An introduction to management and evolution of management

An Introduction to Management and Evolution
of Management Theories
By Maxwell Ranasinghe

 As diverse as they and their organizations
are, all of the managers are confronted by
many of challenges, many goals, and they
apply many of the same concepts in their
work,
 For better or worse, our society is strongly
influenced by managers and organizations
 This topic is about management, definitions,
its nature, evolution and challenges that
mangers face in the modern day


Defining Management
 There are many definitions on
management as there are so many
books written on the subject.

 “ The art of getting things done through
people” ( Mary Parker)
 “Accomplishing pre-determined
objectives through the efforts of other
people” (GR Terry)
 “establishing and effective environment
for people operating in formal
organizational groups” ( Knotz and
O’Donnel)

 Process of working with and
through others to effectively
achieve organizational objectives
by using efficiently limited
resources in a changing
environment ( Reinter)

 “Attainment of organizational goals
in an efficient manner through
planning, organising,leading and
controlling organizational
resources” ( Richard L. Daft)

 “ A set of activities( including planning
and decision making, leading and
controlling) directed at organization's
resources ( human, financial, physical
and information), with the aim of
achieving organizational goals in an
efficient and effective manner – ( R.W.
Griffin -2005)

 Effective- Making the right decision and
successfully implementing them ( to
manufacture Color TV rather than Black
and white TV)
 Efficiently – Doing things right -Using
resources wisely and in a cost effective
manner ( using automatic machines
rather than humans to install electronic
components in the TVs )

Who is a manager?
 Manager- is someone whose
primary objective is to carry
out the management
process.

What are the functions of
management/ manager
 Planning and decision making
 Organizing
 Staffing
 Leading
 Controlling

 Planning: This step involves mapping out exactly
how to achieve a particular goal. Say, for example,
that the organization's goal is to improve company
sales.
 The manager first needs to decide which steps are
necessary to accomplish that goal.
 These steps may include increasing advertising,
reducing price, improving product quality, increasing
sales staff, improving after sales services etc.
 These necessary steps are developed into a plan.
 When the plan is in place, the manager can follow it
to accomplish the goal of improving company sales.

 Organizing:
 After a plan is in place, a manager
needs to organize her team and
materials according to her plan.
 What facilities needed, how it should be
used.

 Staffing:
 After a manager finds out his area's needs,
he may decide to increase and empower his
staff by recruiting, selecting, training, and
developing employees.
 A manager in a large organization often
works with the company's human resources
department to accomplish this goal.

 Leading:
 A manager needs to do more than just plan,
organize, and staff her team to achieve a
goal.
 She must also lead.
 Leading involves motivating, communicating,
guiding, and encouraging.
 It requires the manager to coach, assist, and
problem solve with employees

 Controlling:
 After the other elements are in place, a
manager's job is not finished.
 He needs to continuously check results
against goals and take any corrective
actions necessary to make sure that his
area's plans remain on track.

Evolution of Management
 Surely there had been some kind of management by
humans when they became a commune living
together
 When you consider the large scale wars, projects like
building Pyramids, Dagabs, Construction of dams
and statures and religious buildings, events like
Olympics it is very evident that advanced level of
management process would have been involved. If
not these events would not have happened and
buildings would not have been built

 It could be very well proven from the
ancient scriptures, writing, maps,
systems, equipment, calendars and
schedules and other evidence found in
ancient civilizations like Egypt, Greece,
China, India and Sri Lanka.

Classical Schools of
Management
 In the western world the formal management systems
were introduced in different eras.
 One of the first schools of management thought, the
classical management theory, developed during
the *Industrial Revolution when new problems related
to the factory system began to appear.
 *The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th
centuries when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and
transportation had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural
conditions in Britain. The changes subsequently spread throughout Europe,
North America, and eventually the world. Steam engines, spinning machines,
rali roads and rails made the unprecedented industrial development and output
of products. Made a industry owner class and working class.

Some machines that really changed the
world in Industrial Revolution

 Managers were unsure of how to train
employees (many of them non-English
speaking immigrants) or deal with
increased labor dissatisfaction, so they
began to test solutions
 As a result, the classical management
theory developed from efforts to find the
“one best way” to perform and manage
tasks.

