Anti Americanism Research Essay
- 1. 1 How has the perception of Anti-Americanism influenced the US decision to rely more on smaller military bases? How effective have these smaller bases been in addressing Anti-Americanism? Introduction: Anti-Americanism is defined as “a predisposition to hostility toward the US and American society”1. This hostility develops from the things the US supposedly is, or the particular things the US does. What the US ‘is’ refers to the particular conceptions of, and ideas popularly associated with the US, while what the US ‘does’ can be understood as specific policies and activities the US undertakes2. Anti-Americanism exists in a variety of forms including protests or violent reactions, and can develop for a number of different reasons. One of the primary causes of Anti-Americanism has been the actions of US military, and the lasting presence of the US military in foreign territories. This essay investigates the particular issue of anti-Americanism as caused by the presence US military bases overseas. While opposition to US military presence has always existed among local populations, Anti-Americanism has become a particularly significant issue for the US military in relation to its bases. The extent of anti-Americanism has been 1 Hollander. Paul. Anti-Americanism: Rational and Irrational, Transaction Publishers, USA, 2005, p.17 2 Markovits. Andrei. Uncouth Nation: Why Western Europe Dislikes America, Princeton University Press, US, 2003, p.7
- 2. 2 so significant in some of these cases (e.g. Okinawa) that the US has been forced to reconsider and change the nature of its military presence. One such change is a fundamental shift in US military strategy, drawing away from large, permanent deployments to small, scale, fluid military installations, known as “lily-pads”3 Since 2001, the US has streamlined its defenses, relying less on large military bases4. In order to counteract the rising tide of anti-Americanism, the US has opened smaller, less invasive military installations. Military strategists argue this shift would address the fundamental issue of anti-Americanism, while maintaining a strong military presence. These new bases are argued to be less politically difficult, with respect to anti-American sentiment, but whether this is the reality of the arrangement is contested. Furthermore, whether anti- Americanism was the decisive factor in determining this strategy shift, is also contentious. 3 Vine. David. ‘The Lily-Pad Strategy: How the Pentagon is Quietly Transforming its Overseas Base Empire and Creating a Dangerous New Way of War’, Huffington Post, 16 July 2012 (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-vine/us-military- bases_b_1676006.html) Accessed 27th May 2013 4 Gillem. Mark. America Town: Building the Outposts of Empire, University of Minnesota Press, USA, 2007
- 3. 3 The Problem of Larger Bases: Okinawa and South Korea The problem of larger bases is most clearly articulated by Chalmers Johnson: “The permanent deployment of American soldiers, sailors and airmen, whose culture, lifestyles, wealth and physical appearance guarantees conflict with local people is irrational in terms of any cost-benefit analysis”5. Johnson recognizes the essential problem of any lasting US military presence in a region not familiar or comfortable with the particular habits and behaviors of the US military. Johnson recognizes the deployment of American military personnel is not simply the placement of a defense force in a foreign territory, but a potentially serious imposition on the lifestyles and cultures of local populations. Furthermore, any security benefits these forces may provide has to be weighed against the social and cultural damages they are likely to inflict. Larger military bases are primary sources of anti-Americanism. Large bases have been identified as a major influence on perpetrators of violence against the US, can generate retaliatory responses, and are themselves targets for violent action. The problem of larger bases for the US is demonstrated by the ongoing issues related to the US base in Okinawa. Following their surrender in World War 2, Japan signed a security pact with the US, allowing them to build military bases across the country. Bases like Okinawa gave the US a foothold in the region, and a lasting military presence in Asia. The base has been at the centre of significant 5 Johnson. Chalmers. The Sorrows of Empire, Metropolitan Books, NY, 2004, p. 253
