Art History I Part 1 Intro to Mesopotamia

Art History I Prehistory Through the Gothic Part I Dr. Frank Latimer, Instructor of Visual Art, Pulaski Technical College Introduction and Prehistory Through Mesopotamia

The first part of this presentation is a discussion of concepts related to art and art history as well as an introduction to the use of symbolic representation in art. If you have taken Intro to the Visual Arts (Art 2300) from this instructor then this will largely be review for you as much of the material is the same as in that course.

What is art? Art is many things to many people. Decoration. Investment. Historical record. There are many definitions of art. The instructor sums it up in two words: creative communication. What is the purpose for art? There are as many different purposes for art as there are people.

Terminology BC = Before Christ BCE = Before Christian Era or Before Common Era BC = BCE (But BCE is more politically correct to some folks.) AD = Does NOT mean “After Death.” Anno Domini (The year of our Lord)

Finding Shelter at Fournes 1915 (Go to next slide)

Opera House 1911 The artist who created the images on this slide and the previous slide grew up in a middle-class home. His father was a civil servant who expected his son to follow in his footsteps in seeking a safe and reliable career. But the young man had other ambitions. After graduating from high school he traveled to the big city and applied for admission to the university hoping to study art or architecture. But competition for enrollment was intense and the would-be artist failed to make the grade. He stayed on in the city, working odd jobs and selling a few paintings on the street waiting for the next application period. He was once again turned away. By this time the young man was living on the street, evicted from his apartment for failure to pay his rent. Food was scarce and he was barely staying alive. Then his dreams of a college education were fully dashed when the First World War erupted and he found himself in the army and headed for France.

Opera House Continued After his military service… during which he was wounded at least once and decorated for bravery… he returned home to find no jobs and a depressed economy. Many veterans were in the same boat. One night in a café he was approached by a man who had overheard him speaking to a group of friends and asked if he would be interested in becoming a professional speaker for one of the political parties. This was before radio and television and candidates would hire speakers to address gatherings on their behalf. He readily accepted the job and excelled at public speaking. Eventually he was convinced to run for office and in his first try he won the election and was chosen by the people to lead the country. The next slide is a portrait of this famous artist. Although he is not famous for his art…

In 1933 Adolf Hitler was elected chancellor of Germany and became the worst mass-murdering dictator in history. He maintained his interest in art and used it for propaganda purposes. We can only wonder how different the world would be if that damn college had just let him in.

This is a hand lotion ad from a newspaper using a subliminal image. Subliminal messages are those that are meant to be seen without the viewer consciously realizing it. They are intended to influence shoppers on a subconscious level. These hidden messages can be either pictures or words. See if you can spot the hidden image in this ad designed to encourage sales.

This detail (close-up view) reveals the image of a bared breast. In Western culture nudity is most often associated with sex but in art nudity can symbolize a variety of concepts. Breasts can represent motherhood, family and nurturing. The image of the bare breast is included in the ad to influence female shoppers who will see the image and associate the product with home and family. A woman may go to the store and buy this product after seeing this ad and not even know why she is choosing this product from among the many offered. It’s because she is responding to the positive feelings she experienced when viewing the ad.

Vietnam Execution 1968 Eddie Adams This disturbing and brutal photo shows a captured North Vietnamese soldier being executed by a South Vietnamese general during the 1968 Tet Offensive. Many Americans found the image horrifying because it portrays the general as savagely killing a helpless prisoner. It called the U.S. support for the South into question with many Americans and helped bring about the pull-out of U.S. forces and the fall of South Vietnam to the aggressor North. The published version of this photo has been cropped, altering the available information and changing how viewers react to it.

The original image shows obvious signs of warfare occurring in the scene and unlike the cropped version informs the viewer as to why the violence may be happening. Most viewers failed to notice that the prisoner is not in uniform. He is not the innocent victim as the photo suggests. He is actually an assassin, sent to murder women and children (wives and offspring of army officers) in order to disrupt military operations defending the city.

This story posted on an Internet news site shows a young black man struggling through flood waters in New Orleans with items he “looted” from a store, according to the text of the story. Meanwhile, the lower photo shows a while couple who did the same thing but the text says they “found” the items. We all have our biases we should be consistent. If he’s looting then so are they. If they are finding then so is he. Actually, what they are all doing is called foraging.

Christmas Tree by Christopher Abstract originally meant reduced to its most basic elements. Somehow the meaning has become interchangeable with nonrepresentational. The water-color painting at right is really abstract rather than nonrepresentational which means that it isn’t recognizable. Do you recognize the object? After trying to figure out what it is, click for the answer. The tree is in fact recognizable but the rendering is very simplistic. The artist was four years old.

This painting is truly nonrepresentational as it was painted in 1958 by a chimpanzee named Congo. Lacking human intelligence it is totally random and meaningless.

The notion of lesser animals creating art is not a new one. This photo from the early 20 th century was staged by some famous artists to ridicule the idea of animal artists.

Sammy the Dog Zoo animals, pets, and other creatures are often portrayed as creative artists. Sometimes done for fund-raising purposes, it’s highly unlikely that such endeavors can really be called art by any reasonable interpretation of the word..

Moses 1395 Claus Sluter Throughout the Renaissance Moses was routinely depicted as having horns.

Moses 1515 Michelangelo Even Michelangelo put horns on Moses. It turned out that this was due to a misinterpretation of ancient Hebrew religious texts. The word for “horn” was similar to the word for “light.” The text was misread as saying “Moses had horns emanating from his head” when it actually said that he had light emanating from his head. In other words, Moses should have been depicted with a halo like the saints, angels, and other Biblical figures.

St. John 1412 Donatello This is two photos of the same statue taken from different angles. Sculpture, being three-dimensional, can be affected by the viewing angle and lighting. On the right, we look up at the figure making him appear powerful, wise and dynamic. Looking at him straight in the face on the left makes him look like a tired old man. Generally speaking, looking up at people makes them look more heroic.

Symbolic Representation When asked to identify what is seen in this image most students respond that they see a train. Of course, there is no train in the classroom and what they are seeing is actually a photograph of a train. This is a symbolic representation of a train. Other objects in art may be used to symbolize things, people or ideas completely different from the actual object being depicted. Some of these symbols are well-known to artists and are commonly used, others may be more specific to a particular artist.

