Ap language survival guide (1)

AP English Language & Composition—What you must know to survive and succeed!
What is rhetoric? A few scholarly minds
define it this way.
Plato: [Rhetoric] is the "art of enchanting the
soul." (The art of winning the soul
by discourse.)
Aristotle: Rhetoric is "the faculty of
discovering in any particular case
all of the available means of
persuasion."
Andrea Lunsford: "Rhetoric is the art,
practice, and study of human
communication."
In this class, we focus on the rhetorical
analysis of a variety of texts—nonfiction and
fiction, print and nonprint--from the 16th to the
21st centuries. We will synthesize our own
arguments on a variety of subjects. We will
develop advanced reading, writing, and
rhetorical strategies that will help you now, in
college, and beyond.
May’s AP test is important
It keeps us honest, but it is ONE snapshot of
ONE morning of this class. Overall class
performance is a far better indicator of your
diligence, dedication, and insight.
The test itself is three hours and 15
minutes.
- One hour for 52-54 multiple choice
questions on 4-5 passages – Counts
as 45% of the final score
- 15 minutes to read synthesis essay
sources and plan essay
- Two hours for three essay questions,
includes rhetorical analysis and
argument – Counts as 55% of the
final score
Multiple Choice Questions
Remember
 Plan time carefully. You have one
hour for about 54 questions or about
1 question a minute.
 Survey the whole multiple choice
section. Start with a passage that
seems easiest to you.
 You will probably need to read and
then reread each passage. One read
can skim; the second should scour.
 Survey all of the questions for each
passage. Answer the ones that seem
easiest first.
 If you’re having troubles getting into
a passage, read the questions first to
get your bearings.
 If you can’t eliminate two answers,
skip it.
 Make sure the number of the
question matches the number on the
answer sheet. Take a second and
check each number as you go along.
Five basic types of questions
1. Words and/or phrases in context:
Using the indicated portion of the text, what
does the word or phrase mean?
Skill - definition
2. Main Idea: Read the text. Which answer
best summarizes or defines the text?
Skill - reading comprehension, making
inferences
3. Terms: What does it mean? Reference:
vocabulary within the text, rhetorical
strategies, and literary devices.
Skill - definition
These first three types of questions are
easiest. You should expect to get at least
70 - 80% of these questions correct.
4. Function: Why is a word used or what
phrases are juxtaposed against each other?
Skills - Determining author's purpose
Reading comprehension
5. Organization: Why is this paragraph
here?
Skills - Determining author's purpose
Reading comprehension
Understanding author's purpose
The wrong answer choices follow a
pattern - Wrong answer choices “reward”
a surface reading and have less depth.
Remember if part of the answer choice is
wrong, it’s all wrong.
Mnemonics for analyzing texts
SOAPStone: used to analyze texts
 Subject: What is the topic of the text?
 Occasion: Why is the speech being
delivered or passage written? Is it a
special event?
 Audience: With whom is the writer or
speaker communicating? How do you
know? Which words tell you?
 Purpose: What is the audience
supposed to do? What lesson should
they learn? How is the audience
supposed to feel at the end?
 Speaker: (or author) Is the speaker a
reliable person to discuss this topic?
What qualifications does he or she
possess?
 Tone: What is the tone or attitude of the
speaker or author towards the subject?
SMELL: used analyze advertising or
other persuasive texts.
 Sender-receiver relationship: Who is
the target audience? Why is the sender
using this language and/or these
images?
 Message: Summarize the statements
made.
 Effect: What is the desired effect?
What does the author want the reader to
do?
 Logic: What type of reasoning is at
work? Consider images as well as
words. How does its presence or
absence affect the message?
 Language: How does the language of
the text affect the meaning? How does it
make the text more effective?
Remember to consider images as well
as words.
DIDLS - used when considering
descriptive passages.
 Diction: Which words does the author
use that are unusual or effective?
 Images: What specific images does the
write enable you to envision clearly?
 Details: Which details -- visual,
auditory, etc. -- does the writer develop
to help develop his main idea?