- 4. 4 turmoil and controversy however, representing a major source of anti-American sentiment. The base at Okinawa is situated in a densely populated area, surrounded by schools, public buildings and homes. Military activities have proven disruptive to the daily lives of Okinawans6. In addition, a substantial number of accidents, and a high incidence of crime have damaged local opinion of the US. Crimes include murder, arson, assault, prostitution, noise pollution, rape and environmental degradation. Violence against women is particularly troublesome at Okinawa, as demonstrated by the 2008 rape of a 14 year old girl, and a gang rape in 19957. Drunk driving, sexual harassment and homosexuality are also common, with local Okinawans claiming US marines were “trampling on human rights”8. In 2010, more than 90,000 Okinawans protested against the base, urging the government to move the base elsewhere. Opposition to the base reached its peak following the Osprey dispute when a US helicopter crashed into a local school. Not only are Okinawans apprehensive over accidents related to the base, many Okinawans believe they are vulnerable to attack as a result of the US military presence. 6 Sturdevant. S. and Stoltzfus. B. Let the Good Times Roll: Prostitution and the US Military in Asia, New Press, NY, 2003, .p26 7 Ibid. 8 Al Jazeera, ‘101 East: Okinawa – The Future of US Military Bases’, Uploaded 31st May 2010, (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bB2STxdGmXI), Accessed 3rd June 2013
- 5. 5 One major objection of many Okinawans is the US Status of Forces Agreements (SoFA). Under these arrangements, US troops are not subject to the laws of the countries in which they are based. SOFA means US troops, if found guilty of a crime, are to be tried in accordance with US law, under US jurisdiction. SOFA extends to issues of environmental degradation where the US is not liable for any damage its bases do. This prevents Japanese legal system from intervening in US jurisdiction. James Blaker discusses the particular problem of environmental damage. Large US bases such as those in Okinawa and South Korea have caused significant land damage as a consequence of their size and contents, “these bases are essentially small American towns which have been transported across the world”9. Some of these artificial metropolises exist in sparsely populated rural areas, which often are under-developed. These regions lack the infrastructure to manage the environmental impact of a military base. As a result, the waste and pollution from the urban sprawl, including fast-food chains and strip malls, causes significant environmental degradation. The increasing problem of anti-Americanism at US military bases is summed up in the following: “South Korea provides a useful example of the changing nature of anti-base anti-Americanism. In the last 20 years, South Korean anti- Americanism has spread from student radicals to the broader population. The source of resentment was US political influence and the presence of US military 9 Blaker. James. United States Overseas Basing: An Anatomy of the Dilemma, Praeger, USA, 1990, p. 41
- 6. 6 forces, which were seen by some local opponents as evidence of imperialism” 10. While anti-American sentiment used to be concentrated among a small group, the damage of these bases has spread negative perceptions to the wider population. New Base Strategy: Lily-pads The structure and size of US military bases has transformed significantly in the past decade. Large bases, like Okinawa in Japan and Ramstein in Germany, have increasingly damaged perceptions of the US military. These mega-bases (complete with Pizza Huts, recreation facilities and strip malls, housing up to 10,000 US troops11) have damaged local attitudes to the US. These large bases have proven costly, not only in treasure, but more significantly in popular opinions of the US military12. The damage caused by these bases has forced military strategists to consider alternatives. In order to reverse the trend in anti- Americanism while retaining a strong international posture, the US military has been forced to adjust its approach. Rather than dedicate significant resources to larger bases, a new strategy has been adopted by the military. 10 O’Connor. Brendon. and Griffiths. Martin. Anti Americanism in the 21st Century, Greenwood World Publishing, Oxford, 2007 p.115 11 Gillem. Mark. America Town: Building the Outposts of Empire, University of Minnesota Press, USA, 2007, p. 27 12 Al Jazeera, ‘101 East: Okinawa – The Future of US Military Bases’, Uploaded 31st May 2010, (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bB2STxdGmXI), Accessed 3rd June 2013