 This Classical School of thought is
made up of two branches:
 classical scientific and
 classical administrative

Classical scientific school
 The classical scientific branch arose because of
the need to increase productivity and efficiency.
 The emphasis was on trying to find the best way to
get the most work done by examining how the work
process was actually accomplished and by
scrutinizing the skills of the workforce.
 The classical scientific school owes its roots to
several major contributors, including
 Frederick Taylor, Henry Gantt, and Frank and Lillian
Gilbreth.

 Frederick Taylor is often called the
 “father of scientific management.”

Taylor believed that organizations should study tasks
and
 develop precise procedures. As an example, in 1898,
Taylor calculated how much iron from rail cars
Bethlehem Steel plant workers could be unloading if
they were using the correct movements, tools, and
steps.
 The result was an amazing 47.5 tons per day instead
of the mere 12.5 tons each worker had been
averaging.

 In addition, by redesigning the shovels the
workers used, Taylor was able to increase the
length of work time and therefore decrease the
number of people shoveling from 500 to 140.
 Lastly, he developed an incentive system that
paid workers more money for meeting the new
standard. Productivity at Bethlehem Steel shot
up overnight.
 As a result, many theorists followed Taylor's
philosophy when developing their own
principles of management.

 Henry Gantt, an associate of
 Taylor's, developed the Gantt chart, a bar
graph that measures planned and completed
work along each stage of production.
 Based on time instead of quantity, volume, or
weight, this visual display chart has been a
widely used planning and control tool since its
development in 1910. Still is used in
management.

 Frank and Lillian Gilbreth,
 a husband-and-wife team, studied
 job motions.
 In Frank's early career as an apprentice bricklayer, he was
interested in standardization and method study.
 He watched bricklayers and saw that some workers were slow
and inefficient, while others were very productive. He
discovered that each bricklayer used a different set of motions
to lay bricks.
 From his observations, Frank isolated the basic movements
necessary to do the job and eliminated unnecessary motions.
Workers using these movements raised their output from 1,000
to 2,700 bricks per day

basic ideas regarding scientific management
developed. They include the following
 Developing new standard methods for doing each job
 Selecting, training, and developing workers instead of
allowing them to choose their own tasks and train
themselves
 Developing a spirit of cooperation between workers
and management to ensure that work is carried out in
accordance with devised procedures
 Dividing work between workers and management in
almost equal shares, with each group taking over the
work for which it is best fitted

Classical administrative
school
 Whereas scientific management focused on the
productivity of individuals, the classical
administrative approach concentrates on the total
organization.
 The emphasis is on the development of managerial
principles rather than work methods.
 Contributors to this school of thought include Max
Weber, Henri Fayol, Mary Parker Follett, and Chester
I. Barnard.
 These theorists studied the flow of information within
an organization and emphasized the importance of
understanding how an organization operated

 In the late 1800s, Max Weber disliked that
many European organizations were managed
on a “personal” family-like basis and that employees
were loyal to individual supervisors rather than to the organization.
 He believed that organizations should be managed impersonally and
that a formal organizational structure, where specific rules were
followed, was important.
 In other words, he didn't think that authority should be based on a
person's personality.
 He thought authority should be something that was part of a person's
job and passed from individual to individual as one person left and
another took over.
 This nonpersonal, objective form of organization was called a
bureaucracy.

 Max Weber believed that all
bureaucracies have the following
characteristics
 A well-defined hierarchy. All positions within a
bureaucracy are structured in a way that permits the
higher positions to supervise and control the lower
positions. This clear chain of command facilitates
control and order throughout the organization.
 Division of labor and specialization. All
responsibilities in an organization are specialized so
that each employee has the necessary expertise to
do a particular task.
 Rules and regulations. Standard operating
procedures govern all organizational activities to
provide certainty and facilitate coordination.

 Impersonal relationships between
managers and employees. Managers
should maintain an impersonal relationship
with employees so that favoritism and
personal prejudice do not influence decisions.
 Competence. Competence, not “who you
know,” should be the basis for all decisions
made in hiring, job assignments, and
promotions in order to foster ability and merit
as the primary characteristics of a
bureaucratic organization.
 Records. A bureaucracy needs to maintain
complete files regarding all its activities.

 Henri Fayol, a French mining
engineer, developed 14 principles
of management based on his management
experiences.
 These principles provide modern-day managers with
general guidelines on how a supervisor should
organize her department and manage her staff.
 Although later research has created controversy over
many of the following principles, they are still widely
used in management theories.