 Language: What do you notice about
the way the author puts the sentences
together? Is it simple? complicated? Is
the author writing for people who know a
lot or a little about the topic already?
 Syntax: Does the length of the sentence
affect the topic? Does it affect the way
you react?
Rhetorical Precis- used to practice
precise description of the argument and
context an author presents in a text.
 Sentence 1: Name of author, the type
and title of the work, a rhetorically
accurate verb (see list) that describes
what the author is doing in the text, and
a THAT clause in which you state the
major assertion (thesis statement) of the
author’s text.

 Sentence 2: An explanation of how the
author develops and/or supports the
thesis (for instance, comparing and
contrasting, narrating, illustrating,
defining, using sarcasm, relating
personal experience, using examples,
etc.). Your explanation is usually
presented in the same chronological
order that the items of support are
presented in the work.
 Sentence 3: A statement of the author’s
apparent purpose, followed by an IN
ORDER TO phrase in which you explain
what the author wants the audience to
do or feel as a result of reading the
work.
 Sentence 4: A description of the
intended audience and/or the
relationship the author establishes with
the audience.
Writing in AP Language
 Keep in mind that your primary goal is
clarity: the precise communication of
your ideas.
 Remember your audience and your
purpose. What do you want your
audience to think, do, or believe after
reading your essay? Is your audience
positive, negative, neutral, or
disinterested? What kinds of evidence
and reasoning would most effectively
accomplish this goal?
 Use apt, sophisticated diction.
o Avoid pedestrian words and
phrases such as “got”, “a lot”,
“really”, “okay”; avoid non-words
such as “reoccur” (the correct word
is “recur”).
o Avoid cliches - "You can't judge a
book by its cover," "A picture's
worth a thousand words," etc. Too
many students use them, and they
set the reader's teeth on edge.
o Avoid contractions, abbreviations,
and slang. This is a formal
occasion.
o Make sure every pronoun you use
has a clear antecedent. That
includes the ubiquitous “it.”
o Limit the “be” verbs: There is, It is,
and so on
o Use an active voice. See the list
for some stronger verbs.
Verbs to Use in AP Writing
Instead of using weaker verbs like shows,
uses, or utilizes, use stronger verbs like:
Asserts hints at ignites
Details highlights changes
alludes to constrains invokes
Implies explores exemplifies
Clarifies alters conveys
Portrays manipulates repudiates
Inspires conjures up compares
describes produces masters
suggests evokes creates
connotes elicits refutes
Reveals juxtaposes documents
delineates construes enunciates
Shifts solidifies maintains
specifies differentiates demonstrates
evokes transcends stirs
Notes emphasizes dispels
Depicts explains twists
Tackles enhances elucidates
 Maintain present tense when analyzing
texts.
 SENTENCE STRUCTURE: You vary
your sentence structure and all
sentences are punctuated correctly.
Beware of comma splices.
 CONVENTIONS OF FORMAL
WRITING: third person only, no
contractions
 GRAMMAR: Be aware of parallel
structure, subject-verb and pronoun
agreement, and dangling or misplaced
modifiers. Try not to end a sentence
with a preposition.
 Remember that correct grammar, verb
tense, and sentence structure must
always be maintained, even when
quoting.
 Show respect for the authors.
o Don't say they are stupid or do not
know what they are talking about.
Chances are it is not Virginia Woolf
who does not know what she's
talking about.
o Don't refer to the authors by their
first names. In the intro, refer to the
author by both names, then
henceforth use the last name.
Handling quotations:
 Try imbedding the quote in your own
sentence.
 Make sure the quote never stands
alone; always include significance.
 If you use a long quote, indent all lines
of the quote and separate it from the
rest of your paper with spaces.
 All quotes are not created equal.
Choose carefully which words you wish
to quote.
 Do NOT use a quote as a topic
sentence. Topic sentences are part of
YOUR structure and should be your
unique thoughts and wording.
 Remember that a mere quote doesn't
show anything, prove anything, or make
anything obvious or evident. YOU, as
the writer, have that job.