Analysis of Symbolic Representation When we try to determine the meaning of the objects we see in art it’s called analyzing the image. There are two basic ways to attempt this analysis; either try to figure out what message the artist intended for the viewer to perceive or if that’s not possible, or if it’s not desired, then the viewer can analyze the image to suit his or her own vision. There are virtually no limits on the number of differing analysis that can be produced. The train could be seen as representing the American economy. It’s big and strong, producing goods and services. It may be slowed by a bend in the tracks, symbolizing an economic slow-down, but stoking the furnace with tax cuts, low labor costs and favorable interest rates on business loans will drive the economy back up to speed. An environmentalist might see the train as representing the destruction of the Earth’s resources. It required felling trees to lay the tracks; tearing up mountains to dig the coal needed to fuel the engine; then it spews pollution into the air and drips oil as it rolls along fouling the soil. Totally different versions yet both completely valid. The next two slides contains a list of some symbolic representations. This is not by any means a complete list, just a starting point.

Animals: Horse: Speed, power, movement, travel, transition, work, or in some cases high status. Bull: Masculinity, power, aggression, destruction, savagery, bravery, or determination. Dog: Loyalty, faithfulness, devotion, companionship, trust, or partnership. Sheep: Obedience, loyalty, mildness, subservience, or conformity. Snake: Stealth, deception, evil, wile, corruption, healing, or fertility. Bird: Freedom, escape, high status, metaphysical, occult, divine, war, or peace. Lion: Majesty, royalty, bravery, strength, or savagery. Shark: Danger, killer, unfair, uncompassionate, cold, brutal, or menacing. Ape: Jungle instinct, savage nature, uncouth behavior or Man’s darker side. Colors Red: Danger, stop, blood, life, death, pain, heat, war, or courage. Blue: Loneliness, solitude, sadness, cold, or depression. Yellow: Cowardice, caution, wealth, sickness, or age. Green: Fertility, resurrection, health, or coolness. Black: Sinister, evil, unknown, death, aggression, or unlawfulness. White: Purity, life, death, innocence, cleanliness, a fresh start or lawfulness. Objects: River or stream: Transition, movement, or obstacle. Wall or fence: Obstacle, or opponent. Gate, door, window, ladder or stairs: Opportunity, escape, or access and thus also free will. Any motorized vehicle or manufactured item: Modern industrialization, mass production, travel or transition. Scientific instruments: Science, discovery, education or progress. Lantern, candle, torch: Education, learning, schooling, intellectualism. Books or writing devices: Education, learning, or literacy. The head: Leadership, authority. Legs: Travel or transition. Arms: Strength. Hands: Control.

Some commonly recognized symbolic representations A single lighted candle: The presence of Jesus Christ A convex (rounded) mirror: The presence of God The sun or rays of sunlight can also symbolize God Swords and later firearms: Power (also relate to authority and prestige) Hats, helmets and anything else worn on the head: Authority or leadership Eggs, fruit with many seeds or animals that reproduce quickly or in great numbers: Fertility Shoes, motor vehicles, bicycles or any other means of transportation: Travel and/or transition* Armor: Something offering protection Books: Knowledge or learning, law Lamps or lanterns: Knowledge or learning, hope *The concept of transition, changing from one status of condition to another, is difficult to symbolize so artists cheat and use anything that can symbolize travel. Any object that can symbolize travel may also be used to represent transition and many cases both concepts are implied.

Analysis of the State of Liberty The Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor is the figure of woman who stands upon a pedestal with a book under one arm while her other hand holds aloft a burning torch. She may represent motherhood, perhaps symbolizing that this country is the mother country or birthplace of freedom and liberty . This is where high ideals are born, and where brave people are nurtured. She may also stand for family as women are often seen as the backbones of the family unit, symbolizing that America is a nation united into a single family and built upon the strength of womanhood, and or motherhood. The figure’s face is feminine, yet strong and determined. This could represent the strength of character Americans believe they possess . It could also symbolize our own determination to survive, to prosper , and to hold our proper place in the world. The figure’s eyes gaze off into the distance, looking towards the future as a symbol of our desire to lead the world into that future . The pedestal upon which she stands may represent achieving a higher ideal , or climbing to the peak of human endeavor. Perhaps the pedestal stands for faith in God , and she may be seen as elevating the goals and ideals of America, or even America itself, to a divine level by climbing to the heavens. The pedestal may also represent our family or cultural values , being the strong and sturdy base upon which our society is built.

Statue of Liberty continued Perhaps the pedestal represents the faith upon which this nation was founded , or it could symbolize our forefathers who established this nation and whose early efforts we now depend on to support us. What they made is strong and enduring, as is the foundation for the statue. The pedestal is made of stone, symbolizing our strength as a nation and as a people as we build upon the foundation left for us. Perhaps the base is America , with the figure of the woman representing our goals and ideals supported by the “rock-solid” foundation that is America. The figure is garbed in a long dress. Its simplicity may represent our own modesty or maybe our practicality. The sandals on her feet might represent our religious roots , as Christians often associate sandals with Jesus and the Apostles. Her simple dress could be seen as a toga, such as would be worn in ancient Greece. Combined with the sandals, this manner of dress would give her the appearance of the ancient Greeks, a people we tend to admire and whom we have emulated for so many aspects of our culture and society. This statue could be seen as paying homage to the ancient people from whom we have borrowed so much . Or it could be viewed as a means of associating ourselves with the ancient Greeks, who are often considered to have been wise and educated, the philosophers, teachers, and great thinkers from history. The book may be seen as indicating our thirst for knowledge , or our desire to educate ourselves in order to be world leaders. The book may be a book of laws, indicating that ours is a society built on a system of equal justice for all. It could also stand for our desire to educate all of our children so that none are left ignorant and uneducated. The book may even be seen as a register containing the names of all the immigrants who came to this country seeking a new and better life. Or perhaps it is a list of our achievements as a nation. The torch could be seen as the light of freedom , signaling the way for others to find the path leading here. Maybe it represents our enlightened society , symbolizing how we have driven away the darkness of ignorance, fear, and evil . It could symbolize a means of drawing attention to ourselves, to make us stand out in a world of darkness as a nation worth noticing and emulating.