- 7. 7 As their name suggests, lily-pads (or Cooperative Security Locations) operate primarily as strategic jump-off points for military action, for counter-terrorism and to stop the trafficking of drugs. The lily-pads have “little to no permanent U.S. personnel presence, may contain pre-positioned equipment/logistical arrangements and serve both for security cooperation activities and contingency access”13. Lily-pads are much smaller operations than bases like Okinawa, and are consequently much lower maintenance. To avoid intrusion, and disruption of local communities, lily-pads are situated in remote areas, with limited amenities and restricted access14. Since 2001, the US has actively developed its network of lily-pads, expanding into Honduras, the Cocos Islands, Mauritania and the Seychelles15. The US has sought to consolidate its defense by establishing a military presence in as many regions as possible. The lily-pads represent one part of a broader strategy which seeks to streamline US military presence overseas. President Obama has continued to develop these bases as part of his Asia Pivot, while also increasing US operations in Africa. These bases will relocate troops from Main Operating Bases (MOBs), dispersing the US influence into other regions. These new, small-scale bases will reduce the adverse effects of the more conspicuous bases in Japan, Korea and Guam. 13 United States European Command, ‘Strategic Theater Transformation’, 14 January 2005, (http://web.archive.org/web/20070204141322/http://www.eucom.mil/englis h/Transformation/Transform_Blue.asp), Accessed 4th June 2013 14 Gillem. Mark. America Town: Building the Outposts of Empire, University of Minnesota Press, USA, 2007 15 Vine. David. ‘The Lily-Pad Strategy: How the Pentagon is Quietly Transforming its Overseas Base Empire and Creating a Dangerous New Way of War’, Huffington Post, 16 July 2012 (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-vine/us-military- bases_b_1676006.html) Accessed 27th May 2013
- 8. 8 Though the transition to the lily-pad strategy is scaling back troop deployments, these changes will not compromise global US hegemony. While the US is reducing the size of some individual operations, the scope of its global military empire is expanding significantly. Lily-pads allow the US to further project its forces, and to be militarily engaged in regions it previously did not have a presence. By reducing the size of individual bases, the military can spread itself across the globe. The lily-pads have a variety of different purposes and applications for the US. Setting aside their obvious military and surveillance capacities, the lily-pads can also act as strategic outlets for building and strengthening regional alliances, assisting in trade, and providing the US access to foreign markets that were hitherto unreachable16. The smaller bases allow fluid movement and transportation of weapons and personnel. These bases also provide the US with control of sea-ways, and control of global commerce. As such, the lily-pads represent an exceeding valuable resource to the US in broader foreign affairs, promoting more positive perceptions of the US internationally. 16 Fields, T .W. “Eastward Bound: The Strategy and Politics of Repositioning US Military Bases in Europe”, Journal of Public and International Affairs, Princeton- 15 (2004): 79-98
- 9. 9 Part 3: Lilypads as remedy to Anti-Americanism. Has the change in strategy been successful? The preliminary response to the lily-pad strategy has been mixed. In some ways, the new installations address the pressing concerns of the larger military bases, such as the local resentment in places like Okinawa and South Korea. The lily- pads are not without their own set of issues however. While some historians argue the smaller bases have addressed the fundamental problems of their predecessors, others claim the lily-pads attract similar criticism to the larger bases, while additionally presenting a whole new set of problems. While criticism of larger US bases came primarily from sources local to the base, lily-pads have spread and dispersed Anti-American sentiment to a broader mass. The lily-pads have disseminated anti-Americanism from a few critical sources to a much wider population. As argued by Marc Lynch “The lily-pad empire of bases has created a corresponding empire of anti-Americanism”17. Lily-pads have drawn criticism from international critics, broadening the scope of anti- American sentiment. David Vine outlines four key problems with the lily-pad strategy. Firstly, “the lily pad language can be misleading, since by design or otherwise, such installations 17 Lynch. Marc. ‘The Persistence of Anti-Americanism’, Foreign Affairs, May/June 2013 (http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/139120/marc-lynch/the- persistence-of-arab-anti-americanism), Accessed 5th May 2013.