 Be sure that you use absolutely correct
MLA format when citing quotations. If
your sentence ends with a quotation, be
sure to put the ending quotation marks
before the parenthetical citation and the
period after the parenthetical citation:
The boy’s condition causes him to walk
with a “weird shuffling gait”(19).
 Students often think the words states
and quotes are interchangeable. They're
not. Charles Dickens states, "It was the
best of times..." not quotes. To quote is
to repeat what someone else said.
 It's okay to use an ellipsis in a quote as
long as the quote still makes sense.
Insertion of Quotes as Support
Weak Strong
When Jerry says, "You
have everything, and
now you want this
bench. Are these the
things men fight for?" it
shows that he is trying
to intimidate Peter by
making fun of his
honor.
Attacking Peter's sense
of honor, Jerry orders
him off the bench and
tauntingly asks if a
mere park bench "are
the things men fight
for" in Peter's small
world.
When Peter finally
says, "Get up and
fight," Jerry inquires,
"Like a man?" This
shows that Jerry is
attacking Peter's sense
of manliness.
Jerry, now desperate to
fulfill his suicidal
mission, resorts to
attacks on Peter's
manliness, provoking
him into fighting "like a
man."
In responding to Jerry's
comments about
having a male child,
Peter says "It's a
matter of genetics, not
manhood, you
monster." It is obvious
that Peter is angry at
Jerry's insinuations.
Although Peter knows
that the gender of his
children is "a matter of
genetics, not
manhood," he
nevertheless lashes out
at Jerry's insults,
leaving the reader to
doubt Peter's sense of
security.

Timed Essays
Preparation (15 minutes)
 Take the time to read the question
carefully– underlining (and numbering)
the most important parts.
 Take the time to read the prompt
TWICE. Work the text—use all the
clues you see to get specifics about the
author, the audience, the purpose, and
the rhetorical strategies the author uses
to achieve that purpose.
 Plan the essay to address each part of
the question.
Draft Essay (20 minutes)
WOW (Introductory Paragraph) Don't
waste time on a long or fancy intro. Throw
away the bread and get to the meat.
 With no time for a general introduction,
your first paragraph clearly sets the
angle of your analysis.
 Make sure your THESIS statement (and
whole first paragraph) is a direct and
complete response to the prompt. Keep
in mind that a fact or summary cannot
be a thesis. Do not repeat the prompt,
but it is often helpful to use key words.
STUFF (Body Paragraphs)
 The topic sentence of each body
paragraph is a CLAIM (not a fact or
summary statement) which clearly
supports the argument of your thesis.
 Each claim is well-SUPPORTed with
plenty of concrete evidence. (you do not
need to waste time copying large
sections of the text—use key words in
quotation marks) Remember not to
leave DRT hanging—it needs to be
secured with prose to the rest of the
paragraph.
 INTERPRETATIONS clearly explain
how the evidence supports your claim.
 The tie of every claim to the thesis is
clear: Either it is clearly stated, or the
inference is obvious.
OOH! (Conclusion)
 Your concluding paragraph returns to
the thesis idea but uses different words
and extends the idea. (In effect, show
the reader that you have proved your
thesis, but not in a boring or redundant
manner.)
 If at all possible, finish with a fresh,
brilliant insight that ties all of your ideas
together and at the same time flows
logically from your argument.
Review Essay (5 minutes)
 TRANSITIONS: To link paragraphs you
use effective transitions to enhance the
overall flow, coherence, and sense of
your essay.
 Review the prompt to make sure you
have addressed the entire question.
 Check mechanics: diction, syntax,
grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
Three general kinds of timed
essays in AP Language
1. Analysis Essays
 Rhetorical purpose: to convince the
reader to think, do, or believe X; also
personal, expository, and
argumentative
 Rhetorical modes: narration,
description, cause and effect,
process analysis, comparison,
example, classification, argument
(though all communication is argument)
 Rhetorical strategies – these are the
broad categories--remember to get
specific
o Ethos – establish credibility of
speaker
o Pathos – address needs of the
audience
o Logos – use one or more rhetorical
modes to address purpose
 Style/Rhetoric/Language: Diction,
Detail, Syntax, Imagery, and Tone
Advice: Stick to an analysis of the essay.
