arduino based automatic material sorting machine (1).pdf

Arduino Based Automatic Material Sorting Machine
A
PROJECT REPORT
Submitted
In partial fulfilment
For the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In Department of Electrical Engineering
Submitted By: Submitted By:
Mrs. Preeti Vashishtha Akhilesh Yadav
(Asst. Professor) 0211184004
Department of Electrical Engineering
Jagannath University Jaipur
Session: 2018-2022

Arduino Based Automatic Material Sorting Machine
A
PROJECT REPORT
Submitted
In partial fulfilment
For the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In Department of Electrical Engineering
Submitted To : Submitted By :
Mrs.Preeti Vashishtha Akhilesh Yadav
(ASST. PROFESSOR) 0211184004
Department Of Electrical Engineering
Jagannath University Jaipur
Session : 2018-2022

DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE
I, Akhilesh Yadav, bearing Enrolment No 0211184004, a student of B.Tech of Electrical
Engineering department hereby declare that I own the full responsibility for the information,
results etc. provided in this PROJECT “Arduino Based Automatic Material Sorting
Machine” submitted to Jagannath University , Jaipur for the award of B.Tech (EE) degree. I
have taken care in all respect to honour the intellectual property right and have acknowledged
the contribution of others for using them in academic purpose and further declare that in case
of any violation of intellectual property right or copyright I, as a candidate, will be fully
responsible for the same. My supervisor should not be held responsible for full or partial
violation of copyright or intellectual property Right.
NAME : Akhilesh Yadav
En. No.:- 0211184004
DATE:
PLACE:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to all those who gave me the possibility
to complete this report. Special thanks is due to my mentor Mr. Tarun Badiwal whose help,
stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped me in all time of fabrication process and in
writing this report. I also sincerely thanks for the time spent proofreading and correcting my
many mistakes. I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation the crucial role of
the staff in Electrical Laboratory, who gave me a permission to use the lab equipment and also
the machine and to design the drawing and giving a permission to use all the necessary tools in
the laboratory. Many thanks go to the all lecturer and supervisors who have given their full
effort in guiding the team in achieving the goal as well as their encouragement to maintain our
progress in track. My profound thanks go to all classmates, especially to my friends for
spending their time in helping and giving support whenever I need it in fabricating
Name : Akhilesh Yadav
En. No : 0211184004

ABSTRACT
Due to environmental aspect as well as increasing prices for materials, product separation is a
globle topic and also the business model of the future. Sortation is the process of identifying
items on a conveyor system and diverting them to specific destinations using a variety of
devices controlled by task-specific software. Sorters are applied to different applications
depending upon the product type and the required rate. Sortation systems are often employed
when high quantities of products need to flow to different destinations for further processing.
Sortation conveyor systems generally receive mixed unit loads and discharge them to
designated locations or outfeed conveyors “Robotic Arm and Robotic Gripper”, in response to
signals from automatic control systems. The Automatic material sorting machine has been
developed to sort different kind of materials based on its shape and colour through image
processing technique by using colour sensor and metal sensor mounting above the conveyor
belt. This proposed technique is achieved using Open CV library programmed with IDE 1.8.19
and Arduino UNO microcontroller.
Name : Akhilesh Yadav
En. No : 0211184004

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration By the Candidate………………………………………..
I.
Acknowledgement…………………………………………………… II.
Abstract ……………………………………………………………... III.
Table of Contents………………………………………..................... IV.
List of Figure……………………………………………................... V.
List of Table……………………………………………..................... VI.
CHAPTERS……………………………………………… VII.
CHAPTER 1 Introduction……………………………………………................... 1
1.1 Objective………………………………………………………… 1
CHAPTER 2 Design Calculation………………………………………………..... 2
2.1 Design of Belt…………………………………………………… 2
2.2 Angle of Contact Between Belt And Pully……………………… 2
2.3 Power Transmission By A Belt………………………………...... 4
CHAPTER 3 Design of Automatic Material Sorting Machine…………………. 5
3.1 Methodology…………………………………………………….. 5-7
CHAPTER 4 Hardware And Components………………………………………. 8
4.1 Using Components Details………………………………………. 8
4.2 Working of Machine…………………………………………….. 9
4.3 General Specification……………………………………………. 10
CHAPTER 5 Transformer………………………………………………………… 11
5.1 Transformer 220/12v…………………………………………….. 11
5.2 Step Down Transformer…………………………………………. 11
5.3 Construction of step Down Transformer………………………… 11-12

5.4 Core-Type Transformer…………………………………………. 13
5.5 Cell-Type Transformer…………………………………………... 14
5.6 Working of Single-Phase Transformer………...………………... 15-17
5.7 Voltage Ratio……………………………………………………. 17-18
5.8 Transformer Turn Ratio…………………………………………. 18
CHAPTER 6 Bridge Rectifier…………………………………………………….. 19
6.1 AC Sinosoidal Waveform……………………………………….. 20-21
6.2 Single-Phase Rectifier…………………………………………… 21
6.3 Half-Wave Rectification………………………………………… 22
6.4 Sinosoidal Average Value……………………………………….. 23-24
6.5 Half-Wave Rectifier Average Value…………………………….. 24-25
CHAPTER 7 Capacitor……………………………………………………………. 26
7.1 Capacitor Characteristics………………………………………... 26-27
7.2 Nominal Capacitor (C)…………………………………………... 27
7.3 Working Voltage, (WC)…………………………………………. 27-28
7.4 Tolerance (+ - %)………………………………………………... 28
7.5 Leakage Current…………………………………………………. 28
7.6 Working Temperature…………………………………………… 29
7.7 Temperature Coefficient………………………………………… 29-30
7.8 Polarization……………………………………………………… 30
CHAPTER 8 Voltage Regulator 7805…………………………………………….. 31
8.1 LM7805: Linear or Switching Voltage Regulator………………. 32-33
CHAPTER 9 Arduino UNO R3 Microcontroller………………………………... 34
9.1 Arduino UNO R3 Specification…………………………………. 34-35
9.2 Power Supply……………………………………………………. 35-36

9.3 SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface)………………………………… 37-38
CHAPTER 10 Transistor D313 NPN And Optocoupler………………………….. 39-40
CHAPTER 11 DC-DC Buck Converter…………………………………………… 41
11.1 DC-DC Buck Converter Working Principle…………………… 42-43
CHAPTER 12 TCS320 TCS3200 Colour Sensor………………………………….. 44
12.1 Specification……………………………………………………. 44
12.2 TCS3200 Colour Sensor Working……………………………... 45-47
12.3 Filter Selection…………………………………………………. 47
12.4 Frequency Scaling……………………………………………… 48
12.5 Schematic Diagram…………………………………………….. 48-49
CHAPTER 13 Metal Sensor………………………………………………………... 50
13.1 Features………………………………………………………… 50
13.2 Specifications…………………………………………………... 51
13.3 Required Components………………………………………….. 52
CHAPTER 14 IR Sensors…………………………………………………………... 53
14.1 Type of IR Sensor……………………………………………… 54
14.2 IR Sensor Working Principle…………………………………... 54-55
CHAPTER 15 Servomotor MG996R………………………………………………. 56-57
15.1 Servomotor Working Mechanism……………………………… 57
15.2 Servomotor Working Principle………………………………… 57-58
15.3 Interfacing Servomotors With Microcontroller………………... 58
15.4 Controlling servomotor………………………………………… 58-59
CHAPTER 16 Connection And Programming of Components with Arduino….. 60
16.1Connection of Servomotor With Arduino……………………… 60
16.2 Arduino CODE Explanation…………………………………… 60-63

16.3 Connection Of Color Sensor And LCD Display……………. 64-65
16.4 CODE Explanation…………………………………………….. 65-66
16.5Connection And CODE of IR Sensor With Arduino…………... 67
16.6 CODE Explanation…………………………………………….. 68-69
CHAPTER 17 Conclusion And References………………………………………... 70
17.1 Conclusion……………………………………………………... 70
17.2 References……………………………………………………… 71

LIST OF FIGURE
1. Assembled View of Conveyor Belt…………………………………………..... 3
2. Isometric View of Conveyor Belt…………………………………………….... 3
3. Upper View of Arduino Based Automatic Material Sorting Machine………… 6
4. Side View of Automatic Arduino Based Product Sorting Machine…………… 7
5. Single Phase Transformer……………………………………………………… 12
6. Single Phase Core-Type Transformer…………………………………………. 13
7. Shell Type Transformer………………………………………………………... 14
8. Working of Single Phase Transformer………………………………………… 15
9. Transformer Turn Ratio………………………………………………………... 18
10. Bridge Rectifier………………………………………………………………... 19
11. AC Sinosoidal Waveform……………………………………………………… 20
12. Half-Wave Rectification……………………………………………………….. 22
13. Sinosoidal Average Value……………………………………………………... 23
14. Half-Wave Bridge Rectifier Average value…………………………………… 24
15. Rectifier Output Waveform……………………………………………………. 25
16. Capacitor Characteristics………………………………………………………. 26
17. Leakage Current Model………………………………………………………... 28
18. Polarisation…………………………………………………………………….. 30
19. LM7805 Voltage Regulator……………………………………………………. 31
20. Arduino UNO R3 microcontroller……………………………………………... 34

21. Arduino UNO R3 Pin Diagram………………………………………………… 35
22. Optocoupler…………………………………………………………………….. 36
23. Optocoupler Internal Structure…………………………………………………. 39
24. Specification of Optocoupler…………………………………………………... 40
25. DC_DC Buck Converter……………………………………………………….. 41
26. Basic Buck Converter circuit Diagram………………………………………… 42
27. Energy Stored in The Coil……………………………………………………… 42
28. DC-DC Buck Converter Waveform……………………………………………. 43
29. TCS3200 Colour Sensor……………………………………………………….. 44
30. TCS3200 Colour Sensor Closer Look………………………………………….. 45
31. TCS3200 Colour Sensor With Arduino………………………………………... 46
32. TCS3200 Pin Out………………………………………………………………. 46
33. Here’s Connection Between The TCS3200 and The Arduino…………………. 49
34. Metal Detector Non-Contact Module…………………………………………... 50
35. IR Sensor……………………………………………………………………….. 53
36. IR Transmitter OR IR LED…………………………………………………….. 55
37. IR Receiver OR Photodiode……………………………………………………. 55
38. Servomotor MG996R With Metal Gear………………………………………... 57
39. Servomotor Connection With Microcontroller………………………………… 58

40. Controlling Servomotor………………………………………………………... 59
41. Connection of Colour sensor And LCD Display With Arduino……………….. 65
42. IR Sensor Connection Details………………………………………………….. 67
43. Connection Diagram…………………………………………………………… 69
.

