positive constant n0 such that … There exist positive constants c such that there is a positive constant n0 such that … There exist positive constants c such that there is a positive constant n0 such that …
- 17. Prove f(n)=an2+bn+c=(n2) • a, b, c are constants and a>0. • Find c1, and c2 (and n0) such that – c1n2 f(n) c2n2 for all n n0. • It turns out: c1 =a/4, c2 =7a/4 and – n0 = 2max(|b|/a, sqrt(|c|/a)) • Here we also can see that lower terms and constant coefficient can be ignored. • How about f(n)=an3+bn2+cn+d? 17
- 18. 18 o-notation • For a given function g(n), – o(g(n))={f(n): for any positive constant c,there exists a positive n0 such that 0 f(n) cg(n) for all n n0} – Write f(n) o( g(n)), or simply f(n) = o( g(n)). 2g(n) f(n) = o( g(n)) n n0 g(n) f(n) 1/2g(n) n0 n0
- 19. 19 Notes on o-notation • O-notation may or may not be asymptotically tight for upper bound. – 2n2 = O(n2) is tight, but 2n = O(n2) is not tight. • o-notition is used to denote an upper bound that is not tight. – 2n = o(n2), but 2n2 o(n2). • Difference: for some positive constant c in O- notation, but all positive constants c in o-notation. • In o-notation, f(n) becomes insignificant relative to g(n) as n approaches infinitely: i.e., – lim = 0. f(n) g(n) n
- 20. 20 -notation • For a given function g(n), – (g(n))={f(n): for any positive constant c, there exists a positive n0 such that 0 cg(n) f(n) for all n n0} – Write f(n) ( g(n)), or simply f(n) = ( g(n)). • -notation, similar to o-notation, denotes lower bound that is not asymptotically tight. – n2/2 = (n), but n2/2 (n2) • f(n) = ( g(n)) if and only if g(n)=o(f(n)). • lim = f(n) g(n) n
- 21. 21 Techniques for Algorithm Design and Analysis • Data structure: the way to store and organize data. – Disjoint sets – Balanced search trees (red-black tree, AVL tree, 2-3 tree). • Design techniques: – divide-and-conquer, dynamic programming, prune-and-search, laze evaluation, linear programming, … • Analysis techniques: – Analysis: recurrence, decision tree, adversary argument, amortized analysis,…
- 22. 22 NP-complete problem • Hard problem: – Most problems discussed are efficient (poly time) – An interesting set of hard problems: NP-complete. • Why interesting: – Not known whether efficient algorithms exist for them. – If exist for one, then exist for all. – A small change may cause big change. • Why important: – Arise surprisingly often in real world. – Not waste time on trying to find an efficient algorithm to get best solution, instead find approximate or near-optimal solution. • Example: traveling-salesman problem.