- 10. 10 are capable of quickly growing into bloated behemoths”18. While the lily-pads are initially created small and inconspicuous, many are expected to grow into the future. Intentionally or not, lily-pads can become much bigger than their names suggest. Bases in the Africa have already grown exponentially since their initial creation. Secondly, the lily-pads (like their larger predecessors) are likely to draw the US into unseemly alliances with tyrants and despots in unfamiliar regions. Vine argues new bases in Asia and the Middle East will require the establishment of new diplomatic alliances. This could draw the US into civil wars and conflicts.19 Third, while the lily-pads were supposed to address the problem of local opposition, domestic complaints have emerged already, “Although lily pads seem to promise insulation from local opposition, over time even small bases have often led to anger and protest movements. (Consequently) The United States is likely to be drawn into new conflicts and new wars, generating unknown forms of blowback, and untold death and destruction”20. Not only have the lily-pads generated the same local resentment as their predecessors, the expansion of the US military presence into the problems of unstable new regions may threaten national security, compromising the very safety the bases are supposed to ensure. 18 Vine. David. ‘The Lily-Pad Strategy: How the Pentagon is Quietly Transforming its Overseas Base Empire and Creating a Dangerous New Way of War’, Huffington Post, July 16 2012, (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-vine/us-military- bases_b_1676006.html), Accessed 27th May 2013 19 Ibid. 20 Vine. David. “David Vine on the proliferation of lily-pad bases”, Princeton University Press Blog, July 19 2012 (http://blog.press.princeton.edu/2012/07/19/david-vine-on-the-proliferation- of-lily-pad-military-bases/), Accessed 2nd June 2013
- 11. 11 Finally, the lily-pads could compromise US relations with existing allies, “Like real lily pads - which are actually aquatic weeds - bases have a way of growing and reproducing uncontrollably. Indeed, bases tend to beget bases, creating "base races" with other nations, heightening military tensions, and discouraging diplomatic solutions to conflicts”21. Lily-pads have the potential to inflame tensions with US allies, as exemplified by Russia’s alarm over the development of US bases in Kazakhstan22. Lily-pads have the potential to antagonize nations who feel threatened by the further expansion, albeit in a new form, of the US military empire. Part 4: Anti Americanism or Practical Necessity? Anti-Americanism has been a persistent issue for the US military long before the transition to the lily-pad strategy. This is illustrated by a long history of protest and opposition to the US base at Okinawa. It would appear, then, that the transition to a lily-pad strategy has had less to do with anti-Americanism, and is more a reflection of the changing nature of warfare. The lily-pad strategy reflects the military’s vision for future warfare. Rather than becoming bogged down in large-scale, long-term conflicts, the lily-pads exemplify the more mobile and decentralized approach the military is adopting. 21 Ibid. 22 Novosti. Ria. ‘Russia Alarmed by Planned US bases in Central Asia’, Centre for Research on Globalization, 16 December 2008 (http://www.globalresearch.ca/russia-alarmed-by-planned-u-s-bases-in- central-asia/11414), Accessed 1st June 2013
- 12. 12 Historian Nick Turse argues “lily-pads allow special operations forces, proxy armies, the militarization of spying and intelligence, drone aircraft, cyber- attacks, and joint Pentagon operations with increasingly militarized 'civilian' government agencies”23. With lily-pads strategically dotted around the globe, the new bases will hasten mobilization. Military strategists project the lily-pads will mark the end of lasting warfare, heralding a new era of endless interventions and globally dispersed military bases24. Turse highlights a different perspective in this excerpt. This quote suggests the shift to lily-pads represents a practical change, with the military adapting to the changing nature of warfare. According to Turse, the move to smaller installations is the US adjusting its infrastructure in response to an evolution in military strategy. Turse’s ideas are echoed by Nazif Shahrani, “with the widespread use of drones, long-range missiles and extremely mobile US military force, establishing large military bases are not cost effective. Under these new conditions, small lily pads will suffice”25. These authors argue innovations in the military industry have meant future wars will not be fought using traditional means (e.g. large military deployments). As such, transition to a lily-pad strategy is the US responding to the changing nature of modern warfare, utilizing 23 Turse. Nick. in Vine. David. ‘The Lily-Pad Strategy: How the Pentagon is Quietly Transforming its Overseas Base Empire and Creating a Dangerous New Way of War’, Huffington Post, 16July 2012 (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david- vine/us-military-bases_b_1676006.html), Accessed 27th May 2013 24 Ibid. 25 Shahrani. Nazif. ‘America’s Lili-Pads in Afghanistan and Central Asia: Pentagon to Increase Number of Small Military Bases’, Centre for Research on Globalization, 18 January 2013, (http://www.globalresearch.ca/americas-lili-pads-in- afghanistan-and-central-asia-pentagon-to-increase-the-number-of-small- military-bases/5319528?print=1), Accessed 4th June 2013.