LIST OF TABLE
1. Using Components Details………………………………………………… 8
2. TCS3200 Pin Out Details………………………………………………….. 47
3. Filter Selection…………………………………………………………….. 47
4. Frequency Scaling…………………………………………………………. 48
5. Metal Sensor Specification………………………………………………... 51

arduino based automatic material sorting machine (1).pdf

[1]
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Machine vision (MV) is the technology and methods used to provide imaging based automatic
inspection and analysis for such applications as automatic inspection, process control, and
robot guidance, usually in industry. These systems are used to perform tasks which include
selecting parts that are randomly oriented from conveyor belt , Robotic Arm and Robotic
Gripper and limited inspection. Those are typically reduces the cost of part and tool fixturing,
and allow the robot program to test for and adapt to limited variations in the environment. The
Automatic material sorting machine has been developed to sort different kind of materials such
as Metal non metal , different types of colour , Blue, Green, and Red.
1.1. Objective
The Automatic material sorting machine has been developed,
• To sort different kind of materials such as Colour , Metal, Non Metal, Different types
of colour and Pumice stone from the scrap materials.
• To reduce the effort in the transfer of materials from one point to other point. And then
• After reach the material on the position ,then sort that material with the help of
Robotic gripper and robotic arm.
1. To eliminate accurately the waste in material segregation system.
classification process to allow the real-time sorting of the nonferrous fractions that are
contained in the waste of electric and electronic equipment scrap by using hyperspectral image
processing. The shredded waste of electric and electronic equipment mixture is automatically
loaded onto a nonspecular black conveyor belt (600 mm wide) via a vibratory feeder that has
been specifically designed to ensure the nonferrous materials are arranged into a thin layer prior
to their arrival at the inspection line. The mixture is defined by three different colouring
materials: Blue, Green and Red , and metallic product and non metallic products.

[2]
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN CALCULATION
2.1. Design of Belt
Length of the belt,
L = π(r1+r2)+2x+(r1+r2)^2/x ……….. (1)
Here
Radius of roller, r1=r2=11.5mm
Center distance between roller, x = 300mm
L = 3.14 x (11.5+11.5)+2(300)+(11.5+11.5)^2/300
L = 3.14 x (23) + 600 + (23x23)/300 = 673mm
L= 0.673m
2.2. Angle of Contact Between Belt And Pully
sinα= (r1+r2)/x ..………(2)
sinα= (r1+r2)/x = (11.5+11.5)/300,
α=4.2deg,
θ=180+2α=188.4 deg
θ=188.4 x π/180 (change degree to radian )
θ=3.285rad.
So angle of contact between belt and pully,
θ=3.285rad.

[3]
Figure-1 Assembled view of conveyor belt
Figure- 2 Isometric View Of Conveyor Belt

[4]
2.3. Power Transmitted By A Belt
2.3log(T1/T2) = μθ ……….(3)
for rubber, coefficient of friction, μ=0.3
T1 = σ*b*t
here σ=1.3N/mm2,
breadth of belt, b = 60mm
thickness of belt, t = 2mm
T1 = 1.3 x 2 x 60
T1 = 156.0N
Hence
From equation (3)
2.3log(T1/T2)
Where T1 = 156N
2.3log(156/T2) =0.3 x 3.85
T2 = 101.64N
Velocity,
v = π dn1/60
v = 3.14 x 0.022 x 60/60
v = 0.069m/s

[5]
CHAPTER 3
DESIGN OF AUTOMATIC MATERIAL SORTING MACHINE
The model was created by using of CATIA software. The detailed view of the drawing is
given in Figures.
Robot and automation is employed in order to replace human to perform those tasks that are
routine, dangerous, complex and in hazardous area. In a world of advanced technology today,
automation greatly increases production capability, improve product quality and lower
production cost. It takes just few people to program or monitor the computer and carry out
routine maintenance. This paper aims at fully automated material handling system. This can be
done by using a pair of IR sensors interfaced with AT89S52 Micro Controller Unit. It
synchronizes the movement of robotic arm to pick the objects moving on a conveyor belt. It
aims in classifying the coloured objects which are coming on the conveyor by picking and
placing the objects in its respective pre-programmed place. Thereby eliminating the
monotonous work done by human, achieving accuracy and speed in the work. This robot
involves colour sensors that senses the object’s colour and sends the signal to the
microcontroller. The microcontroller sends signal to eight relay circuit which drives the various
motors of the robotic arm to grip the object and place it in the specified location. Based upon
the colour detected, the robotic arm moves to the specified location, releases the object and
comes back to the original position.
3.1. Methodology
The pick and place robotic arm is a mechatronics system that detects the object on the conveyor
belt, picks that object from source location and places at desired location.
For detection of object, infrared sensors are used which detect presence of object as the
transmitter to receiver path for infrared sensor is interrupted by placed object. As soon as
robotic arm receives the signal from the controller, picks it with end effectors and places it on
the respective destination depending on the respective colour of the object that is black or white.
If another object causes interrupt, it again does the same job. The system uses AT89S52 Micro
Controller Unit as its controller for performing different operations by the robot.

[6]
It is based on microcontroller equipped with IR object vision of TCS230 TCS3200 colour
sensor to sense colour of object. After sensing object and its colour, robotic arm place them
accordingly of conveyer belt and the metal sensor to sense metallic object and that metallic
object hit by the help of robotic gripper accordingly. Figure 1: Object Sorting
Figure- 3 Upper View Of Arduino Based Automatic Material Sorting Machine
In many situations, autonomous robots can provide effective solutions to gruelling tasks.In this
case, it is desirable to create an autonomous robot that can identify objects from the conveyor
belt and relocate them if the object meets certain criteria. Dealing with a large number of
objects is a very menial task, this is an excellent application for a robot of this type.

[7]
Figure- 4. Side View Of Arduino Based Automatic Product Sorting Machine
In this case, to keep costs and design complexity low, the robot is designed around the platform
and uses several different sensors to collect information about the robots environment to allow
the robot to react accordingly. This paper aims at the problem I am attempting to solve is to
create an autonomous robot that can identify objects when placed on the conveyor belt based
on color sensing and then sort by relocating them to a specific location. It will be using a
picking arm which uses a controller motor to pick the particular object from the conveyor belt
and place it according to the colour sensing.
Micro controller (AT89S52) allows dynamic and faster control. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
makes the system user-friendly. AT89S52 Micro controller is the heart of the circuit as it
controls all the functions.

[8]
CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE AND COMPONENTS
Design of robotic arm means the human supervision on this operation should be reduced. The
shearing operation on which we are working can handle one sheet at a time. So, the first feature
that is expected from this automation is picking up a single sheet from the stack of many sheets.
There are many options to consider for this carrying operation.
4.1 Using Components Details :
S.no Components Name Description
01 Transformer 220/12 V AC 1A,
02 Bridge Rectifier 12v AC to DC converter
03 Capacitors 1000 micro farad 25 v
04 Voltage Regulator 7805 For constant 5v
05 Led For power indication
06 Arduino Uno Microcontroller For controlling the machine
07 Transistors D313 NPN For switching the DC motors
08 Optocoupler Transistor For switching the transistor
09 DC-DC Buck Converter For supply power of servomotor
10 TCS230 TCS3200 Colour sensor For sensing the colouring object
11 Metal Sensor For sensing metallic object
12 IR Sensor For sensing object to send signal
13
Servomotors MG996R For movement of robotic gripper
and robotic arm
14 DC Gear Motor For run the conveyor belt
15 Robotic Gripper for hit the metallic object
16 Robotic Arms For peak and place colouring obj
17 Conveyor belt For sending the object
18 Conveyor roller for rolling the conveyor belt
Table .1 Using components detail table

[9]
4.2 Working Of Machine
MCU (MICROCONTROLLER UNIT) is the focal handling unit, which controls all the
elements of different pieces in this framework. MCU takes or read information from shading
sensor and controls all the elements of the entire framework by controlling these information.
Our Controller (Arduino ) will perceive the shade of item and as per article shading one
automated arm shaft will move that question the same shading compartment.
MCU can't drive an engine specifically, so an engine interface is utilized here. The engine drive
area acknowledges the low level consistent sign from the controller and to give important
voltage and current excitation to the engine. Engine driver circuit is required to give an interface
between the 5V rationale signal from the microcontroller and the high ebb and flow and high
voltage power side to drive the engine, since engine is an electromechanical gadget, which
changes over electrical vitality to pivot/mechanical vitality.
For this vitality change huge current excitation is required. These much vitality can't be given
by the coherent sign pins from the microcontroller. So an engine interface is utilized here. The
engine drive segment ought to have the ability for tolerating the low level sensible sign from
the controller and to give essential voltage and current excitation to the engine. Generally high
current transistor switches or transfers or ICs with engine drive bundles are utilized for this
reason. Here bidirectional engine drive is required so a H-span based hardware is utilized to
control the arm engines and wheel engines.
An Arduino board comprises of an Atmel 8-bit AVR microcontroller with integral segments
that encourage programming and joining into different circuits. A critical part of the Arduino
is its standard connectors, which gives clients a chance to associate the CPU board to an
assortment of compatible extra modules known as shields. Official Arduino have utilized the
mega AVR arrangement of chips, particularly the ATmega8, A Tmega168, ATmega328,
ATmega1280, andATmega2560. A modest bunch of different processors have been utilized by
Arduino compatiables.The Arduino board uncovered the vast majority of the microcontroller's
I/O pins for use by different circuits. The Decimals and current Uno give 14 computerized I/O
pins, six of which can deliver beat width balanced signs, and six simple inputs, which can
likewise be utilized as six advanced I/O pins.

[10]
It is a flat panel display, electronic visual display, or video display that uses the light modulating
properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly. LCDs are available to
display arbitrary images (as in a general-purpose computer display) or fixed images which can
be displayed or hidden, such as preset words, digits, and 7- segment displays as in a digital
clock.
4.3 General Specification
• Drive method: 1/16 duty cycle
• Display size: 16 character * 2 lines
• Character structure: 5*8 dots
. • Display data RAM: 80 characters (80*8 bits)
This present reality hues are comprehended by the Arduino by interfacing the shading sensor
with our Arduino. The shading sensor utilizes a TCS3200D at its heart and they can be digitally
interfaced with the Arduino and the shading that is before the sensor is been recognized by the
Arduino by a reasonable calculation that is utilized for distinguishing the hues. Essentially hues
are said that it frames from three guardian parts as "RBG" feeling abnormal??? It's only Red
Blue and Green, the a huge number of hues that design the world is fundamentally the blend
of the three. The measure of the parts that are stirred up to frame any unmistakable shading has
these hues at its center to shape the charming shading that draws in more than the center hues.
The Arduino coordinated advancement environment (IDE) is a cross-stage application written
in Java and gets from the IDE for the handling programming dialect and the wiring ventures.
It is intended to acquaint programming with craftsmen and other new commers new to
programming advancement. It incorporates a code editorial manager with elements, for
example, punctuation high lighting, prop coordinating and programmed space and is likewise
equipped for accumulating and transferring projects to the board with a solitary snap. A system
or code composed for Arduino is known as a portrayal. Arduino projects are composed in C or
C++. The Arduino IDE accompanies a product library called "wiring" from the first wiring
venture, which makes numerous basic info/yield operations much less demanding.