Don't wander off into your personal
experiences.
Avoid the words "paints a picture in the
reader's mind." Too many students use it,
and it doesn't say anything. Identify and
explain the effect or tone the author is
creating. Notice I said, “and explain” -
identifying isn't enough.
Don't define terms. The readers are
experienced AP teachers and English
professors. We don't need to be told a simile
is a comparison using like or as.
SHOWING, NOT TELLING
Telling Showing
Peppering
prose with
Latin and
Greek laundry
lists of terms
Demonstrating
understanding of the effects
of those strategies
“The writer
appeals to
pathos”
"the author appeals to the
emotions of the audience
when he..."
"the author makes the
audience afraid of the
consequences, and so
sways their opinion when
she..."
“The writer
uses logos”
"the writer uses a carefully-
reasoned cause-and-effect
argument that shows
unequivocally that X leads
to Y"
"the writer uses plenty of
examples to support her
point that..." or "the writer
reaches a logical
conclusion that..."
“The writer
uses ethos”
"the writer establishes his
authority by... "
"the writer makes herself
sympathetic to the
audience by..."
"the writer clearly has a
good reputation because..."
PHRASES BANK TO DESCRIBE THE
RHETORICAL PURPOSES/FUNCTIONS:
 Anticipate objections raised by the ideas
presented in X
 Expresses a causal relationship
between X and Y
 Introduce a series of generalizations
 Makes an appeal to authority
 Present a thesis that will be challenged
in paragraph B
 Presents a misconception that the
author will correct
 Provide evidence to contrast with that in
X
 Provide support for a thesis
 Provides a specific example for the
preceding generalization
 Restates the thesis

STRUCTURE/DEVELOPMENT
 An exaggeration followed by qualifying
statements
 Chronological examination of a topic
 Claim followed by supporting details
 Explanation of an issue leading to an
examination of the same issue
 Generalization followed by other
generalizations
 Historical example followed by
contemporary examples
 Movement from particular to general
 Presentation of two conflicting ideas
followed by a resolution
TONE
Acerbic and Cynical Lyrical nostalgia
Harsh and strident Uncertain
Cautious ambivalence Feigned innocence
Informal and
Analytical
Disbelieving
Contemplative and
Conciliatory
Poignant remorse
Irate but carefully
Judicious
Relieved
Enthusiastic and
Optimistic
Reverent and
Respectful
Serious but faintly
condescending
Objective
Self-deprecating
humor
Scornful and
Unsympathetic
Superficial and
Capricious
Exasperated
ATTITUDE
Awe Profound admiration
Feigned intimacy Reasoned objectivity
Reasoned objectivity Disapproval
Qualified enthusiasm Idolatrous devotion
Suspicion Indifference
2. Argument Essays
If given a passage to analyze, use the
modified Graff Model to help you plan
your essay.
1. (author) ____ makes the general
argument that ____.
2. More specifically, X argues that ____.
3. In this passage, X suggests that ____.
4. In conclusion, X believes that ____.
5. I agree/disagree with X, because ____.
6. More specifically, I believe that ____.
7. For example, ____.
8. Although X might object that ____. I
maintain that ____.
9. Therefore, I conclude that ____.
If given a topic that doesn’t involve an
analysis of the author’s argument, use
this model instead.
1. Write the thesis sentence as an
"Although" sentence, putting the
opposition in the dependent clause and
your position in the independent clause.
2. Using a concessionary transition word
like "Certainly," or "Sure," make the first
body paragraphs a good presentation of
the OPPOSITION. Give the opposing
arguments full and fair presentation.
3. Then, using the most powerful turning
word, "However," begin the presentation
of your argument.
4. Continue with more paragraphs, using
add-on transitions like "Moreover," "In
addition," "Not only that,"
"Furthermore," making the case solid for
your position.
