Approaches in psychology AQA AS revision
- 1. APPROACHES IN PSYCHOLOGY • BEHAVIOURISM: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OPERANT CONDITIONING • SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY • THE COGNITIVE APPROACH • THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
- 2. BEHAVIOURISM: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • learning through association • first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov Dog conditioned to salivate to the sound of the bell if the sound was repeatedly presented at the time as food FOOD (UCS) -> SALIVATION (UCR) BELL (NS) -> NO SALIVA (NO CR) BELL (NS) + FOOD (UCS) -> SALIVATION (UCR) BELL (CS) -> SALIVATION (CR)
- 3. BEHAVIOURISM: OPERANT CONDITIONING • behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences • BF Skinner studied how animals can learn from the consequences of their actions 3 types of consequences of behaviour POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT PUNISHMENT receiving a reward when we avoid something unpleasant unpleasant consequence of behaviour increase the likelihood the behaviour will be repeated decrease the likelihood the behaviour will be repeated Rat activated a lever – rewarded with a food pellet From then it performed the behaviour much more often
- 4. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY • developed by Bandura • people learn a lot from role models through observations and imitations Different processes: a) Modelling – observing and imitating the behaviour b) Identification – picking up the attractive qualities and characteristics c) Reinforcement – positive and negative reinforcement makes the behaviour more likely to happen again in the future d) Vicarious reinforcement - reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour Mediational processes (cognitive factors that influence learning) 1) ATTENTION – noticing a certain behaviour 2) RETENTION – encoding 3) REPRODUCTION – ability to perform the behaviour 4) MOTIVATION – evaluating the behaviour If these are present IMITATION can take place
- 5. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Bandura and Bobo Doll - 72 children from Stanford University Nursery were matched on ratings of their aggressive behaviour and were put into groups - Once they’ve watched it they were put into the room with toys (e.g. Bobo doll) - Aggression group imited much more aggressive behaviour than non aggression group control aggression non aggression They were doing nothing They both were watching video clips Role model was hitting a doll with hammers, mallet Role model was playing with a doll and other toys
- 6. THE COGNITIVE APPROACH Cognitive – “mental processes” that affect our behaviour e.g. thoughts, perceptions, attention Internal mental processes – private operations of the mind that mediate between stimulus and response Two models theoreticalcomputer information processing approach mind is compared to a computer Information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages as input, storage, retrieval (as in the multi-store model computer human via keyboard Data input through sense organs computer processor Data processing brain monitor Data output action Differences: - Emotional and motivational factors - Humans – unlimited but unreliable memory, computers – limited but reliable memory - Humans have free will
- 7. THE COGNITIVE APPROACH Schema – a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing, developed by experience Example Schema of a human face contains the information that a face has two eyes, a mouth and a nose ROLE ideas of behaviours which are expected from someone in a certain role, setting or situation EVENT information about what happens in a situation SELF information about ourselves based on physical characteristics and personality, beliefs and values, can affect how you act Example Doctor is intelligent Example Going to a restaurant – we read a menu, we order a food Example Health-conscious people are more likely to eat well and exercise regularly
- 8. THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH Human behaviour can be explained by: o Hormones o Genetics o Evolution o Nervous system Mind lives in the brain, all mental processes have a physical basis. GENES They make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes for physical features as well as psychological, they are transmitted from parents to offspring (inherited) Twin studies - To determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetics basis Monozygotic (identical) – share 100% of their genes Dizygotic (non-identical) – share 50% of their genes Gottesman (1991) meta-analysis of twin studies MZ twin with schizophrenia gave a 48% chance of developing the condition DZ twin reduced the chance up to 17% Schizophrenia has a strong genetic basis. Genotype – particular set of genes that a person possesses; actual genetic make-up. Phenotype – characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment.
- 9. THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH EVOLUTION the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations Charles Darwin’s theory Natural Selection Over time individuals who are better adapted to their environment through having better genes are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on their useful genes. Those weaker, less well- adapted will be eliminated. Through this process early humans became better adapted to their environments.
- 10. controls conscious activities, e.g. running controls unconscious activities, e.g. digestion, involuntary made up of neurons, connects CNS to the rest of the body origin of all complex commands and decisions brain spinal cord THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH THE NERVOUS SYSTEM a specialised network of cells in the human body and is our primary internal communication system, its main function is to collect, process and respond to information in the environment The nervous system CNS PNS ANS SNS sympathetic parasympathetic CNS -> organs senses -> CNS CNS -> skeletal muscles gets the body ready for action calms the body down Fight or flight system Rest and digest system Stimulus Receptor CNS Effectors Response sensory neuron motor neuron relay neuron
- 11. Neuron in a resting state is negatively charged compared to the outside. When it is activated by a stimulus, the inside of the cell becomes positively charged for a split of second causing an action potential to occur. This creates an electrical impulse. THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH NEURONS basic building blocks of the nervous system, nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals
- 12. THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION Neurons are separated by a synapse. - signals WITHIN neurons are transmitted electrically, - signals BETWEEN neurons are transmitted chemically Excitatory neurotransmitters INCREASE the likelihood that an electrical impulse will be triggered in the postsynaptic neuron whereas inhibitory ones DECREASE it.postsynapt ic neuron presynaptic neuron
- 13. THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM sends information as chemical signals involving glands and hormones. GLANDS group of cells that are specialised to secrete a useful substance HORMONES chemical messengers that circulate in the bloodstream