[11]
CHAPTER 5
TRANSFORMER
5.1 Transformer 220/12 V
The transformer consists of two inductive windings and also a laminated sheet core. The
windings will be insulated from each other and also from the steel core. The core is made up
of Silicon steel that is assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path for flux. By this
laminated core, Eddy current losses are minimized. The thickness of laminated sheets is 0.35
mm to 5mm which are insulated with varnish, oxide, or phosphate, which will be formed as
the core.
5.2 Step Down Transformer
The transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive coupling between
its winding circuits. A varying current in the primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux
in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic flux through the secondary winding. This
varying magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force (E.M.F) or voltage in the
secondary winding. The transformer has cores made of high permeability silicon steel. The
steel has a permeability many times that of free space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce
the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings.
5.3 Construction of Step Down Transformer
A Transformer is a device which converts magnetic energy into electrical energy. It consists of
two electrical coils called as a primary winding and secondary winding. The
primary winding of a transformer receives power, while the secondary winding delivers power.
A magnetic iron circuit called “core” is commonly used to wrap around these coils. Though
these two coils are electrically isolated, they are magnetically linked.
An electric current when passed through the primary of a transformer then a magnetic field is
created, which induces a voltage across the secondary of a transformer. Based on the type of
application, the single-phase transformer is used to either step-up or step-down the voltage at
the output. This transformer is typically a power transformer with high-efficiency and low
losses. The single-phase transformer diagram is shown below.

[12]
Figure 5. Single phase transformer
A simple single-phase transformer has each winding being wound cylindrically on a soft iron
limb separately to provide a necessary magnetic circuit, which is commonly referred to as
“transformer core”. It offers a path for the flow of the magnetic field to induce voltage between
two windings.
As seen in the figure above, the two windings are not close enough to have an efficient magnetic
coupling. Thus, converging and increasing the magnetic circuit near the coils can enhance the
magnetic coupling between primary and secondary windings. Thin steel laminations shall be
employed to prevent power losses from the core.
Based on how the windings are wound around the central steel laminated core, the transformer
construction is divided into two types
Thus, a single-phase transformer is appropriate for lighter electrical devices. It is less expensive
and highly preferred to supply power to non-urban areas. This article emphasis the single phase
transformer, construction, and applications of a single-phase transformer. The reader can learn
in-depth about single-phase transformer from this article.

[13]
5.4 Core – Type Transformer
In this type of construction, only half of the windings are wound cylindrically around each leg
of a transformer to enhance magnetic coupling as shown in the figure below. This type of
construction ensures that magnetic lines of force flow across both the windings simultaneously.
The main disadvantage of the core-type transformer is the leakage flux that occurs due to the
flow of a small proportion of magnetic lines of force outside the core.
Figure.6 Single phase core type transformer
In the core type transformer, the magnetic circuit consists of two vertical legs or limbs with
two horizontal sections, called yokes. To minimize the leakage flux, half of each winding is
placed on each leg of the core. The low voltage winding is placed next to the core, and the high
voltage winding is placed around the low voltage winding to reduce the insulating material
required. Thus, the two winding are arranged as concentric coils. Such type of winding is called
as concentric winding or cylindrical winding.

[14]
5.5 Cell-Type Transformer
In the shell type transformer, both the primary and secondary winding are wounded on the
central limb, and the low reluctance path is completed by the outer limbs. Each winding is
subdivided into sections. Low voltage (lv) and High voltage (hv) subsections are alternatively
placed in the form of sandwich that is why this winding is also called sandwich or disc winding.
Figure. 7 Shell type transformer
The core is made up of two types of laminations. The laminations for the core type are
U, and I shaped. Firstly the U- shaped laminations are stacked together for the required length.
Half of the prewound low voltage coil is placed around the limbs. The lv coil is further provided
with insulation. Then half of the prewound hv coil is placed around the lv coil. The core is then
closed by the I-shaped laminations at the top.

[15]
5.6 Working Of Single Phase Transformer
A transformer is a static device that transfers electric power in one circuit to another circuit of
the same frequency. It consists of primary and secondary windings. This transformer operates
on the principle of mutual inductance.
When the primary of a transformer is connected to an AC supply, the current flows in the coil
and the magnetic field build-up. This condition is known as mutual inductance and the flow of
current is as per the Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction. As the current increases from
zero to its maximum value, the magnetic field strengthens and is given by dɸ/dt.
This electromagnet forms the magnetic lines of force and expands outward from the coil
forming a path of magnetic flux. The turns of both windings get linked by this magnetic flux.
The strength of a magnetic field generated in the core depends on the number of turns in the
winding and the amount of current. The magnetic flux and current are directly proportional to
each other.
Figure. 8 Working of single phase transformer

[16]
As the magnetic lines of flux flow around the core, it passes through the secondary winding,
inducing voltage across it. The Faraday’s Law is used to determine the voltage induced across
the secondary coil and it is given by:
N. dɸ/dt
where,
‘N’ is the number of coil turns
The frequency is the same in primary and secondary windings.
Thus, we can say that the voltage induced is the same in both the windings as the same magnetic
flux links both the coils together. Also, the total voltage induced is directly proportional to the
number of turns in the coil.
Let us assume that the primary and secondary windings of the transformer have single turns on
each. Assuming no losses, the current flows through the coil to produce magnetic flux and
induce voltage of one volt across the secondary.
Due to AC supply, magnetic flux varies sinusoidally and it is given by,
ɸ = ɸmax Sin ωt
The relationship between the induced emf, E in the coil windings of N turns is given by,
E= N (d∅)/dt
E= N*ω*ɸmax cosωtφ
Emax= Nωɸmax
Erms= Nω/√2*ɸmax=2π/√2*f*N*ɸmax
Erms= 4.44 fNɸmax

[17]
Where,
‘f’ is the frequency in Hertz, given by ω/2π.
‘N’ is the number of coil windings
‘ɸ’ is s the amount of flux in Webers
The above equation is the Transformer EMF Equation. For emf of a primary winding of a
transformer E, N will be the number of primary turns (NP), while for the emf, E of a secondary
winding of a transformer, the number of turns, N will be (NS).
5.7 Voltage Ratio
The voltage of the windings in a transformer is directly proportional to the number of turns on
the coils. This relationship is expressed in below Equation.
Where
VP = voltage on primary coil
VS = voltage on secondary coil
NP = number of turns on the primary coil
NS = number of turns on the secondary coil
The ratio of primary voltage to secondary voltage is known as the voltage ratio (VR). As
mentioned previosely, the ratio of primary turns of wire to secondary turns of wire is known as
the turns ratio (TR). By substituting into the above Equation, we find that the voltage ratio is
equal to the turns ratio.

[18]
VR = TR
secondary. If the secondary voltage of a transformer is greater than the primary voltage, the
transformer is referred to as a “step-up” transformer. A ratio of 5:1 means that for every 5 volts
on the primary, there will only be 1 volt on the secondary. When secondary voltage is less than
primary voltage, the transformer is referred to as a “A voltage ratio of 1:5 means that for each
volt on the primary, there will be 5 volts on the step-down” transformer.
5.8 Transformer Turn Ratio
The turn ratio of a single phase transformer is defined as the ratio of number of turns in the
primary winding to the number of turns in the secondary winding, i.e.
Figure 9. transformer turn ratio
Turn Ratio A measure for describing how many more or fewer windings there are in the
Transformer's secondary coil when compared to its primary. The ratio of turns is expressed as
Ns/Np, where “Ns” represents the number of windings in the Secondary Coil and “Np” is equal
to the number of windings on a Primary Coils The Transformer Formula: Transformer
Efficiency = Output Voltage / Input Voltage * Turn Ratio (Ns/Np) An efficient transformer
has a high turn ratio which means that it contains more coils or wires wrapped around each
other inside with less resistance making them more power-efficient than low turn-ratio
transformers. In addition, they can also be used for voltage.
18

[19]
CHAPTER 6
BRIDGE RECTIFIER
Rectification is the process of linking an AC power supply to a connected DC load by means
of solid state semiconductor devices.
Rectification converts an oscillating sinusoidal AC voltage source into a constant current DC
voltage supply by means of diodes, thyristors, transistors, or converters. This rectifying process
can take on many forms with half-wave, full-wave, uncontrolled and fully-controlled rectifiers
transforming a single-phase or three-phase supply into a constant DC level. In this tutorial we
will look at single-phase rectification and all its forms.
Figure 10. Bridge rectifier
Rectifiers are one of the basic building blocks of AC power conversion with half-wave or full-
wave rectification generally performed by semiconductor diodes. Diodes allow alternating
currents to flow through them in the forward direction while blocking current flow in the
reverse direction creating a fixed DC voltage level making them ideal for rectification.
However, direct current which has been rectified by diodes is not as pure as that obtained from
say, a battery source, but has voltage changes in the form of ripples superimposed on it as a
result of the alternating supply.

[20]
6.1 AC Sinosoidal Waveform
Figure 11. AC Sinosoidal waveform
AC waveforms generally have two numbers associated with them. The first number expresses
the degree of rotation of the waveform along the x-axis by which the alternator has rotated
from 0-to-360o
. This value is known as the period (T) which is defined as the interval taken to
complete one full cycle of the waveform.
Periods are measured in units of degrees, time, or radians. The relationship between a sine
waves periods and frequency is defined as: T = 1/ƒ.
The second number indicates the amplitude of the value, either current or voltage, along the y-
axis. This number gives the instantaneous value from zero to some peak or maximum value
( AMAX, VMAX or IMAX ) indicating the sine waves greatest amplitude before returning back to
zero again. For a sinusoidal waveform there are two maximum or peak values, one for the
positive and one for the negative half-cycles.
But as well as these two values, there are two more which are of interest to us for rectification
purposes. One is the sinusoidal waveforms Average Value and the other is its RMS Value.
The average value of a waveform is obtained by adding the instantaneous values of voltage (or
current) over one half-cycle and is found as: 0.6365*VP.