- 13. 13 technological innovations and a new military apparatus. These arguments suggest the shift to lily-pads is a strategic necessity for the US military, rather than a response to anti-American pressure. Conclusion: Anti-Americanism represents a significant challenge to the US military. At the US base in Okinawa, anti-Americanism has become so significant, some believe it has forced the military to fundamentally adjust its positioning. Protests and demonstrations over criminal misbehavior of US marines and the environmental damage caused by the base itself put significant pressure on the US to change its approach. Military strategists believed a general restructure would resolve the major problems of the larger bases. The shift to a lily-pad strategy addresses some of the more pressing concerns of the US military posture. Nonetheless, the strategy presents a whole new set of potential threats to the perception of US military. The lily-pads do not address the problems of larger bases as they have a tendency to expand to a similar size. Also, while the lily-pad strategy may consolidate US military presence new regions (such as Asia), these incursions could potentially be seen by key allies as a threat into their national interest. The introduction of a US military presence into such regions represents an additional challenge to national sovereignty and regional autonomy26. Intrusion into an 26 Markovits. Andrei. Uncouth Nation: Why Western Europe Dislikes America, Princeton University Press, US, 2003
- 14. 14 allies’ perceived sphere of influence, (while an economically and politically attractive alternative to larger, long-term military deployment), could imperil the US in new ways. The lily-pads have failed to reduce anti-Americanism from local sources, instead increasing resentment from the international community. Much like the lily-pad strategy itself, anti-Americanism has spread and dispersed in response. There is little doubt that large US military bases, such as Okinawa and South Korea, have produced significant anti-American attitudes amongst local populations. Whether these attitudes were powerful enough to force a shift in military strategy however, is unclear. Other factors, such as technological innovation and the changing nature of warfare are likely to have influenced the decision to develop lily-pad bases. Chalmers Johnson examines the strategy change: “After the attacks of September 11th, 2001 we waged two wars and acquired fourteen new bases (in Eastern Europe, Iraq, the Persian Gulf, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan). It was said these wars were a response to the terrorist attacks and would lessen our vulnerability to terrorism in the future. But it seems more likely that these new bases and other American targets of vulnerability will be subject to continued or increased terrorist strikes”27 27 Johnson. Chalmers. The Sorrows of Empire, Metropolitan Books, NY, 2004, p.215
- 15. 15 Johnson argues this strategy shift has made the US more susceptible to anti- American attacks. The extent of anti-Americanism at US bases in Okinawa and South Korea forced a fundamental change to the US military posture. This new posture however still poses significant problems for the US and the spread of anti-American sentiment. There is not sufficient scholarly material to argue any consensus view on the effectiveness of the lily-pads in addressing anti-Americanism. The concerns raised here, however do raise valid questions about the effectiveness of the lily- pad strategy in reducing anti-Americanism.
- 16. 16 List of References: Al Jazeera, ‘101 East: Okinawa – The Future of US Military Bases’, Uploaded 31st May 2010, Accessed 3rd June 2013, (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bB2STxdGmXI) Blaker. James. United States Overseas Basing: An Anatomy of the Dilemma, Praeger, USA, 1990 Cottrell. Alvin and Moorer. Thomas. US Overseas Bases: Problems of Projecting American Military Power Abroad, 1977 Dozier. Kimberley. ‘Drone Strike comes despite Transparency Pledge’, US News, 30 May 2013 (http://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2013/05/30/drone-strike- comes-despite-transparency-pledge), Accessed 4th June 2013 Ferguson. Niall. Colossus: The Rise and Fall of the American Empire, Penguin Press, USA, 2004 Gillem. Mark. America Town: Building the Outposts of Empire, University of Minnesota Press, USA, 2007 Hollander. Paul. Anti-Americanism: Rational and Irrational, Transaction Publishers, USA, 2005, p.17 Johnson. Chalmers. The Sorrows of Empire, Metropolitan Books, New York, 2004 Lutz. Catherine. The Bases of Empire, New York University Press, New York, 2009 Markovits. Andrei. Uncouth Nation: Why Western Europe Dislikes America, Princeton University Press, US, 2009 Novosti. Ria. ‘Russia Alarmed by Planned US bases in Central Asia’, Centre for Research on Globalization, 16 December 2008 (http://www.globalresearch.ca/russia-alarmed-by-planned-u-s-bases-in- central-asia/11414), Accessed 1st June 2013 O’Connor. Brendon. and Griffiths. Martin. Anti Americanism in the 21st Century, Greenwood World Publishing, Oxford, 2007 Parmar, Inderjeet, “Responding to Anti-Americanism: The Politics of Public Diplomacy”, in Brendan O’Connor Anti Americanism: History, Causes, Themes, Vol. 4 (Oxford, UK: Greenwood World Publishing, 2007), 239-262 Shahrani. Nazif. ‘America’s Lili-Pads in Afghanistan and Central Asia: Pentagon to Increase Number of Small Military Bases’, Centre for Research on Globalization,