5. Use the most powerful concluding word,
"Therefore," and end with a memorable,
succinct conclusion.
Advice: In either case, generate 6-10
examples that support your position. Pick the
best examples (best means that the
examples really fit the argument AND that
you know enough about them to use them
well), not just the first ones to pop into your
head.
It doesn't matter if you defend, challenge, or
qualify as long as you do it well.
Think of the argument prompt as a
springboard for creating your own argument.
You don't need to discuss Susan Sontag,
and, for heaven's sake, don't try to analyze
their argument. Your purpose here is to
persuade the reader that your argument is
sound and reasonable.
The reader wants "specific evidence" - two
important words, often overlooked. The
courtroom does not want the hypothetical or
the theoretical. Use your own experience,
incidents you know about, or what you
have read about (or, in Sontag's case, the
pictures you have seen).
If you give me 3 examples of specific
evidence, make sure they illustrate 3
different points, not 3 examples to illustrate
the same point.
3. Synthesis Essays
Reading and Preparation (15 minutes) –
before you start the writing.
1. Take the time to read the question –
underlining the most important parts.
Write a quick answer to the question
based on what you already know about
the subject.
2. Take the time to read the sources
TWICE. Work the text—use all the
clues you see to get specifics about the
author, the audience, the purpose, and
the likely biases. This means reading
the introductory information carefully
as well.
3. Select 6-10 examples that support your
position. Use at least three of the
sources—identify the sources as
(Source A) or the information in the
parentheses. Pick the best examples
(best means that the examples really fit
the argument AND that you know
enough about them to use them well),
not just the first ones to pop into your
head.
4. Remember that your argument is
central. The sources support this
argument. Do NOT merely summarize
the sources.
5. Plan your argument: thesis, claims,
reasoning. See Argument section for a
suggested outline.
Other kinds of writing in AP
English Language
CSI Checklist
 Your CLAIM is an opinion--an arguable
or debatable idea. It is not a fact or a
detail or a summary statement. If you
happen to say your claim out loud and
everyone in the class agrees with you,
then chances are you have not written a
claim.
 Choose evidence from the text,
including details and quotations,that
clearly SUPPORT your claim.
 Always be sure to Transition into, and/or
Lead in to the Quote (TLQ). Make sure

you have informed your reader of the
speaker and context before you quote.
 Every quotation is seamlessly inserted
as part of one of your sentences. Do
not put a quotation as a separate
sentence.
 Cite every quotation parenthetically
using MLA format. Example: Ophelia
will “the effect of this good lesson keep”
(1.3.45).
 After every quotation you INTERPRET:
What does it mean? Exactly how does
the evidence support your claim?
 You conclude with a final sentence of
interpretation, tying up your claim, and
ending with a fresh insight.
Essay Checklist—Process Writing
The big difference between a timed essay
and one that goes through multiple steps
and revisions (hence, process) is the
WOW (Introductory Paragraph), the
parenthetical citations, and the chance to
polish and perfect your prose and
examples.
 Grab the reader’s attention and
introduce the topic.
 Narrow the focus.
 The method of development may or may
not be clearly stated/listed as part of
your thesis statement, but the direction
of the argument is evident to the reader.
(If you list the main points of the claims
to follow, you must discuss those claims
in the same order you list them in the
thesis statement.)
 The last sentence of your first paragraph
is your THESIS statement. It is clear
and precise, presenting the angle of
your argument. Your thesis statement is
an arguable idea. A fact or summary
cannot be a thesis.
Rhetorical Terms – A Glossary
ad hominem fallacy--(Latin for "to the man")
a fallacy of logic in which a person's
character or motive is attacked instead of
that person's argument.
ad populum fallacy--(Latin for "to the crowd")
a fallacy of logic in which the widespread
occurrence of something is assumed to
make it true or right; e.g. "The Escort is the
most widely sold car in the world;
therefore, it must be the best."
allegory--a story in which the people, places,
and things represent general concepts or
moral qualities.
allusion--a brief reference to a person, place,
event, or passage in a work of literature or
the Bible assumed to be sufficiently well
known to be recognized by the reader;
e.g. "I am Lazarus, come from the dead."