Statue on Campus at Rick’s College (BYU ID) Schools operated by Churches concern themselves with not just the education of the students’ minds, but also with their moral and spiritual well being. This sculpture on campus at a Mormon college shows two students behaving as the Latter Day Saint faith would have them act while on campus. The two figures seem to ignore each other as they concentrate on their books. The message is that students are not here to have parties, they are here to learn. The fact that the female figure’s knees are tightly clamped together suggests that sex is also to be avoided.

The casual attitude of the model for this photo used in a course schedule at a state-supported Public college seems to suggest an entirely different message than the sculpture on campus at the Mormon college.

There’s no way Like the American Way 1937 Margaret Bourke White Most books state that this photo shows the division of whites and blacks in America. The usual explanation is that a line of poor black people waiting in a food line stand before a billboard touting the greatness of America’s standard of living. If one is white then drives a fine car and is smiling and happy in prosperity. But if one is black then one must wait for a handout to survive. But a closer look reveals the people in line don’t really look poor, being clean and well dressed. The original title of this photograph was After the Louisville Flood and these people await assistance only because they have been temporarily displaced from their homes by the flooding in their neighborhood. A few blocks over was likely a similar line made up of white residents (the city would have been segregated at this time) as their neighborhood was also flooded.

Whenever a nation’s flag appears in art, it may be assumed that the message will at least be partly patriotic in nature. Always take the audience into consideration when analyzing art. Who was supposed to see the art and what was the message directed towards them?

Liberty Leading the People 1830 Eugene Delacroix After years of internal strife and warfare France was in a desperate state. Delacroix seems to be encouraging all French citizens- young and old; men and women, rich and poor to rise up and fight to overthrow an unpopular king whose soldiers are seen as lying dead before the rioting mass. One victim of the violence seen in the lower left has not only lost his life in the struggle, but also his trousers. The nudity could symbolize the loss he has suffered, which since he has lost his life he has lost everything. The artist might be warning the viewer that this ultimate sacrifice may be asked of people in order to save the country. The figure of Liberty bares her breasts not to be sexually stimulating but to symbolize motherhood and nurturing. All must nurture our mother country and save her from destruction.

Norman Rockwell was an American artist who is best known for painting covers for the Saturday Evening Post magazine. Although most people tend to associate his work with homespun scenes of Americana, family and values such as duty and honesty, many of his paintings contain serious social commentary.

Rosie the Riveter 1943 Norman Rockwell Rosie was created to star in an ad campaign to encourage women to come and work in factories during World War II when many men were serving in uniform. Her image is meant to celebrate the strength these women demonstrated in doing men’s jobs and to reassure them that they would not lose their femininity by working in jobs seen as traditionally for men. Rosie’s arms are huge and muscular to symbolize the strength of the women who stepped up when their country needed them. But her face is still cute and feminine. She eats a large sandwich. This could symbolize the paycheck she and the other women received. It’s a man’s sandwich representing the man’s pay they got for doing a man’s job. The clear face shield pushed up on Rosie’s head so she can eat appears like a halo over her head. The artist was a devoutly religious man for whom calling someone an angel would be the highest compliment and that seems to be what he’s saying about these women. Note: This painting was recently purchased by Alice Walton who is organizing the Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art in Bentonville and will be on display when the museum opens. The price paid for the painting was $30 million.

Breaking Home Ties 1954 Norman Rockwell

The location for this painting can be determined by the red flag and the lantern setting on top of the travel trunk. These items would be found in a train depot operating before being wired for electricity. These items would not have been used at a bus station or an airport. We can tell it’s a rural setting because the ground is dirt and not paved. The two men are sitting on the running board of an old pick up truck. It’s likely a farm truck because of the wooden side boards on the bed, something seen in agricultural use. One man is older while the other is still a youngster, probably in his teens. We don’t know for certain what the relationship is between the two individuals so we must make an assumption. There doesn’t appear to be any reason to discount them being father and son and this appears to be the most logical conclusion based on the scant evidence available. When making an assumption it should be stated as such right up front and from that point on what was assumed may be discussed as fact. The father is dressed in gray, and his posture is slumping. Older people often represent the past. The youngster is erect and seems filled with anticipation. His suit is white, and white can symbolize a fresh start or a new beginning. Children or young people can symbolize the future. The artist gives us a clue that the young man is the future by having him face in the same direction the truck is parked while his father looks back. The suitcase represents travel and in this case also transition. The decals tell us he is going off to college so he is indeed traveling and making changes in his life. The books on the suitcase symbolize knowledge and learning, which he will do as student. The artist even tells us that he will be a good student by place bookmarks in all of the books. Not even on campus yet, the youngster is already reading his textbooks and will be prepared in class. The dog symbolizes loyalty. This is a common symbolic representation but bear in mind it’s never the dog being loyal. Someone or something is being loyal but it’s never the dog. In this painting it’s obvious the father is being loyal to his son by allowing him to leave the farm. A healthy young man would be a great resource on a family farm and it’s a sacrifice for the family to let him pursue his dream of a college education. For his part, the young student promises to study and succeed (and he has already started by reading his books). A sack lunch is held in the son’s lap. He clasps it with both hands as if to never let it go. This nourishment represents his mother and by extension his entire family. The reality of leaving home will likely not hit him until he opens the wrapper hours from now on the train. The father holds both his and his son’s hats. A hat can symbolize authority and this is a powerful symbol in this painting. When the train arrives they will stand and the father will hand his son his hat, signifying that he is now own his own, and adult and a man responsible for himself. It will be a very powerful moment. Breaking Home Ties 1954 Norman Rockwell Slide 34

Sergeant’s Coat Thanksgiving 1943 Norman Rockwell The November, 1943 issue carried an image of a woman wearing a soldier’s coat and giving thanks for the small portion of food which was also a gift from the soldier (it’s in a plate that would be part of a military mess kit so we know the source of the food). The broken and fallen architectural columns suggests we are in Italy, a country certainly damaged by the war. These columns could symbolize the loss of the woman’s home, family or even hope. But her life was spared by the generosity of some American soldiers (note the flag on the sleeve identifying the source). Rockwell is saying that soldiers don’t just come to kill and destroy, but also to save. By extension, Rockwell is saying all Americans are compassionate and generous. A secondary message in this painting may be directed to Americans who by 1943 were likely grumbling about the lack of consumer goods due to the war effort. He is telling any who might be griping to shut up and be grateful for what they have like the young woman in the painting who thanks God for so simple a blessing as a coat and crust of bread.