[21]
Note that the average value over one complete cycle of a symmetrical sine wave will be zero
as the average positive half-wave is cancelled by the opposite average negative half-wave. That
is +1 + (-1) = 0.
The RMS, root mean squared or effective value of a sinusoid (a sinusoid is another name for a
sine wave) delivers the same amount of energy to a resistance as does a DC supply of the same
value. The root mean square (rms) value of a sinusoidal voltage (or current) is defined as:
0.7071*VP.
6.2 Single Phase Rectifier
All single phase rectifiers use solid state devices as their primary AC-to-DC converting device.
Single phase uncontrolled half-wave rectifiers are the simplest and possibly the most widely
used rectification circuit for small power levels as their output is heavily affected by the
reactance of the connected load.
For uncontrolled rectifier circuits, semiconductor diodes are the most commonly used device
and are so arranged to create either a half-wave or a full-wave rectifier circuit. The advantage
of using diodes as the rectification device is that by design they are unidirectional devices
having an inbuilt one-way pn-junction.
This pn-junction converts the bi-directional alternating supply into a one-way unidirectional
current by eliminating one-half of the supply. Depending upon the connection of the diode, it
could for example pass the positive half of the AC waveform when forward-biased, while
eliminating the negative half-cycle when the diode becomes reverse-biased.
The reverse is also true by eliminate the positive half or the waveform and passing the negative
half. Either way, the output from a single diode rectifier consists of only one half of the
360o
waveform as shown.
However, direct current which has been rectified by diodes is not as pure as that obtained from
say, a battery source, but has voltage changes in the form of ripples superimposed on it as a
result of the alternating supply.
6.3 Half-Wave Rectification

[22]
Figure 12. Half wave rectification
The single-phase half-wave rectifier configuration above passes the positive half of the AC
supply waveform with the negative half being eliminated. By reversing the direction of the
diode we can pass negative halves and eliminate the positive halves of the AC waveform.
Therefore the output will be a series of positive or negative pulses.
Thus there is no voltage or current applied to the connected load, RL for half of each cycle. In
other words, the voltage across the load resistance, RL consists of only half waveforms, either
positive or negative, as it operates during only one-half of the input cycle, hence the name
of half-wave rectifier.
Hopefully we can see that the diode allows current to flow in one direction only producing an
output which consists of half-cycles. This pulsating output waveform not only varies ON and
OFF every cycle, but is only present 50% of the time and with a purely resistive load, this high
voltage and current ripple content is at its maximum.
This pulsating DC means that the equivalent DC value dropped across the load resistor, RL is
therefore only one half of the sinusoidal waveforms value. Since the maximum value of the
waveforms sine function is 1 ( sin(90o
) ), the Average or Mean DC value taken over one-half
of a sinusoid is defined as: 0.637 x maximum amplitude value.
So during the positive half-cycle, AAVE equals 0.637*AMAX. However as the negative half-
cycles are removed due to rectification by the reverse biased diode, the average value of the
waveform during this negative half-cycle will be zero as shown.

[23]
6.4 Sinosoidal Average Value
Figure 13. Sinosoidal average value
So for a half-wave rectifier, 50% of the time there is an average value of 0.637*AMAX and 50%
of the time there is zero. If the maximum amplitude is 1, the average or DC value equivalent
seen across the load resistance, RL will be:
Thus the corresponding expressions for the average value of voltage or current for a half-wave
rectifier with pulsating DC is given as:
VAVE = 0.318*VMAX
IAVE = 0.318*IMAX
Note that the maximum value, AMAX is that of the input waveform, but we could also use its
RMS, or “root mean squared” value to find the equivalent DC output value of a single phase
half-wave rectifier.
To determine the average voltage for a half-wave rectifier, we multiply the RMS value by 0.9
(form factor) and divide the product by 2, that is multiplying it by 0.45 giving:
VAVE = 0.45*VRMS
IAVE = 0.45*IRMS

[24]
Then we can see that a half-wave rectifier circuit converts either the positive or negative halves
of an AC waveform, depending on the diodes direction, into a pulsed DC output which has an
equivalent DC value of 0.318*AMAX or 0.45*ARMS as shown.
6.5 Half-Wave Rectifier Average Value
Figure 14. half wave bridge rectifier average value
A single phase half-wave rectifier is connected to a 50V RMS 50Hz AC supply. If the
rectifier is used to supply a resistive load of 150 Ohms. Calculate the equivalent DC voltage
developed across the load, the load current and power dissipated by the load. Assume ideal
diode characteristics.
First we need to convert the 50 volts RMS to its peak or maximum voltage equivalent (its not
necessary but it helps).
a) Maximum Voltage Amplitude, VM
VM = 1.414*VRMS = 1.414*50 = 70.7 volts
b) Equivalent DC Voltage, VDC
VDC = 0.318*VM = 0.318*70.7 = 22.5 volts
c) Load Current, IL
IL = VDC ÷ RL = 22.5/150 = 0.15A or 150mA
d) Power Dissipated by the Load, PL
PL = V*I or I2
*RL = 22.5*0.15 = 3.375W ≅ 3.4W

[25]
In practice, VDC would be slightly less due to the forward biased 0.7 volt voltage drop across
the rectifying diode.
One of the main disadvantages of a single-phase half-wave rectifier is that there is no output
during half of the available input sinusoidal waveform resulting in a low average value as we
have seen. One way to overcome this is to use more diodes to produce a full-wave rectifier.
6.6 Full-Wave Rectifier Output Waveform
Figure 15. Rectifier output waveform
Although this pulsating output waveform uses 100% of the input waveform, its average DC
voltage (or current) is not at the same value. We remember from above that the average or
mean DC value taken over one-half of a sinusoid is defined as: 0.637 x maximum amplitude
value.
However unlike half-wave rectification above, full-wave rectifiers have two positive half-
cycles per input waveform giving us a different average value as shown.

[26]
CHAPTER 7
CAPACITOR
There are a bewildering array of capacitor characteristics and specifications associated with the
humble capacitor and reading the information printed onto the body of a capacitor can
sometimes be difficult to understand especially when colours or numeric codes are used.
Each family or type of capacitor uses its own unique set of capacitor characteristics and
identification system with some systems being easy to understand, and others that use
misleading letters, colours or symbols.
The best way to figure out which capacitor characteristics the label means is to first figure out
what type of family the capacitor belongs to whether it is ceramic, film, plastic or electrolytic
and from that it may be easier to identify the particular capacitor characteristics.
Even though two capacitors may have exactly the same capacitance value, they may have
different voltage ratings. If a smaller rated voltage capacitor is substituted in place of a higher
rated voltage capacitor, the increased voltage may damage the smaller capacitor.
Also we remember from the last tutorial that with a polarised electrolytic capacitor, the positive
lead must go to the positive connection and the negative lead to the negative connection
otherwise it may again become damaged. So it is always better to substitute an old or damaged
capacitor with the same type as the specified one. An example of capacitor markings is given
below.
7.1 Capacitor Characteristics
Figure. 16 Capacitor characteristics

[27]
The capacitor, as with any other electronic component, comes defined by a series of
characteristics. These Capacitor Characteristics can always be found in the data sheets that
the capacitor manufacturer provides to us so here are just a few of the more important ones.
7.2 Nominal Capacitance (C)
The nominal value of the Capacitance, C of a capacitor is the most important of all capacitor
characteristics. This value measured in pico-Farads (pF), nano-Farads (nF) or micro-Farads
(μF) and is marked onto the body of the capacitor as numbers, letters or coloured bands.
The capacitance of a capacitor can change value with the circuit frequency (Hz) y with the
ambient temperature. Smaller ceramic capacitors can have a nominal value as low as one pico-
Farad, ( 1pF ) while larger electrolytic’s can have a nominal capacitance value of up to one
Farad, ( 1F ).
All capacitors have a tolerance rating that can range from -20% to as high as +80% for
aluminium electrolytic’s affecting its actual or real value. The choice of capacitance is
determined by the circuit configuration but the value read on the side of a capacitor may not
necessarily be its actual value.
7.3 Woking Voltage ,(WC)
The Working Voltage is another important capacitor characteristic that defines the maximum
continuous voltage either DC or AC that can be applied to the capacitor without failure during
its working life. Generally, the working voltage printed onto the side of a capacitors body refers
to its DC working voltage, (WVDC).
DC and AC voltage values are usually not the same for a capacitor as the AC voltage value
refers to the r.m.s. value and NOT the maximum or peak value which is 1.414 times greater.
Also, the specified DC working voltage is valid within a certain temperature range, normally -
30°C to +70°C.
Any DC voltage in excess of its working voltage or an excessive AC ripple current may cause
failure. It follows therefore, that a capacitor will have a longer working life if operated in a cool
environment and within its rated voltage. Common working DC voltages are 10V, 16V, 25V,

[28]
35V, 50V, 63V, 100V, 160V, 250V, 400V and 1000V and are printed onto the body of the
capacitor.
7.4 Tolerance (+ - %)
As with resistors, capacitors also have a Tolerance rating expressed as a plus-or-minus value
either in picofarad’s (±pF) for low value capacitors generally less than 100pF or as a percentage
(±%) for higher value capacitors generally higher than 100pF.
The tolerance value is the extent to which the actual capacitance is allowed to vary from its
nominal value and can range anywhere from -20% to +80%. Thus a 100µF capacitor with a
±20% tolerance could legitimately vary from 80μF to 120μF and still remain within tolerance.
Capacitors are rated according to how near to their actual values they are compared to the rated
nominal capacitance with coloured bands or letters used to indicated their actual tolerance. The
most common tolerance variation for capacitors is 5% or 10% but some plastic capacitors are
rated as low as ±1%.
7.5 Leakage Current
The dielectric used inside the capacitor to separate the conductive plates is not a perfect
insulator resulting in a very small current flowing or “leaking” through the dielectric due to the
influence of the powerful electric fields built up by the charge on the plates when applied to a
constant supply voltage.
This small DC current flow in the region of nano-amps (nA) is called the capacitors Leakage
Current. Leakage current is a result of electrons physically making their way through the
dielectric medium, around its edges or across its leads and which will over time fully
discharging the capacitor if the supply voltage is remov
Figure 17. Leakage current model

[29]
7.6 Working Temperature
Changes in temperature around the capacitor affect the value of the capacitance because of
changes in the dielectric properties. If the air or surrounding temperature becomes to hot or to
cold the capacitance value of the capacitor may change so much as to affect the correct
operation of the circuit. The normal working range for most capacitors is -30o
C to +125o
C with
nominal voltage ratings given for a Working Temperature of no more than +70o
C especially
for the plastic capacitor types.
Generally for electrolytic capacitors and especially aluminium electrolytic capacitor, at high
temperatures (over +85o
C the liquids within the electrolyte can be lost to evaporation, and the
body of the capacitor (especially the small sizes) may become deformed due to the internal
pressure and leak outright. Also, electrolytic capacitors can not be used at low temperatures,
below about -10o
C, as the electrolyte jelly freezes.
7.7 Temperature Coefficient
The Temperature Coefficient of a capacitor is the maximum change in its capacitance over a
specified temperature range. The temperature coefficient of a capacitor is generally expressed
linearly as parts per million per degree centigrade (PPM/o
C), or as a percent change over a
particular range of temperatures. Some capacitors are non linear (Class 2 capacitors) and
increase their value as the temperature rises giving them a temperature coefficient that is
expressed as a positive “P”.
Some capacitors decrease their value as the temperature rises giving them a temperature
coefficient that is expressed as a negative “N”. For example “P100” is +100 ppm/o
C or “N200”,
which is -200 ppm/o
C etc. However, some capacitors do not change their value and remain
constant over a certain temperature range, such capacitors have a zero temperature coefficient
or “NPO”. These types of capacitors such as Mica or Polyester are generally referred to as
Class 1 capacitors.
Most capacitors, especially electrolytic’s lose their capacitance when they get hot but
temperature compensating capacitors are available in the range of at least P1000 through to
N5000 (+1000 ppm/o
C through to -5000 ppm/o
C). It is also possible to connect a capacitor with
a positive temperature coefficient in series or parallel with a capacitor having a negative
temperature coefficient the net result being that the two opposite effects will cancel each other
out over a certain range of temperatures. Another useful application of temperature coefficient