 Division of work: Division of work and
specialization produces more and better work with
the same effort.
 Authority and responsibility: Authority is the
right to give orders and the power to exact
obedience. A manager has official authority because
of her position, as well as personal authority based
on individual personality, intelligence, and
experience. Authority creates responsibility.
 Discipline: Obedience and respect within an
organization are absolutely essential. Good discipline
requires managers to apply sanctions whenever
violations become apparent.

 Unity of command: An employee
should receive orders from only one
superior.
 Unity of direction: Organizational
activities must have one central authority
and one plan of action.
 Subordination of individual
interest to general interest: The
interests of one employee or group of
employees are subordinate to the
interests and goals of the organization.

 Remuneration of personnel: Salaries — the
price of services rendered by employees — should
be fair and provide satisfaction both to the employee
and employer.
 Centralization: The objective of centralization is
the best utilization of personnel. The degree of
centralization varies according to the dynamics of
each organization.
 Scalar chain: A chain of authority exists from the
highest organizational authority to the lowest ranks.
 Order: Organizational order for materials and
personnel is essential. The right materials and the
right employees are necessary for each
organizational function and activity.

 Equity: In organizations, equity is a combination of
kindliness and justice. Both equity and equality of
treatment should be considered when dealing with
employees.
 Stability of tenure of personnel: To attain the
maximum productivity of personnel, a stable work
force is needed.
 Initiative: Thinking out a plan and ensuring its
success is an extremely strong motivator. Zeal,
energy, and initiative are desired at all levels of the
organizational ladder.
 Esprit de corps: Teamwork is fundamentally
important to an organization. Work teams and
extensive face-to-face verbal communication
encourages teamwork.

 Mary Parker Follett stressed the
importance of an organization
establishing common goals for its employees.
 However, she also began to think somewhat
differently than the other theorists of her day,
discarding command-style hierarchical organizations
where employees were treated like robots.
 She began to talk about such things as ethics, power,
and leadership.
 She encouraged managers to allow employees to
participate in decision making.

 She stressed the importance of people rather
than techniques — a concept very much
before her time.
 As a result, she was a pioneer and often not
taken seriously by management scholars of
her time.
 But times change, and innovative ideas from
the past suddenly take on new meanings.
 Much of what managers do today is based
on the fundamentals that Follett established
more than 80 years ago.

 Chester Barnard, who was
president of New Jersey Bell Telephone
Company, introduced the idea of the
informal organization — cliques
(exclusive groups of people) that naturally
form within a company.
 He felt that these informal organizations
provided necessary and vital communication
functions for the overall organization and that
they could help the organization accomplish
its goals.

 He is credited with developing the
acceptance theory of
management, which emphasizes the
willingness of employees to accept that
managers have legitimate authority to
act.
 Barnard felt that four factors affected
the willingness of employees to accept
authority:

1. The employees must understand the communication.
2. The employees accept the communication as being
consistent with the organization's purposes.
3. The employees feel that their actions will be
consistent with the needs and desires of the other
employees.
4. The employees feel that they are mentally and
physically able to carry out the order.
 Barnard's sympathy for and understanding of
employee needs positioned him as a bridge to the
behavioral school of management, the next school of
thought to emerge.

Behavioral Management
Theory
 As management research continued in the
20th century, questions began to come up
regarding the interactions and motivations of
the individual within organizations.
 Management principles developed during the
classical period were simply not useful in
dealing with many management situations
and could not explain the behavior of
individual employees.
 In short, classical theory ignored employee
motivation and behavior.
 As a result, the behavioral school was a
natural outgrowth

 The behavioral management theory is
often called the human relations movement
because it addresses the human dimension
of work.
 Behavioral theorists believed that a better
understanding of human behavior at work,
such as motivation, conflict, expectations,
and group dynamics, improved productivity
 The theorists who contributed to this school viewed
employees as individuals, resources, and assets to
be developed and worked with — not as
machines as in the past but as humans.

 Elton Mayo's contributions came
as part of the Hawthorne studies,
a series of experiments that rigorously
applied classical management theory only to reveal its
shortcomings.
 The Hawthorne experiments consisted of two studies conducted
at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company in
Chicago from 1924 to 1932.
 The first study was conducted by a group of engineers seeking
to determine the relationship of lighting levels to worker
productivity.
 Surprisingly enough, they discovered that worker productivity
increased as the lighting levels decreased — that is, until the
employees were unable to see what they were doing, after
which performance naturally declined.