Homecoming GI May 26, 1945 Norman Rockwell The title of this painting refers to the time when the war in Europe was ending and the soldiers started returning home. The young soldier arrives home and his family rushes out to greet him as a girl, maybe the neighbor who was too young for in the past, waits to surprise him. The soldier’s duffle bag symbolizes travel and transition and he has done both as he went around the world and fought a war for freedom. His family is all dressed in red, white and blue reminding us of the American flag and adding a patriotic note to the image. The clean, white laundry hanging on the line could represent a fresh start for the country or perhaps even the whole world. The man working on the roof may represent how the country… or again the world… needed some “fixing up” after the war years. The ever-present dog symbolizes the loyalty of the young soldier to his nation and his family and they have been loyal to him by keeping him in their hearts and by welcoming him home. Windows are often seen as opportunity for the future and the children seen hanging from the windows may symbolize the future and the opportunity to make it a better one.

New Television Antenna 1949 Rockwell The old man could represent the past and the young man the future (with this new TV thing being a part of the future). The house is weathered and in need of repair but that can wait while we install this new TV. The house with the antenna at its peak mirrors the church to the right, perhaps indicating that TV will replace religion as the guiding force in American’s lives. The ladder leaning against the house might symbolize the transition into the modern age, the coming of new technology, or the loss of family and tradition.

Death, Knight and Devil 1513 Albrect D ü rer Printmaking was revolutionary for art because for the first time in history it allowed average working class people to buy art. Prior to this, paintings and sculpture were so expensive that they were luxury items, purchased only by the wealthy, the Church and the government (king). Because prints were mass produced, it brought the unit price down to where almost anyone could afford to buy them. Albrect D ü rer was a German artist who became famous for his prints. He is also known as the first artist in history to sue someone in civil court for making unauthorized copies of his work. This print is filled with symbolism that supports a Christian lifestyle. Death is depicted as the ghastly looking figure beside the knight. He holds and hour glass to remind the knight that his days are numbered and his time is running. The hourglass was a common attribute for Death during the Renaissance. An attribute is an object closely associated with an individual or group and allows us to identify the bearer. Later Death’s attribute would become the scythe, the large sickle he is seen carrying on his shoulder. Behind the knight comes the Devil, rendered to look like a goat. This was common in religious art from the Early Christian Era right through the Renaissance. The goat had been a powerful Pagan fertility symbol, second only to the snake, and Christians made the goat evil by associating it with Satan to dissuade the Pagan worship of these animals. The snake is demonized for the same purpose by making the serpent the villain in the garden of Eden story from the Bible.

Despite having Death and the Devil trying to frighten and intimidate him, the knight rides along resolutely, unconcerned by their presence. The knight is confident that he is protected from their influence. His armor protects him. Of course metal armor can’t protect us from the Devil, or Death if it’s our time, so obviously the armor is a symbolic representation of that which emboldens the knight. The armor represents his faith. He is a devout Christian and his faith in God, his relationship with God and his Church, protects him from sin and evil. The horse elevates him, symbolizing his superior status as a righteous man. The sword is a power symbol, usually representing secular power but in this case perhaps referring to the power of the Lord to watch over and protect His followers. He dog that accompanies him symbolizes the faithfulness and loyalty exchanged between the knight and God. The castle on the hilltop could represent heaven, the knight’s ultimate destination. Death, Knight and Devil by Albrect Dürer 1513 (continued) Slide 39

Venus and Pan. Roman Copy of Greek original. Venus was the Roman goddess of love and beauty. Pan was a satyr. Satyrs spent all their time seeking women to have sex with them. Being half man and half goat they must have been very charming to have enjoyed any success at all in their quest. The goat was a major Pagan fertility symbol so having the lascivious satyr part goat makes sense. Here Venus seems to be fending off pan’s advances, going so far as to swat at him with her shoe (an insulting sign of contempt in some cultures) while Cupid, Venus’ son, tries to hold Pan at bay by grasping his horn. Horns and antlers are used in mating by those animals that wear them so horns became fertility symbols and may have been the source for the use of the word “horny” to mean in the mood for love.

Following the conversion of Pagan Rome to Christianity in the 4 th century, art in all of Europe was forced to conform to Christian sensibilities. Sculpture fell out of favor because of its popularity with Pagans and nudity in art was not tolerated as Christians considered it to be offensive as well as Pagan. It would be nearly 1,000 years before a European artist would exhibit a nude sculpture. This statue broke the moratorium on nude sculpture. The artist was prosecuted by the Church or imprisoned by the king so he apparently got away with this bold move. One question remains unanswered. Is the sculptural figure male or female?

David 1430 Donatello Even when viewed from the front it may be difficult to immediately identify the gender of the figure. But as the title states it is in fact David, the Biblical king and hero of the story involving the defeat of the giant, Goliath. The hat David wears is not one that would have been worn in Biblical times. It’s a man’s hat that would have been fashionable in 15 th century Florence, the city where Donatello lived and worked.

This full-length view reveals that the victorious David stands with his foot upon the severed head of Goliath (Slide 46), whom he had felled with a stone from his sling before beheading with the giant’s own sword. Goliath wears a helmet of the Roman style. At this time Italy was not the unified nation we know today but was made up of independent city states. Rome was the largest and most powerful of the city states and Florence was comparatively small and weak, being most known as an art center. When the statue was erected in the city square an angry mob tried to pull it down. It was the nudity that concerned them, but the fact that they feared the Romans would be insulted by the sculpture. Indeed, with the Florentine hat, and Goliath’s Roman helmet, Rome may have perceived this statue as suggesting that the smaller Florence could defeat the larger Rome just as David slew Goliath. It didn’t help matters when the statue was placed so as to face Rome in what could be interpreted as open defiance. But apparently Rome ignored the insult. The sword handle is another symbolic representation. It is quire phallic looking (a phallus symbol suggests a penis) and likely represents that David took Goliath’s manhood along with his sword and his life. But why did the artist choose make David so un-heroic looking? Rather than a muscular and athletic physique, Donatello depicts David as puny, even feminine. Certainly not heroic.

Perhaps the message to us is that one does not need to look like a hero to do heroic things.

This news photo of an angry Palestinian youth protesting against the Israeli military shows what David’s sling probably looked like.