T. S. Eliot
analogy--a comparison between two things in
which the more complex is explained in
terms of the more simple; e.g. comparing
a year-long profile of the stock index to a
roller-coaster ride.
anecdote--a short entertaining account of
some happening, frequently personal or
biographical.
anticlimax--a sudden drop from the dignified
or important in thought or expression to
the commonplace or trivial, often for
humorous effect.
appeal to authority--citation of information
from people recognized for their special
knowledge of a subject for the purpose of
strengthening a speaker or writer's
arguments.
argumentation--exploration of a problem by
investigating all sides of it; persuasion
through reason.
begging the question--a fallacy of logical
argument that assumes as true the very
thing that one is trying to prove; e.g. 1.
The Bible is the infallible word of God. 2.
The Bible says that God exists. Therefore,
3. God exists.
cause and effect--examination of the causes
and/or effects of a situation or
phenomenon; e.g. Essay topics such as
"How did the incumbent mayor lose the
election?" or "What causes obesity?" are
well suited to cause and effect exposition.
chronological ordering--arrangement in the
order in which things occur; may move
from past to present or in reverse
chronological order, from present to past.
classification as a means of ordering--
arrangement of objects according to class;
e.g. media classified as print, television,
and radio.
colloquial expression--words and phrases
used in everyday speech but avoided in
formal writing; e.g. Jack was bummed out
about his chemistry grade instead of Jack
was upset about his chemistry grade.
damning with faint praise--intentional use of
a positive statement that has a negative
implication; e.g. "Your new hairdo is
so...interesting.
deduction (deductive reasoning)--a form of
reasoning that begins with a
generalization, then applies the
generalization to a specific case or cases;
opposite to induction. (see syllogism)
digression--a temporary departure from the
main subject in speaking or writing.
ellipsis--1. In grammar, the omission of a
word or words necessary for complete
construction but understood in context.
E.g. "If (it is) possible, (you) come early."
2. The sign (...) that something has been
left out of a quotation. "To be or not...that
is the question."
euphemism--the use of a word or phrase that
is less direct, but that is also less
distasteful or less offensive than another;
e.g."he is at rest" is a euphemism for "he
is dead."
expository writing--writing that explains or
analyzes.
false dilemma--a fallacy of logical argument
which is committed when too few of the
available alternatives are considered, and
all but one are assessed and deemed
impossible or unacceptable; e.g. A father
speaking to his son says, "Are you going
to go to college and make something of
yourself, or are you going to end up being
an unemployable bum like me?" The
dilemma is the son's supposed choice
limitation: either he goes to college or he
will be a bum. The dilemma is false,
because the alternative of not going to
college but still being employable has not
been considered.
hyperbole--an extravagant exaggeration of
fact, used either for serious or comic
effect; e.g. "Your beauty, that did haunt
me in my sleep/ To undertake the death of
all the world,/So I might live one hour in
your sweet bosom." Shakespeare,
Richard III
imagery--lively descriptions which impress the
images of things upon the mind; figures of
speech.
induction (inductive reasoning)--a form of
reasoning which works from a body of fact

Audience
Pathos
Appeals to
Audience’s
Identity
Self-Interest
Emotions
Message
Logos
Logic
Appeals to merit
and reasonableness
of claims and
support
Speaker
Ethos
Appeals to establish
Speaker’s
Credibility and
Authority in the
eyes of the audience
to the formulation of a generalization;
opposite to deduction; frequently used as
the principal form of reasoning in science
and history.
inverted syntax--reversing the normal word
order of a sentence; e.g. "Whose woods
these are I think I know." Robert Frost
irony--a method of humorous or sarcastic
expression in which the intended
meaning of the words is the opposite of
their usual meaning; e.g. saying that a
cold, windy, rainy day is "lovely."
litotes--in rhetoric, a figure in which an
affirmative is expressed by a negation of
the contrary. A "citizen of no mean city" is,
therefore, "a citizen of an important or
famous city."
metaphor--a figure of speech in which one
thing is compared to another by being
spoken of as though it were that thing; e.g.