 A few years later, a second group of
experiments began.
 Harvard researchers Mayo and F. J.
Roethlisberger supervised a group of five
women working in one room.
 They gave the women special privileges,
such as the right to leave their workstations
without permission, take rest periods, enjoy
free lunches, and have variations in pay
levels and workdays.
 This experiment also resulted in significantly
increased rates of productivity

 In this case, Mayo and Roethlisberger
concluded that the increase in productivity
resulted from the supervisory arrangement
rather than the changes in lighting or other
associated worker benefits.
 Because the experimenters became the
primary supervisors of the employees, the
intense interest they displayed for the
workers was the basis for the increased
motivation and resulting productivity.
 Essentially, the experimenters became a
part of the study and influenced its

 This is the origin of the term Hawthorne
effect, which describes the special attention
researchers give to a study's subjects has an
impact on the subject’s (workers’)productivity.
 The general conclusion from the Hawthorne
studies was that human relations and the
social needs of workers are crucial aspects of
business management. This principle of
human motivation helped revolutionize
theories and practices of management.

 Abraham Maslow, a practicing
psychologist, developed one of the
most widely recognized need theories, a theory of
motivation based upon a consideration of human
needs .
His theory of human needs had three assumptions:
 Human needs are never completely satisfied.
 Human behavior is purposeful and is motivated by
the need for satisfaction.
 Needs can be classified according to a hierarchical
structure of importance, from the lowest to highest.

 Maslow broke down the needs
hierarchy into five specific areas:
 Physiological needs. Maslow grouped all physical
needs necessary for maintaining basic human well-
being, such as food and drink, into this category.
After the need is satisfied, however, it is no longer is
a motivator.
 Safety needs. These needs include the need for
basic security, stability, protection, and freedom from
fear. A normal state exists for an individual to have all
these needs generally satisfied. Otherwise, they
become primary motivators.

 Belonging and love needs. After the physical
and safety needs are satisfied and are no longer
motivators, the need for belonging and love emerges
as a primary motivator. The individual strives to
establish meaningful relationships with significant
others.
 Esteem needs. An individual must develop self-
confidence and wants to achieve status, reputation,
fame, and glory.
 Self-actualization needs. Assuming that all the
previous needs in the hierarchy are satisfied, an
individual feels a need to find himself.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory helped managers
visualize employee motivation

 Douglas McGregor was heavily
influenced by both the Hawthorne
studies and Maslow.
 He believed that two basic kinds of managers exist.
One type, the Theory X manager,
 has a negative view of employees and assumes
that they are lazy, untrustworthy, and incapable of
assuming responsibility.
 On the other hand, the Theory Y manager,
 has a positive view of employees: they are not
only trustworthy and capable of assuming
responsibility, but also have high levels of motivation.

Quantitative School of
Management
 During World War II, mathematicians, physicists, and
other scientists joined together to solve military
problems.
 The quantitative school of management is a result of
the research conducted during World War II.
 The quantitative approach to management
involves the use of quantitative techniques, such as
statistics, information models, and computer
simulations, to improve decision making.
 This school consists of several branches :
 Management science, Operations management ,
Management information systems , Systems
management theory are major branches

 Management science
 The management science school emerged to
treat the problems associated with global
warfare. Today, this view encourages
managers to use mathematics, statistics, and
other quantitative techniques to make
management decisions.
 Managers can use computer models to figure
out the best way to do something — saving
both money and time. Managers use several
science applications.

 Operations management
 Operations management is a narrow branch of the
quantitative approach to management.
 It focuses on managing the process of transforming
materials, labor, and capital into useful goods and/or
services.
 The product outputs can be either goods or services;
effective operations management is a concern for
both manufacturing and service organizations.
 The resource inputs, or factors of production, include
the wide variety of raw materials, technologies,
capital information, and people needed to create
finished products.

 Operations management today pays close
attention to the demands of quality, customer
service, and competition.
 The process begins with attention to the
needs of customers:
What do they want? Where do they want it?
When do they want it?
Based on the answers to these questions,
managers line up resources and take any
action necessary to meet customer
expectations.

 Management information systems
 A management information system organizes past,
present, and projected data from both internal and
external sources and processes it into usable
information, which it then makes available to
managers at all organizational levels.
 The information systems are also able to organize
data into usable and accessible formats.
 As a result, managers can identify alternatives
quickly, evaluate alternatives by using a spreadsheet
program, pose a series of “what-if” questions, and
finally, select the best alternatives based on the
answers to these questions.