Wedding Portrait 1434 Jan Van Eyck This painting has long been known as The Arnolfini Wedding Portrait as it understood to depict the marriage ceremony of Giovanni Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami. However, some sources have recently suggested that this in fact a depiction of the betrothal rather than of the actual wedding ceremony. I believe that it can be demonstrated beyond argument that this painting is indeed of the wedding itself and not the betrothal. First, the bride wears a wedding gown. In Western culture the current trend is towards white gowns, symbolizing purity of spirit, chastity of the body, and the clean start on a new life together. But in Renaissance Europe the popular color for wedding gowns was green, to represent the bride’s willingness and desire to conceive and start a family. Green is traditionally seen as a fertility color. Another fertility symbol is the dress being padded to make the bride appear pregnant. Another symbol of reproduction is the bed seen behind the bride and groom. The ceremony is taking place in his home rather than in a church, and the bed symbolizes that as a married couple they may now be intimate with one another. A bed in a portrait of an unmarried couple would be scandalous, suggesting that they were having premarital relations. The couple has removed their shoes. His are right beside his stocking-clad feet (Slide 49) and hers are seen back near the couch (50). This has long symbolized being on holy ground and is something the early Christians borrowed from the Pagans. It was a practice to remove one’s shoes when standing on holy ground and since they are not in church, it must be the fact that a religious ceremony is taking place that makes this apartment holy, if only on a temporary basis.

The candelabra holds but one candle despite having room for several more. In Renaissance art a common symbol for Jesus was the single lighted candle. At least one author has suggested that the reason for using only one candle was that candles were expensive and they were trying to economize. I suspect that candles were not so pricey as to cause a couple with such obvious wealth as these people to fret about burning a few if needed. The lone candle is clearly symbolic and not utilitarian. The convex mirror on the far wall is also symbolic, representing the presence of God (Slide 52). The convex mirror, which allows a fantastic field of view, symbolizes the “all seeing eye of God” and therefore the very presence of God Himself. Other obvious symbols present in the painting include the dog which represents the loyalty between the husband and wife; the fruit on the window sill and bench (53) which is a Pagan fertility symbol (today’s brides carry flowers but in Renaissance Europe they carried fruit to distribute to the guests as they walked down the aisle); the small broom hanging in the far right corner representing the wife’s duties in keeping the home; and the figural carving atop the bedpost of St. Margaret, the patron saint of housewives and mothers. The window could symbolize free will, meaning neither of the happy couple are here against their will. It could also represent the opportunity for a bright future together. The artist’s signature is quite unusual. Rather than signing his name in the lower corner as was customary, he signed in the middle of the canvas with his signature seen directly above the mirror. Instead so simply writing his name, he wrote an entire sentence, saying “I, Johann van Eych was here.” It is believed by many art historians that this statement serves as testimony; with van Eych becoming a witness to the marriage and the painting thus assuming the role of documentation. This might be important as the state didn’t issue marriage licenses or certificates at this time and there could come a time when the woman may need to prove that she was legally married, such as when her husband dies and she wants to inherit the estate. It would make no sense for this to be a painting of the betrothal, with was more like a business negotiation than a ceremony. Although the location of the original painting is unknown, a painting of the painting suggests that Giovanni Cenami commissioned a portrait to give her husband as a wedding gift. This was very common amongst wealthily Europeans and the painting presented by the bride to the groom was often an intimate portrait (Slide 54). Wedding Portrait 1434 Jan Van Eyck (continued)

The bride’s nudity could symbolize her purity of mind and spirit. It could also represent her giving herself without reservation to her husband. The convex mirror over the basin invokes the presence of God into her marriage and in the mirror can be seen the image of the Virgin Mary and infant Jesus, also invited into the home of a devoutly Christian family. The bride’s mother is also seen, perhaps to act as chaperone and soothe any suspicions the husband might feel as he realized that his naked wife was in the room with a male artist. The mother’s presence implies that the bride posed, the artist painted, and nothing untoward happened.

This is the painting in which can be seen the nude Cenami portrait (center of image about 1/3 in from the right) on display in a wealthy collector’s home. The original painting appears to be lost.

If you said it’s a submarine, no cookie for you. It’s a PHOTOGRAPH of a submarine, remember? Art is not real, and can never be real. When a real object is offered as art it ceases to be real and becomes… art. This is what painter Renee Magritte was telling us in his 1929 painting, This is not a Pipe . (Slide 58)

This is not a Pipe by Rene Magritte 1929

Prehistory Before a Written Language

Terminology Paleolithic = Old Stone Age Mesolithic = Middle Stone Age Neolithic = New Stone Age Flintstones = Cartoon Stone Age

Terminology Petrographs are paintings or drawings on stone or rock. Petroglyphs are engravings.

The Lascaux Cave is located in southern France and is one of, if not the best known of the Paleolithic painted caves. Rediscovered in 1940, the walls and ceiling of the cavern are covered with fantastic paintings of animals. The first theory that was developed regarding the cave and its animal images was the “hunting magic theory” that suggests that the prehistoric hunters somehow used the images to gain advantage over the animals they hunted and guarantee success in the hunt. Despite this being the most popular explanation of the cave’s use, there are a few problems with this theory. Most of the markings identified as weapons do not appear to strike the animal images. Why have most of them miss if the point is to guarantee hunting success? Also, these markings said to be weapons don’t look very much like actual hunting weapons. Surely these Paleolithic artists who were capable of rendering such beautiful and accurate animal images could have done a better job of drawing spears and arrows. Upon entering the cave the visitor is greeted by numerous paintings of bulls, deer, and other animals that were known to the Paleolithic people who lived in the region at the time the cave was painted (Slides 63-66). However, some researchers feel the most interesting of the animal images in the cave’s entryway is the very first animal encountered. Situated nearest to the entrance (Slide 67) is what researchers have dubbed “ The Unicorn .” Of course, unicorn means “one horn” and this animal clearly has two horns projecting from its head. But like the unicorn of European legend, the Lascaux unicorn is a mythical creature. Of all the animals depicted in the cave this one, the first one a visitor sees is the only one not recognizable as a realistic rendering of an actual animal. The Hunting Magic Theory supporters have claimed that this figure may actually be a human hunter wearing an animal hide to disguise himself. This is a technique employed by hunters but this doesn’t explain why the animal is a fictional creature rather than recognizable as something the Paleolithic hunters pursued. Some investigators have suggested that The Unicorn may in fact be a shaman. One of the attributes of shamanism is the ability to assume animal form. Ancient people associated animals with the spirit world so the shaman needed this ability in order to move between the material world and spirit world. The Unicorn as a shaman supports the contention that the cave may have been used for ritualistic purposes. It is interesting to note that The Unicorn is not only the first animal a visitor encounters, but it is also oriented so as to seemingly direct the visitor into the cave, with its horns pointing the way. This would make sense if The Unicorn is seen as shaman and spiritual guide. Perhaps a mythical creature represents the shaman because the shaman is considered mythical, and not of this world. The Paleolithic

The animal images not only cover the walls, but also the ceiling.