[30]
capacitors is to use them to cancel out the effect of temperature on other components within a
circuit, such as inductors or resistors etc.
7.8 Polarization
Capacitor Polarization generally refers to the electrolytic type capacitors but mainly the
Aluminium Electrolytic’s, with regards to their electrical connection. The majority of
electrolytic capacitors are polarized types, that is the voltage connected to the capacitor
terminals must have the correct polarity, i.e. positive to positive and negative to negative.
Figure 18. polarization
The majority of electrolytic capacitors have their negative, -ve terminal clearly marked with
either a black stripe, band, arrows or chevrons down one side of their body as shown, to prevent
any incorrect connection to the DC supply.
Some larger electrolytic’s have their metal can or body connected to the negative terminal but
high voltage types have their metal can insulated with the electrodes being brought out to
separate spade or screw terminals for safety.
Also, when using aluminium electrolytic’s in power supply smoothing circuits care should be
taken to prevent the sum of the peak DC voltage and AC ripple voltage from becoming a
“reverse voltage”.

[31]
CHAPTER 8
VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805
The LM7805 is a voltage regulator that outputs +5 volts.
Like most other regulators in the market, it is a three-pin IC; input pin for accepting incoming
DC voltage, ground pin for establishing ground for the regulator, and output pin that supplies
the positive 5 volts.
Absolute Maximum Input Voltage
• 35V
Recommended Operating Conditions
• Input Voltage: Minimum 7V, Maximum 25V
• Output Current: 1.5A
• Operating Virtual Junction Temperature: Minimum 0, Maximum 125°C
Possible High Temperatures
• If differences between the input and output voltages are not well managed, LM7805
can overheat, which may result in malfunctioning. Solutions Include:
• Limiting input voltage to 2-3 volts above the output regulated voltage
• Placing a heat sink in the circuit to dissipate heat solutions
Figure 19 LM7805 Voltage regulator

[32]
8.1 LM7805: Linear OR Switching Voltage Regulator
When it comes to voltage regulators, it is split into two types:
1. Linear voltage regulator
2. Switching voltage regulator
The LM7805 is a linear voltage regulator, but do you know what each of it is? Below
summarises:
LM7805 Product Applications
LM7805 is applied in a wide range of circuits:
• Fixed-Output Regulator
• Positive Regulator in Negative Configuration
• Adjustable Output Regulator
• Current Regulator
• Regulated Dual-Supply
• Output Polarity-Reversal-Protection Circuit
• Reverse bias projection Circuit
LM7805 can also be used in building circuits for inductance meter, phone chargers, portable
CD player, etc.
Is LM7805 better than LM317?

[33]
•
The ability for adjustable voltage:
• LM317 can give an adjustable output voltage in the range of 1.5V to 37V, where
LM7805 can only give an output voltage of 5V
Output Current Capabilities:
• LM317 has the capability to give output current more than 1.5A whereas LM7805 can
only give output current only up to 1.5A
• LM317 is an adjustable voltage regulator which takes an input voltage of 3 - 40V DC
and provides a fixed output voltage of 1.25V to 37V DC. It requires two external
resistors to adjust the output voltage.
• The output voltage Vout is dependent on external resistor values R1 and R2, according
The recommended value for R1 is 240Ω but it can also be some other value between
100Ω to 1000Ω. So you need to enter a value of R2 in the LM317 voltage calculator to
calculate the output voltage. For example let’s take the R2 value of 1000Ω, so according
to the formulae above the calculations for output voltage would be as follows:to the
following equation

[34]
CHAPTER 9
ARDUINO UNO R3 MICROCONTROLLER
Arduino Uno R3 is one kind of ATmega328P based microcontroller board. It includes the
whole thing required to hold up the microcontroller; just attach it to a PC with the help of a
USB cable, and give the supply using AC-DC adapter or a battery to get started. The term Uno
means “one” in the language of “Italian” and was selected for marking the release of Arduino’s
IDE 1.0 software. The R3 Arduino Uno is the 3rd as well as most recent modification of the
Arduino Uno. Arduino board and IDE software are the reference versions of Arduino and
currently progressed to new releases. The Uno-board is the primary in a sequence of USB-
Arduino boards, & the reference model designed for the Arduino platform.
Figure 20. Arduino uno R3 microcontroller
9.1 Arduino UNO R3 Specification
The Arduino Uno R3 board includes the following specifications.
• It is an ATmega328P based Microcontroller
• The Operating Voltage of the Arduino is 5V
• The recommended input voltage ranges from 7V to 12V
• The i/p voltage (limit) is 6V to 20V
• Digital input and output pins-14
• Digital input & output pins (PWM)-6
• Analog i/p pins are 6
• DC Current for each I/O Pin is 20 mA

[35]
• DC Current used for 3.3V Pin is 50 mA
• Flash Memory -32 KB, and 0.5 KB memory is used by the boot loader
• SRAM is 2 KB
• EEPROM is 1 KB
• The speed of the CLK is 16 MHz
• In Built LED
• Length and width of the Arduino are 68.6 mm X 53.4 mm
• The weight of the Arduino board is 25 g
Figure 21. Urduino uno R3 pin diagram
9.2 Power Supply
The power supply of the Arduino can be done with the help of an exterior power supply
otherwise USB connection. The exterior power supply (6 to 20 volts) mainly includes a battery
or an AC to DC adapter. The connection of an adapter can be done by plugging a center-positive
plug (2.1mm) into the power jack on the board. The battery terminals can be placed in the pins
of Vin as well as GND. The power pins of an Arduino board include the following.

[36]
Vin: The input voltage or Vin to the Arduino while it is using an exterior power supply opposite
to volts from the connection of USB or else RPS (regulated power supply). By using this pin,
one can supply the voltage.
5Volts: The RPS can be used to give the power supply to the microcontroller as well as
components which are used on the Arduino board. This can approach from the input voltage
through a regulator.
3V3: A 3.3 supply voltage can be generated with the onboard regulator, and the highest draw
current will be 50 mA.
GND: GND (ground) pins
Memory
The memory of an ATmega328 microcontroller includes 32 KB and 0.5 KB memory is utilized
for the Boot loader), and also it includes SRAM-2 KB as well as EEPROM-1KB.
Input and Output
We know that an arguing Uno R3 includes 14-digital pins which can be used as an input
otherwise output by using the functions like pin Mode (), digital Read(), and digital Write().
These pins can operate with 5V, and every digital pin can give or receive 20mA, & includes a
20k to 50k ohm pull up resistor. The maximum current on any pin is 40mA which cannot
surpass for avoiding the microcontroller from the damage. Additionally, some of the pins of an
Arduino include specific functions.
Serial Pins
The serial pins of an Arduino board are TX (1) and RX (0) pins and these pins can be used to
transfer the TTL serial data. The connection of these pins can be done with the equivalent pins
of the ATmega8 U2 USB to TTL chip.
External Interrupt Pins
The external interrupt pins of the board are 2 & 3, and these pins can be arranged to activate
an interrupt on a rising otherwise falling edge, a low-value otherwise a modify in value
PWM Pins
The PWM pins of an Arduino are 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, & 11, and gives an output of an 8-bit PWM
with the function analog Write ().

[37]
9.3 SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) Pins
The SPI pins are 10, 11, 12, 13 namely SS, MOSI, MISO, SCK, and these will maintain the SPI
communication with the help of the SPI library.
LED Pin
An arguing board is inbuilt with a LED using digital pin-13. Whenever the digital pin is high,
the LED will glow otherwise it will not glow.
TWI (2-Wire Interface) Pins
The TWI pins are SDA or A4, & SCL or A5, which can support the communication of TWI
with the help of Wire library.
AREF (Analog Reference) Pin
An analog reference pin is the reference voltage to the inputs of an analog i/ps using the
function like analog Reference().
Reset (RST) Pin
This pin brings a low line for resetting the microcontroller, and it is very useful for using an
RST button toward shields which can block the one over the Arduino R3 board.
Communication
The communication protocols of an Arduino Uno include SPI, I2C, and UART serial
communication.
UART
An Arduino Uno uses the two functions like the transmitter digital pin1 and the receiver digital
pin0. These pins are mainly used in UART TTL serial communication.
I2C
An Arduino UNO board employs SDA pin otherwise A4 pin & A5 pin otherwise SCL pin is
used for I2C communication with wire library. In this, both the SCL and SDA are CLK signal
and data signal.
SPI Pins
The SPI communication includes MOSI, MISO, and SCK.
MOSI (Pin11)
This is the master out slave in the pin, used to transmit the data to the devices

[38]
MISO (Pin12)
This pin is a serial CLK, and the CLK pulse will synchronize the transmission of which is
produced by the master.
SCK (Pin13)
The CLK pulse synchronizes data transmission that is generated by the master. Equivalent pins
with the SPI library is employed for the communication of SPI. ICSP (in-circuit serial
programming) headers can be utilized for programming ATmega microcontroller directly
with the boot loader.
Arduino Uno R3 Programming
• The programming of an Arduino Uno R3 can be done using IDE software. The
microcontroller on the board will come with pre-burned by a boot loader that permits
to upload fresh code without using an exterior hardware programmer.
• The communication of this can be done using a protocol like STK500.
• We can also upload the program in the microcontroller by avoiding the boot loader
using the header like the In-Circuit Serial Programming.
Arduino Uno R3 Projects
The applications of Arduino Uno mainly involves in Arduino Uno based projects which
include the following
• Visitor Alarm in Office using Arduino Uno
• Arduino Uno based Soccer Robot
• Arduino Uno based Automatic Medication Reminder
• Motion Detecting with Static Electricity
• Arduino Uno based Taxi with Digital Fare Meter
• Arduino Uno based Smart Stick
• Robot Car Controlled by Smartphone and Arduino
Thus, this is all about Arduino Uno R3 datasheet. From the above information finally, we can
conclude that it is the most frequently used board. UNO is a great choice for first Arduino due
to its features like it is relatively cheap; we can replace the microcontroller & very easy to set
up. Here is a question for you, what are the applications of an Arduino Uno R3?