- 17. 17 18 January 2013, (http://www.globalresearch.ca/americas-lili-pads-in- afghanistan-and-central-asia-pentagon-to-increase-the-number-of-small- military-bases/5319528?print=1), Accessed 4th June 2013 Sturdevant, S P and Stoltzfus, B 1993, Let the Good Times Roll: Prostitution and the US Military in Asia, New Press, New York United States European Command, ‘Strategic Theater Transformation’, 14 January 2005, (http://web.archive.org/web/20070204141322/http://www.eucom.mil/englis h/Transformation/Transform_Blue.asp), Accessed 4th June 2013 Vine. David. Island of Shame: The Secret History of the US Military Base on Diego Garcia, Princeton University Press, USA, 2009 Vine. David. ‘The Lily-Pad Strategy: How the Pentagon is Quietly Transforming its Overseas Base Empire and Creating a Dangerous New Way of War’, Huffington Post, 16th July 2012 (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-vine/us-military- bases_b_1676006.html), Accessed 27th May 2013
- 18. 18 http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2012/08/09/world-to-america-we- want-soft-not-hard-power/ The US has been criticized for its military-centric foreign policy by scholars and academics alike. The size and number of US military bases, both large and small reflects the focus of US policy. This focus has created problems for the US, and criticisms relating to its approach. A lack of public diplomacy and ‘soft power’ to buttress the hard power investment has created lasting internal problems, creating resentment of the US amongst local populations. The US needs to introduce and develop the necessary political and social mechanisms locally to create stability, and allow for a smooth transition of power. This will address the primary concerns of many anti-American critics. Historian Inderjeet Parmar argues “public diplomacy is about openness transparency and authentic engagement with foreign publics”. The only way to stem the rising tide of anti-Americanism is to fundamentally redress US approaches to foreign intervention. Rather than adjusting the style of military intervention, the focus of foreign intervention must shift away from its current military emphasis towards soft power and diplomacy. The US must move beyond
- 19. 19 its short-sighted, militarist attitude and adopt a strategy which effectively communicates with its public. There are however, mixed feelings over the base at Okinawa. A significant number of Japanese recognize the necessity of the base on Okinawa. Tomohiko Taniguchi of Keio University argues “Okinawa island sits on the frontline of East Asian security. The US military presence is a lynchpin of Japan’s national security”. Taniguchi argues the base in Okinawa is of increasing importance to Japan’s defense capacity. Japan’s limited national defense has meant a reliance on the US for frontline military support. (regional instability regarding North Korea and uncertainty about China’s posture) The shift to smaller bases is the product of a change in the nature of geopolitical affairs. The new lily-pad strategy is a reaction to an increasingly multi-polar world. In this context, the US faces competition on a number of different fronts. Emerging powers in Asia, resource rich regions of Central and South America and European stalwarts all represent challenges to US dominance. For this reason, the US is forced to adapt its military strategy There has been limited scholarship on the effects of the recent US shift to the lily- pad strategy. Much of the commentary on the change has come from sources within the US, focusing on the With everyone looking for ways to trim the deficit, closing overseas bases offers easy savings. Indeed, increasingly influential types are recognizing that the country simply can't afford more than 1,000 bases abroad.
- 20. 20 The current approach is fundamentally flawed. If the goal or intent of the transition to smaller bases was to stem the rising tide of global anti- Americanism, this strategy is already showing preliminary signs of failure. Public reactions to lily-pad bases have raised similar concerns to their larger predecessors. In order to stop the spread of anti-American sentiment, the US needs to fundamentally change its attitude to foreign intervention The central problem isn’t how the US chooses to conduct their military operations, but they fact they conduct them at all. Systemic or structural adjustments overlook the deeper problem of US militarism and unwanted intervention. This is reflective of what Cottrell and Moorer have called US military “Tunnel Vision: If the military is the problem, the military is the solution”28. Little, if any, consideration is given to alternative means, such as soft power and public diplomacy, which at best become a backdrop to large-scale military intervention. “Most of the new post-Cold War or post September 11 bases are in fact access agreements that are deemed to be in the interests of both parties. As such America’s network of bases is best understood as a ‘leasehold empire’” O’Keefe, M, ‘US Military Bases and Anti-Americanism’, Anti-Americanism in the 21st Century, p.118 (FROM PAGE 115)????? 28 Cottrell, A J and Moorer, T H , US Overseas Bases: Problems of Projecting American Military Power Abroad, p. 197
- 21. 21 In some ways, the lily-pads present similar problems to larger military installations. As aforementioned, the lily-pads house a small number of troops, with restricted access, and often operate in secrecy. This has raised issues however, pertaining to the particular activities and operations of the lily-pads. Local populations in Pakistan argue the goals and aims of a new US bases have not been made clear to them under this arrangement29. This lack transparency in US lily-pad strategy has been a significant factor in the spread of anti-American sentiment, with the military refusing to outline their agenda to local populations in these circumstances. Uncertainty over the military’s agenda has heightened local safety and security concerns which could potentially lead violent reactions. (How much does this have to do with the bases 29 Dozier. Kimberley. ‘Drone Strike comes despite Transparency Pledge’, US News, 30 May 2013 (http://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2013/05/30/drone-strike- comes-despite-transparency-pledge), Accessed 4th June 2013.