Many of the animal images are painted right on top of older renderings, suggesting that perhaps their power was only temporary and they need not be preserved. At left is seen a bull superposed over a deer (directly above the front legs) and another animal nearly hidden by the line forming the bull’s belly. Note the row of dots just behind the bull’s shoulder. There are many dots on the Lascaux walls and it’s hard to imagine what sort of weapon these are supposed to represent. Can you spot the other animal covered by the bull? Look to the thick brush stroke making the bull’s belly. Slide 69 reveals the animal image that is nearly completely covered by the later painting of the bull.

Lascaux Horse Sometimes called “Chinese Horses” due to their resemblance to horse images produced in China. Note the markings that are often called arrows. Do they really look like actual arrows? What of the other markings that don’t appear recognizable as weapons at all? Also notice the bare spots on the wall where paint has fallen off because of human intrusion into the cave upsetting the atmosphere and harming the paint.

Notice the delicate and beautiful rendering of the deer seen in Slide 72. Some question how artists so skilled could make such crude and unrealistic renderings of weapons as the Hunting Magic Theory supporters claim they have done. Look at the markings in Slide 73. Do these appear like artful depictions of spears and arrows consistent with the skill demonstrated in the animal images?

The Well Scene Slide 75 Another Lascaux image that has confounded experts is what is called The Well Scene (Slide 75). Found at the bottom of a deep shaft in the cave’s floor, the painting depicts what is generally accepted to be a humanoid form interacting with a bison and a rhinoceros. A rhinoceros? In southern France? Around 20,000-30,000 years ago much of Europe was covered with snow and ice. What we see in this painting is a wooly rhinoceros, a species that thrived in the cold. A close examination of the painting reveals that the artist has suggested the rhino’s long coat with multiple brushstrokes extending down its belly. The Hunting Magic Theory people say that this scene shows a hunter being killed by a bison he wounded with a spear. But some researchers disagree, noting that the objects interpreted to be weapons bear little if any resemblance to realistic spears and this is odd given the very naturalistic renderings of the animals. Also, why does the hunter have what clearly appears to be an avian head? There is another object near the human figure that looks like a rod or staff with a bird-like image affixed to the top. Those who support the shaman theory point to this as a symbol for a shaman, meaning perhaps the human with the bird-like head is a shaman represented as being part animal or maybe even depicted in the act of changing form. There remains a great disagreement about the true meaning of this painting with the Hunting Magic theorists and shaman theory supporters arguing over the proper interpretation.

Most researchers adamantly insist that the markings in the painted caves are not a form of written language. Some wonder how they can be so certain. The colored panels seen at right surely aren’t meant to represent weapons and the closest object they seem to resemble are flags or banners, which are generally used for group identification. If that is the intended purpose, this would constitute written language.

Altimira, Spain Hundreds of painted caves have been found all over the world. The cave at Lascaux is perhaps the best known, and is arguably the largest and most spectacular, but there are many others with amazing art. Maybe the second most famous of the painted caves is Altimira Cave in Spain. The styles in the different caves are unique and with some practice are recognizable from one another.

Cosquer Cave Discovered by a SCUBA diver in 1985 and not revealed to others until 1991, the entrance to this cave is some 100 feet underwater and requires swimming through about 500 feet of a submerged tunnel to reach the cavern. The paintings have been dated from 18,000 to 28,000 years of age. This would date the paintings to the last ice age which explains the depictions of penguins on the walls (see next slide) and that reminds us of the rhino in Lascaux, no?

Peche Merle, Spain It used to be that when people found these painted caves they did foolish things, like in Lascaux Cave where they immediately excavated the floor and installed a concrete walkway for visitors (see Slide 63). Now we are more careful with these discoveries so as not to destroy artifacts or information. When this cave was located, some truly incredible evidence of human visitation remained in the sandy floor.

Cave at Peche Merle In this cave are the preserved footprints of the last pair of visitors before the cave was abandoned for many thousands of years. Two people walked side by side to the rear of the cave, turned and walked back out. Given that the size and depth of the prints leads researches to conclude that the two individuals were likely around 13 years of age this could support the notion of the caves being used for initiation rites.

Owl from Cave at Chauvet Up until now we have been looking mainly at petrographs, or drawings on rock. This is an example of the petroglyph, or engraving on rock. They can be harder to see than the paintings.

Paleolithic Oil Lamp This stone oil lamp bears markings similar to those found in the caves that are claimed to be weapons. Note that there are no animal images on the lamp. Why would representations of weapons be presented in this context? Is it not at least possible the markings have some meaning and we simply don’t understand the message?

Venus of Brassempouy c. 25,000-75,000 BC The fact that this artifact has survived at all is amazing. It is made of ivory, an organic material and organic material tends to not survive. First of all organic material may rot or decay. Secondly, organic materials are often eaten by insects. This object survived by being buried in mud where it was protected. The figure appears to be a young woman. The exact purpose of the sculpture is not known for certain but a good guess would be a fertility association. In many cultures an amulet representing a fertility goddess might be rubbed or stroked as a prayer for healthy children. The worn facial features on this piece suggests such rubbing may have occurred.

Lion Headed Human Figure c. 30,000 BC This enigmatic figure carved from mastodon ivory is one of the oldest dated sculptures known. The sex is not clear, nor is the purpose for the piece. Possibly intended to be anthropomorphic (assigning human characteristics to animals, see Bugs Bunny as the classic example) we are not sure if it’s a shaman, or a deity, or some other subject. The significance of the seven parallel lines engraved on the upper left arm is also unknown.

Artifact Anything that shows the effect of the hand of Man. If made by Man, or modified by Man, it is an artifact regardless of age or value.