[39]
CHAPTER 10
TRANSISTOR D313 NPN AND OPTOCOUPLER
An optocoupler (also called optoisolator) is a semiconductor device that allows an electrical
signal to be transmitted between two isolated circuits. Two parts are used in an optocoupler:
an LED that emits infrared light and a photosensitive device that detects light from the LED.
Both parts are contained within a black box with pins for connectivity. The input circuit takes
the incoming signal, whether the signal is AC or DC, and uses the signal to turn on the LED.
Figure 22. Optocoupler
The photosensor is the output circuit that detects the light and depending on the type of output
circuit, the output will be AC or DC. Current is first applied to the optocoupler, making the
LED emit an infrared light proportional to the current going through the device. When the light
hits the photosensor a current is conducted, and it is switched on. When the current flowing
through the LED is interrupted, the IR beam is cut-off, causing the photosensor to stop
conducting.
Figure 23. Optocoupler internal structure

[40]
There are four configurations of optocouplers, the difference being the photosensitive device
used. Photo-transistor and Photo-Darlington are typically used in DC circuits, and Photo-SCR
and Photo-TRIAC are used to control AC circuits. In the photo-transistor optocoupler, the
transistor could either be PNP or NPN. The Darlington transistor is a two transistor pair, where
one transistor controls the other transistor’s base. The Darlington transistor provides high gain
ability.
Figure 24. Specification of optocoupler
The term optocoupler and optoisolator are often used interchangeably, but there is a slight
difference between the two. The distinguishing factor is the voltage difference expected
between the input and the output. The optocoupler is used to transmit analog or digital
information between circuits while maintaining electrical isolation at potentials up to 5,000
volts. An optoisolator is used to transmit analog or digital information between circuits where
the potential difference is above 5,000 volts.

[41]
CHAPTER 11
DC-DC BUCK CONVERTER
The main principle of Buck DC to DC converter
See in the simple block diagram. Most DC to DC converters operate as the switching mode
power supply. Its input is DC unregulated supply. The output is DC regulated voltage that
stable.
Figure 25. DC-DC Buck converter
Simply said, the DC to DC converter will change the voltage source. To higher or lower or
something else. By the purpose of the designer or our circuit ideas.
When we see a basic buck converter circuit as Figure 2. It is easy to understand:
• Vin is an input voltage as popular as the United States. And “Uin” for the
European country.
• Vout is an output voltage of the United States. And “Uout” in European
countries.
In this circuit, it consists of 3 main components only.
• S is a switch, in the real circuit, we use a transistor.
• D is a diode.
• L is a coil or an indictor.
• C is a Capacitor.

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Figure 26. Basic Buck converter circuit diagram
11.1 DC-DC Buck Converter Working Principle
basic buck converter circuit. It powers a certain output voltage. Other converter systems may
call that a step-down.
Step by step process
First, the Vin charges into the capacitor until full. Its voltage is the same as the power supply
input.
Next, s witch closed
Figure 27. Energy stored in the coil
into the circuit. Therefore the positive voltage to drop across the coil L.
Recommended: Is it hard? Learn the power supply circuit
The current flow through the coil to increase up in linear rate. While there is energy stored in
the coil.

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Then, the S opens up. So, the current of L flow to the output capacitor.
And it flows through Diode (D). It makes the voltage drop across the coil L in backward
(negative).
Energy stored in the output Capacitor
And, the current through the coil reduces in linear. The energy stored at the output capacitor.
When the switch (S) connected to the circuit again. The system started working on the new
one. To be able to supply the load continuously.
Figure 28. DC-DC Buck converter waveform

[44]
CHAPTER 12
TCS320 TCS3200 COLOR SENSOR
The TCS3200 color sensor – shown in the figure below – uses a TAOS TCS3200 RGB sensor
chip to detect color. It also contains four white LEDs that light up the object in front of it.
Figure 29. TCS3200 Color Sensor
12.1 Specification
Here’s the sensor specifications:
▪ Power: 2.7V to 5.5V
▪ Size: 28.4 x 28.4mm (1.12 x 1.12″)
▪ Interface: digital TTL
▪ High-resolution conversion of light intensity to frequency
▪ Programmable color and full-scale output frequency
▪ Communicates directly to microcontroller

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12.2 TCS3200 Color Sensor Working
The TCS3200 has an array of photodiodes with 4 different filters. A photodiode is simply a
semiconductor device that converts light into current. The sensor has:
▪ 16 photodiodes with red filter – sensitive to red wavelength
▪ 16 photodiodes with green filter – sensitive to green wavelength
▪ 16 photodiodes with blue filter – sensitive to blue wavelength
▪ 16 photodiodes without filter
If you take a closer look at the TCS3200 chip you can see the different filters.
Figure 30. TCS3200 Color Sensor closer look
By selectively choosing the photodiode filter’s readings, you’re able to detect the intensity of
the different colors. The sensor has a current-to-frequency converter that converts the
photodiodes’ readings into a square wave with a frequency that is proportional the light

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intensity of the chosen color. This frequency is then, read by the Arduino – this is shown
Figure 31. TCS3200 colour sensor with Arduino
Pinout
Here’s the sensor pinout:
Figure 32. TCS3200 pin out

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Table 2. TCS3200 Pinout Details
12.3 Filter Selection
To select the color read by the photodiode, you use the control pins S2 and S3. As the
photodiodes are connected in parallel, setting the S2 and S3 LOW and HIGH in different
combinations allows you to select different photodidodes. Take a look at the table below:
Photodiode type S2 S3
Red LOW LOW
Blue LOW HIGH
No filter (clear) HIGH LOW
Green HIGH HIGH
Table 3. Filter selections
Pin Name I/O Description
GND (4) Power supply ground
OE (3) I Enable for output frequency (active low)
OUT (6) O Output frequency
S0, S1（1，2） I Output frequency scaling selection inputs
S2, S3（7，8） I Photodiode type selection inputs
VDD（5） Voltage supply

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For the Arduino, it is common to use a frequency scaling of 20%. So, you set the S0 pin to
HIGH and the S1 pin to LOW.
12.4 Frequency Scaling
Pins S0 and S1 are used for scaling the output frequency. It can be scaled to the following
preset values: 100%, 20% or 2%. Scaling the output frequency is useful to optimize the sensor
readings for various frequency counters or microcontrollers. Take a look at the table below:
Table 4. Frequency scaling
Output frequency scaling S0 S1
Power down L L
2% L H
20% H L
100% H H
For the Arduino, it is common to use a frequency scaling of 20%. So, you set the S0 pin to
HIGH and the S1 pin to LOW.
12.5 Schematic Diagram
Wiring the TCSP320 sensor to your Arduino is pretty straightforward. Simply follow the next
schematic diagram.
TCS3200 chip is designed to detect the color of light incident on it. It has an array of photodiode
(a matrix of 8x8, so a total 64 sensors). These photodiodes are covered with four type of filters.
Sixteen sensor have RED filter over them thus can measure only the component of red in the
incident light. Like wise other sixteen have GREEN filter and sixteen have BLUE filter. As
you should know that any visible colour can be broken into three primary colours.

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Figure 33. Here’s the connections between the TCSP3200 and the Arduino:
▪ S0: digital pin 4
▪ VCC: 5V
▪ OUT: digital pin 8
TCS3200 chip is designed to detect the color of light incident on it. It has an array of photodiode
(a matrix of 8x8, so a total 64 sensors). These photodiodes are covered with four type of filters.

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CHAPTER 13
METAL SENSOR
This is a module specifically designed to detect metal. The module operates by inducing
currents in metal objects and responding when it occurs. A nice onboard buzzer signals when
it detects something and an onboard potentiometer allow adjustment of sensitivity.
The power cables of the Metal detector non-contact metal induction detection module will need
soldering on for the module to function, positive to the outside of the module and negative
between the potentiometer and an electrolytic capacitor.
Figure 34 Metal detector non contact module
13.1 Features:
• “V+” ↔ Connect to power positive
• “V-” ↔ connect to power negative
• Adjust the potentiometer, let the modules work normally.
• Small and easy to use module.
• It comes with a Buzzer for metal detection indication.
The power cables of the Metal detector non-contact metal induction detection module will
need soldering on for the module to function, positive to the outside of the module and
negative between the potentiometer and an electrolytic capacitor.

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13.2 Specifications:
Table 5. Metal sensor specification
Operating Voltage (VDC) 5
Detecting Range 1 CM
Dimensions in mm (LxWxH) 66x60x14
Weight (gm) 15
meters When electricity starts flowing through a coil, it builds up a magnetic field. According
to Faraday’s law of induction, a changing magnetic field will result in an electric field that
opposes the change in magnetic field. Thus, a voltage will develop across the coil that opposes
the increase in current.
This effect is called self-inductance, and the unit of inductance is Henry, where a coil of 1
Henry develops a potential difference of 1V when the current changes by 1 Ampere per second.
The inductance of a coil with N windings and a radius R is approximately 5µH x N^2 x R, with
R in.
Instead, the rising pulse can be used to charge a capacitor, which can then be read out with the
Arduino analog to digital converted (ADC). The expected charge from a 0.5 microsecond pulse
of 25mA is 12.5nC, which will give 1.25V on a 10nF capacitor.
The voltage drop over the diode will reduce this. If the pulse is repeated a few times, the charge
on the capacitor rises to ~2V. This can be read out with the Arduino ADC using analogRead().
The capacitor can then be quickly discharged by changing the readout pin to output and setting
it to 0V for a few microseconds.The whole measurement takes about 200 microseconds,
100 for the charging and resetting of the capacitor and 100 for the ADC conversion. The
precision can be greatly enhanced by repeating the measurement and averaging the result:
taking the average of 256 measurements takes 50ms and improves the precision by a factor 16.
The 10-bit ADC achieves the precision of a 14-bit ADC this way.
13.3 Required Components

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Arduino UNO R3 + prototype shield OR Arduino Nano with 5x7cm prototype board
10nF capacitor
Small signal diode, e.g. 1N4148
220-ohm resistor
For power:
USB power bank with cable
For visual output:
2 LEDs of different colour e.g. blue and green
2 220Ohm resistors to limit the currents
For sound output:
Passive buzzer
Microswitch to disable sound
For earphone output:
Earphone connector
1kOhm resistor
Earphones
To easily connect/disconnect the search coil:
2-pin screw terminal
:

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CHAPTER 14
IR SENSORS
IR sensor is an electronic device, that emits the light in order to sense some object of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the motion.
Usually, in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some form of thermal radiation. These
types of radiations are invisible to our eyes, but infrared sensor can detect these radiations
Figure 35. IR sensor
The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the detector is simply an IR
photodiode . Photodiode is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength which is emitted by the
IR LED. When IR light falls on the photodiode, the resistances and the output voltages will
change in proportion to the magnitude of the IR light received.
There are five basic elements used in a typical infrared detection system: an infrared source, a
transmission medium, optical component, infrared detectors or receivers and signal processing.
Infrared lasers and Infrared LED’s of specific wavelength used as infrared sources.
The three main types of media used for infrared transmission are vacuum, atmosphere and optical
fibers. Optical components are used to focus the infrared radiation or to limit the spectral
response.