"...a sea of troubles." William Bradford
non sequitur--a statement that does not
follow logically from what preceded it.
order of importance--a method of organizing
a paper according to the relative
significance of the subtopics.
oxymoron--a figure of speech in which
contradictory terms or ideas are
combined; e.g. "thunderous silence."
parable--a short story from which a lesson
may be drawn; Christ used the parable to
teach his followers moral truths. The
parable of the Sower and the Good
Samaritan are examples of his parables.
parallel syntactic structures--using the same
part of speech or syntactic structure in (1)
each element of a series, (2) before and
after coordinating conjunctions (and, but,
yet, or, for, nor), and (3) after each of a
pair of correlative conjunctions (not
only...but also, neither...nor, both...and,
etc.). Below are examples for definitions
(1) and (3):
(1) Over the hill, through the woods, and to
grandmother's house we go.
(3) That vegetable is both rich in vitamins
and low in calories.
paradox--a statement which seems self-
contradictory, but which may be true in
fact. "Success is counted sweetest / By
those who ne'er succeed..." Emily
Dickinson
parody--a literary composition which imitates
the characteristic style of a serious work or
writer and uses its features to treat trivial,
nonsensical material in an attempt at
humor or satire.
pedantry--a display of narrow-minded and
trivial scholarship or arbitrary adherence to
rules and forms.
personification--a figure of speech in which
an inanimate object or abstract concept is
endowed with human attributes; e.g. the
hand of fate.
periodic sentence structure--a sentence
written so that the full meaning cannot be
understood until the end; e.g. Across the
stream, beyond the clearing, from behind
a fallen tree, the lion emerged.
persuasion--taking a single position for the
purpose of getting others to accept that
position; may appeal to emotion or reason.
point of view--the way in which something is
viewed or considered by a writer or
speaker; in fiction, it is the relationship
assumed between the teller of a story and
the characters in it, usually demonstrated
by the author's use of either first or third
person.
post hoc fallacy--(from the Latin: post hoc,
ergo propter hoc meaning "after this,
therefore because of this.") This fallacy of
logic occurs when the writer assume that
an incident that precedes another is the
cause of the second incident. For
example: "Governor X began his first term
in January. Three months later, the state
suffered severe economic depression.
Therefore, Governor X cause the state's
depression." The chronological order of
events does not establish a cause-effect
relationship.
rhetoric--the art of
using words
effectively in writing
or speaking so as to
influence or
persuade.
rhetorical question--a
question asked for
rhetorical effect to
emphasize a point,
no answer being
expected; e.g.
"Robert, is this any
way to speak to
your mother?"
satire--a literary work in
which vices,
abuses, absurdities,
etc. are held up to
ridicule and
contempt; use of
ridicule, sarcasm, irony, etc. to expose
vices, abuses, etc.
simile--a figure of speech involving a
comparison using like or as; e.g. "O my
love is like a red, red rose." Robert Burns
spatial ordering--organization of information
using spatial cues such as top to bottom,
left to right, etc.
syllogism--a form of reasoning in which two
statements or premises are made and a
logical conclusion is drawn from them; a
form of deductive reasoning. Example:
Major Premise: J and G Construction
builds unsafe buildings.
Minor Premise: J and G Construction built
the Tower Hotel.
Conclusion: The Tower Hotel is an unsafe
building. (see deduction)
symbol--something that stands for another
thing; frequently an object used to
represent an abstraction, e.g. the dove is a
symbol of peace.
syntax--in grammar, the arrangement of
words as elements in a sentence to show
their relationship.
tone--a way of wording or expressing things
that expresses an attitude; the tone may
be angry, matter-of-fact, pedantic, or
ironic.
understatement--deliberately representing
something as much less than it really is.
Jonathan Swift wrote, "Last week I saw a
woman flayed, and you will hardly believe
how much it altered her appearance."

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