Terminology Free-standing sculpture also known as three-dimensional or “in the round.” Relief sculpture: Still attached to the wall or stone. Can be “high relief” with great depth or Low, called “bas relief” with little depth.

Venus of Willendorf c. 25,000 BC

Venus of Willendorf c. 25,000 BC Slide 89 It is generally assumed that this is a fertility figure. Those parts of the body associated with reproduction such as the breasts, pubic triangle and hips are emphasized while the parts not geared towards reproduction like the hands and feet are merely suggested. The figure bears no facial features. Perhaps she is a goddess and depicting a deity's face was blasphemous. Or maybe she has no face so that she can represent any woman rather than one specific individual. We identify each other by facial appearance so when an artist denies us the face he also denies us the identity of the subject. This is often done so that a single figure may represent a larger group. Many researchers have assumed that the figure is depicted with an intricate hair style, represented by the pattern seen on her head. Some have suggested this may actually be some sort of hat. This makes no sense to me. Why would she be totally nude and wear a hat? Note that Slide 89 shows two photos of this artifact. One is a reverse image and I have determined that the right side image is correct. Both versions routinely appear in publication and on web sites. Clearly a reversed image of this artifact has been used in publication and possibly it has gone unnoticed. Slide 91 is the correct version. The side view (Slide 91) shows the corpulence of the figure. There is medical research showing that body fat can affect fertility and the onset of puberty in girls. Since virtually all of these fertility figures are overweight it seems these ancient people were aware of this fact many thousands of years ago. It is a common practice in art to call a nude female figure Venus, after the Roman goddess of love and beauty, and Willendorf is the Austrian village near where this object was found. Hence the object’s name.

Many people are surprised to learn that the Venus of Willendorf is only slightly over four inches in height. The culture that created it was nomadic, so large, heavy sculpture would have been impractical or impossible to carry around.

Venus of Laussel c. 25,000 BC Slides 94 & 95 Whereas the Venus of Willendorf is three-dimensional sculpture or “in the round” as it is sometimes called, the Venus of Laussel is a relief sculpture, meaning the figure is still attached to the rock or wall. There are some similarities between these two figures and most experts agree that the Laussel piece is also a fertility figure. Like the Willendorf figure, this one features large, obvious breasts, hips and pubic triangle. The face is nonexistent and the hands are shallow engravings although they do play a more significant role with this figure. The figure’s left hand rests over abdomen, a clear fertility reference. Her right hand holds aloft a horn, from a sheep or goat. Horns and antlers are fertility symbols in many ancient cultures and this makes sense as these are used in mating by the animals that wear them. Females will select mates based on the size of the horns or antlers. A large “rack” demonstrates that the animal has survived in nature as they grow larger each year (horns are permanent while antlers are shed annually). On the horn are engraved 13 lines. This could refer to the lunar calendar of 13 months or perhaps it symbolizes 13 years, a typical age for the onset of puberty which is when young people may have been brought to the location of this sculpture for an initiation ceremony. This piece is no longer “in situ,” meaning its original location. It’s been moved into a museum where it is displayed in a fashion contrary to the wishes of the artist (who was very likely a woman as men would have had nothing to do with the fertility objects). It now hangs on a wall looking the viewer in the face. This is not how it was intended to be seen. Slide 94 shows how it looked when discovered. This display radically alters the perception of the sculpture. It was not meant to be viewed as it hangs on a wall looking us in the eye. These fertility figures were most likely sculpted by women for use by women. Men would have had nothing to do with these at all.

Terminology A cromlech is a circular structure made of stone and used for religious purposes. There are only two cromlechs in the world and both are in England. Stonehenge is the more famous of the two.

Stonehenge estimated age 2,500-7,000 BC

Stonehenge estimated age 2,500-7,000 BC Stonehenge is the best known cromlech in the world. A cromlech is a circular structure made of stone used for religious purposes. We don’t know for sure exactly when it was built, or who built it, or how it was used. It’s an example of megalithic (big stone) construction utilizing the post and lintel technique. There are many stories and legends surrounding Stonehenge but only one astrological association can be documented. At sunrise on the Summer Solstice, the sun rises directly over the Heelstone, the upright stone set apart from the circle. This was obviously no accident as an earlier stone that was apparently too short was discarded and lies to this day on the ground. The Heelstone can be seen as it appears when looking out from the center of the circle in Slide 99. Also visible is the discarded stone partially sunken into the Earth. The current Heelstone is actually the second one erected. The first proved to be too short and was cast aside and a taller one installed. The Heelstone got its name from a Middle Ages story that a priest saw Satan building Stone Henge and ordered him to stop. Satan threw the stone at the priest but God protected him and the rock bounced off his heel landing upright where it still stands. It’s been called the Heelstone ever since. Fortunately the stone didn’t strike the priest in the groin or it might have a totally different name. Look carefully at the stones in Slide 100 to see some of copious amounts of graffiti that have been scratched into the stone by vandals causing the site to be accessible only by special permission. This slide also illustrates the post and lintel construction techniques where two uprights posts are crossed at the top by a third unit. Recent investigations have uncovered a large, temporary settlement nearby and evidence of a huge and grandiose feast occurring here. This may suggest that Stonehenge served as a gathering place for members of different tribes or groups to meet for the purpose of betrothals. We think that cultures would meet so that young people could find marriage partners outside their own community and that may have happened here. It’s also possible that the big party was part of a fertility celebration, and the newlyweds may have consummated their marriages before leaving as an offering to the gods or just for good luck.

Heelstone from altar location.

The woman in the photo is the instructor’s wife, Sherri. Yes, she has a lot of hair. She also has a Ph.D. in Classical History and after a number of years in higher education, including holding positions as a history professor and an administrator, she sought a career change and went to law school. She is now an attorney. None of this has anything to do with art history but students in the classroom always ask about my wife so I thought you might also be wondering.

Mesopotamia What does this Greek word mean? Land between the rivers. Which rivers? The Tigris and the Euphrates Where is this on a modern map? Iraq, Syria and a bit of Southern Turkey

Mesopotamia (land between the rivers) is located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in the modern country of Iraq and some of western Iran. Mesopotamia was a harsh land and its history is one of violence and warfare as one culture replaced another only to be overthrown by yet another. Mesopotamian art includes architecture in the form of temples (called ziggurats), sculpture (both relief and free-standing) as well as jewelry and other crafts.