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14.1 Types Of IR Sensor
There are two types of IR sensors are available and they are,
• Active Infrared Sensor
• Passive Infrared Sensor
Active Infrared Sensor
Active infrared sensors consist of two elements: infrared source and infrared detector. Infrared
sources include the LED or infrared laser diode. Infrared detectors include photodiodes or
phototransistors. The energy emitted by the infrared source is reflected by an object and falls on
the infrared detector.
Passive Infrared Sensor
Passive infrared sensors are basically Infrared detectors. Passive infrared sensors do not use any
infrared source and detector. They are of two types: quantum and thermal. Thermal infrared
sensors use infrared energy as the source of heat. Thermocouples, pyroelectric detectors and
bolometers are the common types of thermal infrared detectors. Quantum type infrared sensors
offer higher detection performance. It is faster than thermal type infrared detectors. The photo
sensitivity of quantum type detectors is wavelength dependent.
14.2. IR Sensor Working Principle
There are different types of infrared transmitters depending on their wavelengths, output power
and response time. An IR sensor consists of an IR LED and an IR Photodiode, together they are
called as Photo Coupler or Opto-Coupler.
IR Transmitter or IR LED
Infrared Transmitter is a light emitting diode (LED) which emits infrared radiations called as IR
LED’s. Even though an IR LED looks like a normal LED, the radiation emitted by it is invisible
to the human eye.
The picture of an Infrared LED is shown below.

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Figure 36. IR transmitter or IR LED
IR Receiver or Photodiode
Infrared receivers or infrared sensors detect the radiation from an IR transmitter. IR receivers
come in the form of photodiodes and phototransistors. Infrared Photodiodes are different from
normal photo diodes as they detect only infrared radiation. Below image shows the picture of an
IR receiver or a photodiode,
Figure 37. IR receiver or photodiode
Different types of IR receivers exist based on the wavelength, voltage, package, etc. When used
in an infrared transmitter – receiver combination, the wavelength of the receiver should match
with that of the transmitter.

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CHAPTER 15
SERVOMOTOR MG996R
A servo motor is a type of motor that can rotate with great precision. Normally this type of
motor consists of a control circuit that provides feedback on the current position of the motor
shaft, this feedback allows the servo motors to rotate with great precision.
If you want to rotate an object at some specific angles or distance, then you use a servo motor.
It is just made up of a simple motor which runs through a servo mechanism. If motor is
powered by a DC power supply then it is called DC servo motor, and if it is AC-powered motor
then it is called AC servo motor.
For this tutorial, we will be discussing only about the DC servo motor working. Apart from
these major classifications, there are many other types of servo motors based on the type of
gear arrangement and operating characteristics. A servo motor usually comes with a gear
arrangement that allows us to get a very high torque servo motor in small and lightweight
packages. Due to these features, they are being used in many applications like toy car, RC
helicopters and planes, Robotics, etc.
Figure 38. servomotor MG996R with metal gear

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Servo motors are rated in kg/cm (kilogram per centimeter) most hobby servo motors are rated
at 3kg/cm or 6kg/cm or 12kg/cm. This kg/cm tells you how much weight your servo motor can
lift at a particular distance. For example: A 6kg/cm Servo motor should be able to lift 6kg if
the load is suspended 1cm away from the motors shaft, the greater the distance the lesser the
weight carrying capacity. The position of a servo motor is decided by electrical pulse and its
circuitry is placed beside the motor.
15.1 Servomotor Working Mechanism
It consists of three parts:
1. Controlled device
2. Output sensor
3. Feedback system
It is a closed-loop system where it uses a positive feedback system to control motion and the
final position of the shaft. Here the device is controlled by a feedback signal generated by
comparing output signal and reference input signal.
Here reference input signal is compared to the reference output signal and the third signal is
produced by the feedback system. And this third signal acts as an input signal to the control the
device. This signal is present as long as the feedback signal is generated or there is a difference
between the reference input signal and reference output signal. So the main task of
servomechanism is to maintain the output of a system at the desired value at presence of noises.
15.2. Servomotor Working Principle
A servo consists of a Motor (DC or AC), a potentiometer, gear assembly, and a controlling
circuit. First of all, we use gear assembly to reduce RPM and to increase torque of the motor.
Say at initial position of servo motor shaft, the position of the potentiometer knob is such that
there is no electrical signal generated at the output port of the potentiometer. Now an electrical
signal is given to another input terminal of the error detector amplifier. Now the difference
between these two signals, one comes from the potentiometer and another comes from other
sources, will be processed in a feedback mechanism and output will be provided in terms of
error signal. This error signal acts as the input for motor and motor starts rotating. Now motor
shaft is connected with the potentiometer and as the motor rotates so the potentiometer and it

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will generate a signal. So as the potentiometer’s angular position changes, its output feedback
signal changes. After sometime the position of potentiometer reaches at a position that the
output of potentiometer is same as external signal provided. At this condition, there will be no
output signal from the amplifier to the motor input as there is no difference between external
applied signal and the signal generated at potentiometer, and in this situation motor stops
rotating.
15.3. Interfacing Servomotors With Microcontroller:
Interfacing hobby Servo motors like s90 servo motor with MCU is very easy. Servos have
three wires coming out of them. Out of which two will be used for Supply (positive and
negative) and one will be used for the signal that is to be sent from the MCU. An MG996R
Metal Gear Servo Motor which is most commonly used for RC cars humanoid bots etc. The
picture of MG995 is shown below:
Figure 39. servomotor connection with microcontroller
The color coding of your servo motor might differ hence check for your respective datasheet.
All servo motors work directly with your +5V supply rails but we have to be careful on the
amount of current the motor would consume if you are planning to use more than two servo
motors a proper servo shield should be designed.
15.4. Controlling Servo Motor:
All motors have three wires coming out of them. Out of which two will be used for Supply
(positive and negative) and one will be used for the signal that is to be sent from the MCU.

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Servo motor is controlled by PWM (Pulse with Modulation) which is provided by the control
wires. There is a minimum pulse, a maximum pulse and a repetition rate. Servo motor can turn
90 degree from either direction form its neutral position. The servo motor expects to see a pulse
every 20 milliseconds (ms) and the length of the pulse will determine how far the motor turns.
For example, a 1.5ms pulse will make the motor turn to the 90° position, such as if pulse is
shorter than 1.5ms shaft moves to 0° and if it is longer than 1.5ms than it will turn the servo to
180°.
Servo motor works on PWM (Pulse width modulation) principle, means its angle of rotation
is controlled by the duration of applied pulse to its Control PIN. Basically servo motor is made
up of DC motor which is controlled by a variable resistor (potentiometer) and some gears.
High speed force of DC motor is converted into torque by Gears. We know that WORK=
FORCE X DISTANCE, in DC motor Force is less and distance (speed) is high and in Servo,
force is High and distance is less. The potentiometer is connected to the output shaft of the
Servo, to calculate the angle and stop the DC motor on the required angle.
Figure 40. Controlling servomotor
Servo motor can be rotated from 0 to 180 degrees, but it can go up to 210 degrees, depending
on the manufacturing. This degree of rotation can be controlled by applying the Electrical
Pulse of proper width, to its Control pin. Servo checks the pulse in every 20 milliseconds. The
pulse of 1 ms (1 millisecond) width can rotate the servo to 0 degrees, 1.5ms can rotate to 90
degrees (neutral position) and 2 ms pulse can rotate it to 180 degree.

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CHAPTER 16
CONNECTION AND PROGRAMMING OF COMPONENTS WITH ARDUINO
UNO
16.1 Connection Of Servomotor With Arduino
Servomotors are available at different shapes and sizes. A servo motor will have mainly there
wires, one is for positive voltage another is for ground and last one is for position setting. The
RED wire is connected to power, Black wire is connected to ground and YELLOW wire is
connected to signal.
A servo motor is a combination of DC motor, position control system, gears. The position of
the shaft of the DC motor is adjusted by the control electronics in the servo, based on the duty
ratio of the PWM signal the SIGNAL pin.
Simply speaking the control electronics adjust shaft position by controlling DC motor. This
data regarding position of shaft is sent through the SIGNAL pin. The position data to the
control should be sent in the form of PWM signal through the Signal pin of servo motor.
The frequency of PWM (Pulse Width Modulated) signal can vary based on type of servo motor.
The important thing here is the DUTY RATIO of the PWM signal. Based on this DUTY
RATION the control electronics adjust the shaft.
As shown in figure below, for the shaft to be moved to 9o clock the TURN ON RATION must
be 1/18.ie. 1ms of ON time and 17ms of OFF time in a 18ms signal.
16.2 Arduino CODE Explanation
The complete Arduino code for Multiple Servo Control is given at the end.
Arduino has library for Servo Motors and it handles all the PWM related things to rotate the
servo, you just need to enter the angle to which you want to rotate and there is
function servo1.write(angle); which will rotate the servo to desired angle.
So here we are starting by defining the library for Servo motor.