 Systems management theory
 The systems management theory has
had a significant effect on management
science.
 A system is an interrelated set of elements
functioning as a whole. An organization as a
system is composed of four elements:
 Inputs — material or human resources
 Transformation processes —
technological and managerial processes
 Outputs — products or services
 Feedback — reactions from the

Contingency School of
Management
 The contingency school of management can
be summarized as an “it all depends”
approach.
 The appropriate management actions and
approaches depend on the situation.
 Managers with a contingency view use a
flexible approach, draw on a variety of
theories and experiences, and evaluate many
options as they solve problems.
 Contingency management recognizes that
there is no one best way to manage

 In the contingency perspective, managers are faced
with the task of determining which managerial
approach is likely to be most effective in a given
situation.
 For example, the approach used to manage a group
of teenagers working in a fast-food restaurant would
be very different from the approach used to manage
a medical research team trying to find a cure for a
disease.
 Contingency thinking avoids the classical “one best
way” arguments and recognizes the need to
understand situational differences and respond
appropriately to them.

 It does not apply certain management
principles to any situation.
 Contingency theory is a recognition of
the extreme importance of individual
manager performance in any given
situation.
 The contingency approach is highly
dependent on the experience and
judgment of the manager in a given
organizational environment.

Quality School of Management
 The quality school of management is a
comprehensive concept for leading and
operating an organization, aimed at
continually improving performance by
focusing on customers while addressing the
needs of all stakeholders.
 In other words, this concept focuses on
managing the total organization to deliver
high quality to customers.


The quality school of management considers
the following in its theory:
 Organization makeup. Organizations are made up of
complex systems of customers and suppliers.
 Quality of goods and services. Meeting the customers'
requirements is a priority goal and presumed to be a key to
organizational survival and growth.
 Continuous improvement in goods and services.
Recognizing the need to pinpoint internal and external
requirements and continuously strive to improve. It is an idea
that says, “the company is good, but it can always become
better.”
 Employees working in teams. These groups are primary
vehicles for planning and problem solving.
 Developing openness and trust. Confidence among
members of the organization at all levels is an important
condition for success.

 Kaizen approach
 The very notion of continuous improvement
suggests that managers, teams, and
individuals learn from both their
accomplishments and their mistakes. Quality
managers help their employees gain insights
from personal work experiences, and they
encourage everyone to share with others
what they have learned.

 Reengineering approach
 The reengineering approach to management focuses
on creating change — big change — and fast. It
centers on sensing the need to change, seeing
change coming, and reacting effectively to change
when it comes.
 The radical redesign of business processes to
achieve dramatic improvements in cost, quality,
service, and speed —
 Requires that every employee and manager look at
all aspects of the company's operation and find ways
to rebuild the organizational systems to improve
efficiency, identify redundancies, and eliminate waste
in every possible way.

Management in the
Future
 Modern management approaches respect the
classical, human resource, and quantitative
approaches to management.
 However, successful managers recognize that
although each theoretical school has limitations in its
applications, each approach also offers valuable
insights that can broaden a manager's options in
solving problems and achieving organizational goals.
 Successful managers work to extend these
approaches to meet the demands of a dynamic
environment.


 Modern management approaches recognize
that people are complex and variable.
 Employee needs change over time; people
possess a range of talents and capabilities
that can be developed.
 Organizations and managers, therefore,
should respond to individuals with a wide
variety of managerial strategies and job
opportunities.

 Key themes to be considered, as the twenty-
first century progresses, include the following:
 The commitment to meet customer needs
100 percent of the time guides organizations
toward quality management and continuous
improvement of operations.
 Today's global economy is a dramatic
influence on organizations, and opportunities
abound to learn new ways of managing from
practices in other countries.

 Organizations must reinvest in their most
important asset, their people.
 If organizations cannot make the commitment
to lifelong employment, they must commit to
using attrition (a gradual reduction in work force without firing of
personnel, as when workers resign or retire and are not replaced) to
reduce head count.
 They will not receive cooperation unless they
make it clear that their people will not be
working themselves out of a job.
 Managers must excel in their leadership
responsibilities to perform numerous different
roles.

An introduction to management and evolution of management

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An introduction to management and evolution of management