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#include <Servo.h>
char buffer[11];
Servo servo1; // Create a servo object
Servo servo2; // Create a second servo object
void setup()
{
servo1.attach(5); // Attaches the servo on pin 5 to the
servo1.object
servo2.attach(6); // Attaches the servo on pin 6 to the
servo2.object
Serial.begin(9600);
while(Serial.available())
Serial.read();
servo1.write(90); // Put servo1 at home position
servo2.write(90); // Put servo2 at home postion
Serial.println("STARTING...");
}
void loop()
{
if (Serial.available() > 0) { // Check if data has been
entered
int index=0;
delay(100); // Let the buffer fill up

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int numChar = Serial.available(); // Find the string
length
if (numChar>10) {
numChar=10;
}
while (numChar--) {
// Fill the buffer with the string
buffer[index++] = Serial.read();
}
buffer[index]='0';
splitString(buffer); // Run splitString function
}
}
void splitString(char* data) {
Serial.print("Data entered: ");
Serial.println(data);
char* parameter;
parameter = strtok (data, " ,"); //String to token
while (parameter != NULL) { // If we haven't reached the end
of the string...
setServo(parameter); // ...run the setServo function
parameter = strtok (NULL, " ,");
}

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while(Serial.available())
Serial.read();
}
void setServo(char* data) {
if ((data[0] == 'L') || (data[0] == 'l')) {
int firstVal = strtol(data+1, NULL, 10); // String to
long integer
firstVal = constrain(firstVal,0,180); // Constrain
values
servo1.write(firstVal);
Serial.print("Servo1 is set to: ");
Serial.println(firstVal);
}
if ((data[0] == 'R') || (data[0] == 'r')) {
int secondVal = strtol(data+1, NULL, 10); // String
to long integer
secondVal = constrain(secondVal,0,255); //
Constrain the values
servo2.write(secondVal);
Serial.print("Servo2 is set to: ");
Serial.println(secondVal);
}

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16.3 Connection Of Color Sensor And LCD Display
A color sensor detects the color of the material. This sensor usually detects color in RBG
scale. This sensor can categorize the color as red, blue or green. These sensors are also
equipped with filters to reject the unwanted IR light and UV light.
3) Display
LCD modules are very commonly used in most embedded projects, the reason being its
cheap price, availability and programmer friendly. Most of us would have come across
these displays in our day to day life, either at PCO’s or calculators. The appearance and
the pinouts have already been visualized above now let us get a bit technical.
16×2 LCD is named so because; it has 16 Columns and 2 Rows. There are a lot of
combinations available like, 8×1, 8×2, 10×2, 16×1, etc. but the most used one is the 16×2
LCD. So, it will have (16×2=32) 32 characters in total and each character will be made of
5×8 Pixel Dots. A Single character with all its Pixels is shown in the below picture.
Now, we know that each character has (5×8=40) 40 Pixels and for 32 Characters we will
have (32×40) 1280 Pixels. Further, the LCD should also be instructed about the Position
of the Pixels. Hence it will be a hectic task to handle everything with the help of MCU,
hence an Interface IC like HD44780is used, which is mounted on the backside of the LCD
Module itself.
The function of this IC is to get the Commands and Data from the MCU and process them
to display meaningful information onto our LCD Screen. You can learn how to interface
an LCD using the above mentioned links.
If you are an advanced programmer and would like to create your own library for
interfacing your Microcontroller with this LCD module then you have to understand the
HD44780 IC is working and commands which can be found its datasheet.
In this Arduino based color detector video tutorial, you can learn how to make color
sensing device with TCS-3200/230 color sensor and detect different colors objects using
this color sensor.There are wide range of applications of color sensor like sorting objects
by colors quality control systems, Printer color enhancement etc.

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Figure 41. Connection of color sensor and LCD display with Arduino
16.4 CODE Explanation
#include <Wire.h>
#include <LiquidCrystal_I2C.h>
LiquidCrystal_I2C lcd(0x27,16,2);
int red = 0;
int green = 0;
int blue = 0;
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);

[66]
pinMode(8, OUTPUT);
pinMode(9, OUTPUT);
pinMode(12, OUTPUT);
pinMode(11, OUTPUT);
pinMode(10, INPUT);
digitalWrite(8, HIGH);
lcd.init();
lcd.backlight();
}
void loop()
{
digitalWrite(12, LOW);
digitalWrite(11, LOW);
red = pulseIn(10, digitalRead(10) == HIGH ? LOW : HIGH);
blue = pulseIn(10, digitalRead(10) == HIGH ? LOW : HIGH);
green = pulseIn(10, digitalRead(10) == HIGH ? LOW : HIGH);
lcd.clear();
if (red < blue && red < green && red < 20)
{
Serial.println(" Red Color");
lcd.print("Red Color");
}
else if (blue < red && blue < green)
{
Serial.println(" Blue Color");
lcd.print("Blue Color");
}
else if (green < red && green < blue)
{
Serial.println(" Green Color");
lcd.print("Green Color");
}
delay(500);
}

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16.5 Connection And CODE of IR Sensor With Arduino
An IR proximity sensor works by applying a voltage to the onboard Infrared Light Emitting
Diode which in turn emits infrared light. This light propagates through the air and hits an
object, after that the light gets reflected in the photodiode sensor. If the object is close, the
reflected light will be stronger, if the object is far away, the reflected light will be weaker. If
you look closely toward the module. When the sensor becomes active it sends a
corresponding Low signal through the output pin that can be sensed by an Arduino or any kind
of microcontroller to execute a particular task
Figure 42. IR Sensor connection details
This sensor has three pins two of which are power pins leveled VCC and GND and the other
one is the sense/data pin which is shown in the diagram above. It has an onboard power LED
and a signal LED the power LED turns on when power is applied to the board the signal LED
turns on when the circuit is triggered. This board also has a comparator Op-amp that is
responsible for converting the incoming analog signal from the photodiode to a digital signal.
We also have a sensitivity adjustment potentiometer; with that, we can adjust the sensitivity of
the device. Last and finally, we have the photodiode and the IR emitting LED pair which all
together make the total IR Proximity Sensor Module.

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16.6 CODE Explanation
// Arduino IR Sensor Code
int IRSensor = 9; // connect ir sensor module to Arduino pin 9
int LED = 13; // conect LED to Arduino pin 13
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(115200); // Init Serila at 115200 Baud
Serial.println("Serial Working"); // Test to check if serial is working or not
pinMode(IRSensor, INPUT); // IR Sensor pin INPUT
pinMode(LED, OUTPUT); // LED Pin Output
}
void loop()
{
int sensorStatus = digitalRead(IRSensor); // Set the GPIO as Input
if (sensorStatus == 1) // Check if the pin high or not
{
// if the pin is high turn off the onboard Led
digitalWrite(LED, LOW); // LED LOW
Serial.println("Motion Ended!"); // print Motion Detected! on the serial monitor window
}
else
{
//else turn on the onboard LED

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digitalWrite(LED, HIGH); // LED High
Serial.println("Motion Detected!"); // print Motion Ended! on the serial monitor window
}
}
16.7 Connection Figure
Figure 43. Connection diagram
Sorters are applied to different applications depending upon the product type and the required
rate. Sortation systems are often employed when high quantities of products need to flow to
different destinations for further processing. Sortation conveyor systems generally receive
mixed unit loads and discharge them to designated locations or outfeed conveyors, in response
to signals from automatic control systems. The Automatic material sorting machine has been
developed to sort different kind of materials based on its shape and color through image
processing technique by using webcamera mounting above the conveyor belt.

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CHAPTER 17
CONCLUSSION AND REFERENCES
17.1 Conclusion:
Here, I have come to the end of the project on the topic “ Arduino Based Automatic Material
Sorting Machine “ I would be like to share my experience while doing this project. I learnt
many new things about the Arduino Based Automatic Material Sorting Machine and it was a
wonderful learning experience for me while working for this project.
This project has developed my thinking skill and more interest in this subject. This and more
project gave me real insight into the the Arduino Based Automatic Material Sorting Machine
world.
Material sorting system based on the shape and color has been implemented in this work. This
work uses Python IDE along with Open CV library for Image Acquisition and processing.
Arduino Uno has been used for controlling DC motors and actuators. Algorithms have been
tested and performed well for various shapes. Refined routines could involve the use of color
and brightness as a further tool for pattern recognition. The suggested framework will be ademo
rendition which gives expense effective, taking less time and technically the easiest way for
differentiating objects. This version can be stretched out to ongoing programs in waste
recycling ventures and bundling corporations as an open source customizable material sorting
assembly line.
A very special thanks to my dear HOD sir setting such target for us. I enjoyed every bit of
work, I put into this project. I do hope n this guide we have demonstrated that it is indeed
possible for the Arduino to juggle multiple independent tasks while remaining
responsive to external events like user input.
• We’ve learned how to time things using millis() instead of delay() so we can free
up the processor to do other things.
• We’ve learned how to define tasks as state machines that can execute
independently of other state machines at the same time.
• And we’ve learned how to encapsulate these state machines into C++ classes to
keep our code simple and compact.
These techniques won’t turn your Arduino into a supercomputer. But they will help you
to get the most out of this small, but surprisingly powerful little processor.
that my project will be interesting and may be even knowledgeable.

[71]
17.2 REFERENCES:
[1] Groover M.P., “Industrial Robotics-Technology Programming and Applications”,
McGraw Hill, 2008.
[2] Bankole I. Oladapo, V.A. Balogun, A.O.M. Adeoye, C.O.Ijagbemi, Afolabi S. Oluwole,
I.A. Daniyan, A. EsosoAghor, Asanta P. Simeon, “Model design andsimulation of
automatic sorting machine using proximity sensorEngineering Science and
Technology,an International Journal 19 (1452–1456), 201
[3] D. A. Wahab, A. Hussain, E. Scavino, M.M. Mustafa and H.Basri, “Development of a
Prototype Automat ed Sorting System for Plastic Recycling”, American Journal
ofApplied Sciences 3 (7): 1924-1928, ISSN 1546-9239.
[4] Pallavi P. Saraikar and Prof. K.S. Ingle, “Open CV based Object tracking Robot using
Image processing with Raspberry Pi”,International Research Journal ofEngineering and
Technology (IRJET), e-ISSN: 2395-0056, p-ISSN: 2395-0072, Volume: 06 Issue: 01,
January2019.
[5] Artzai Picón, Ovidiu Ghita, Aranzazu Bereciartua Jone Echazarra, Paul F. Whel and
Pedro M. Iriondo, “Real-time hyperspectral processing for automatic nonferrous
material sorting”,Journal of Electronic Imaging (JEI),ISSN: 1017-9909 (print), Jan–Mar
2012.
[6] Design Data Book By PSG College of Technology.
[7] R.S.khurmi & J.K.gupta “Design of machine elements”,Eurasia publishing house
(pvt.) Ltd, fivth edition.
[8] Petra Tatzer, Markus Wolf, Thomas Panner and Reinhard Huber, “Industrial
application for inline material sorting using hyperspectral imaging in the NIR range”,
Real-Time Imaging, Volume 11, Issue 2, April2005
[9] Rudresh H.G and Prof. Shubha.P. “Colour SensorBased Object Sorting Robot”,
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology(IRJET), e-ISSN: 2395-
0056,Volume: 04 Issue:08,Aug -2017.
[10] Saranya.L, Srinivasan.R and Priyadharshini.V.
“Robotic Arm For Pick & Place Operation Using
Matlab Based On Offline Surface Clustering
Algorithm”,International Journal Of Research In
Computer Applications And Robotics, ISSN 2320-7345, Vol.5 Issue 5, Pg.: 32-37
May 2017.
[11] Dharmannagari Vinay Kumar Reddy. “Sorting of Objects Based on Colour By Pick
And PlaceRobotic Arm And With Conveyor Belt Arrangemen”,Internatinal Journal of
Mechanical Engineering And Robotics Research (Ijmerr), Issn2278– 0149
Www.Ijmerr.Com Vol. 3, No. 1,January 2014

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