Akkadian Cylinder Seal c. 2200 BC Cylinder seals are short tubes that feature relief sculpture that were rolled across a wax seal to leave the impression of the sculpture. These could be official seals representing an office holder or might be used as personal signatures.

Terminology A ziggurat is a Mesopotamian temple. It is based on the mastaba form of stacking levels of structures with inward-slanting walls.

Temple of Urnamu at Ur c. 4500 BC Slide 106 A Mesopotamian temple structure, called a ziggurat, was symbolic of the class structure of the society (Slide 106). The king would be permitted to climb to the very top of the temple, while the peasants would be kept standing on the ground at the base. The middle levels would have been accessible to people of higher status than the peasants, but lower than the king. In other words, your rank within the culture determined how high you could go on the structure. Height is always associated with status. Slide 107 shows the long staircase that led to the top of the temple structure. Many ancient temples (from various cultures) feature a long flight of stairs to make the visitor weary and more receptive to religious inspiration. This is an example of how architecture can manipulate us. Slide 108 shows an artist’s conception of what the temple looked like when it was new. Slide 109 is an aerial view illustrating that the temple was the center of a complex of buildings.

Temple of Urnamu at Ur c. 4500 BC

Sumerian Temple Figures c. 2400 BC These statuettes vary in size to almost life-size and are perhaps meant to represent worshipers or clergy. The eyes are rendered particularly large and open suggesting that see all and do so quite clearly. Maybe we are to believe they know more than do we?

Weight Standard from Ur c. 2000 BC Even something as mundane and boring as a weight standard, used to test scales for accuracy, can be made aesthetically pleasing and more interesting. A simple cube would have worked fine for the purpose, but sculpting the standard into the shape of a sleeping duck is more fun, isn’t it?

Bull-Headed Lyre from Ur 2600BC A lyre is a stringed musical instrument something like a small harp. This one is dressed with gold and lapis lazuli (a blue stone found in the Middle East). An instrument this fancy may have been reserved for to entertain royalty or for religious ceremonies. This is a reconstruction. The original wooden frame was long deteriorated when discovered in the early part of the 20 th century. See the next slide for a ¾ view of this artifact.

Mesopotamian Gold Helmet of King Meskalamdug c. 2400 BC This object was one of many that was looted from the Baghdad Museum in 2003 during the chaos that followed the overthrow of Suddam Hussein.

Akkadian Ruler (Sargon I?) 2300-2200 BC The history of the area known as Mesopotamia (essentially modern Iraq) is a violent one with one culture overthrowing another. This bronze bust celebrates a ruler who conquered Mesopotamia and some surrounding regions. The eyes were originally of some precious material and were gouged out and stolen at some point. See next slide for a frontal view showing the damage.

Head of an Akkadian Ruler, from Nineveh, Iraq. 2300-2200 BC

Lilith, Babylonian Goddess of Death c. 2200 BC Mesopotamian deities are always depicted wearing the hats with swirls. The more swirls, the more powerful the deity. Four swirls is maximum as seen at right. Lilith stands upon lions and is flanked by owls. Both animals are hunters who kill in the dark, being nocturnal. Since night is sinister and death is often feared to be coming for us in the dark, such animals would naturally be associated with death and can symbolize the concept. Lilith’s connections with the spirit world is evidenced by her being part bird with wings and taloned feet. She holds measuring ropes, an ancient form of bookkeeping. What she is recording is the quality of one’s life for she is the final judge, decided Heaven or Hell for the recently deceased. This panel is made from terra-cotta, or fired clay.

Law Code of Hammurabi c.1760 BC A Mesopotamian artifact that conveys royal and divine messages is The Law Code of Hammurabi . This stele (an elongated commemorative marker often displaying engraved text or images) represents an advanced notion of law and justice. We take for granted that we know the laws of the land or can easily find out but ruling monarchs can often be capricious in creating and enforcing laws. Sometimes the subjects are unaware that they are breaking a law until they are arrested. But in ancient Babylonia, the people could review the laws governing them by simply consulting The Law Code of Hammurabi. The stele is engraved with text, detailing some 282 laws. At the top of the stele is seen a relief sculpture featuring King Hammurabi in conference with the sun god, Shamash. The viewer knows the seated figure is a god because he wears the hat with multiple swirls similar to the one seen in the depiction of Lilith and a clue to the god’s specific identity can be seen in the waves of heat emanating from his shoulders. The god gives the law to the king who in turn passes it on to the people. This is a great system… for the king. Any unpopular laws are simply blamed on the god. The text is quite specific, giving great detail to the ordinances. Law number 196 may sound familiar. ”If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out.” This is the “eye for an eye” many people recognize from the Christian Bible. Many of the laws engraved on the stele are rather entertaining. Consider law number 132: “If the ‘finger is pointed’ at a man's wife about another man, but she is not caught sleeping with the other man, she shall jump into the river for her husband.” We can only speculate as to the purpose for having the wife jump into the river. Some books mistakenly identify this stele as the first or only such artifact. That is not correct. There are others, and some predate this one. But this is the best of the lot and so it is pictured in the books most often.

Detail of the relief sculpture on The Law Code of Hammurabi. The king is seen on the left and the seated sun god (note the hat) dictates the laws to him. Kings wore the close-fitting round caps seen on Hammurabi. Mesopotamian cultures were fond of recording laws and history. The following slides illustrate some examples.

Text of Assyrian 689BC conquest

Standing Gudea Gudea became king around 2164 BC, as the Akkadian influence waned. He ruled the city of Lagash for about 20 years and is best remembered for the large number of portrait sculptures he had done of himslef. Notice the king’s rounded hat?

Assyrian Lamassu Gate Guardian 8 th century BC These figures are usually seen in pairs, flanking doorways or other access ways and are considered to be gate guardians. Some books state that these figures are always part human and part bull. But is that true? First of all, we know the figure is actually part deity by the “swirly” hat he wears, identifying him as a god. Then look at the lamassu in the next slide. Is that one part bull as some authors say they all are?

Look closely and you see the clawed paws and mane of a lion rather than the bovine hooves observed on the previous figure. They can have either the body of a bull or that of a lion. Both of the pictured figures have something odd about the legs. What is it? Click for the answer after trying to figure it out for yourself. The lamassu figures are depicted with five legs. This was done to make four legs visible no matter which direction the viewer sees them.

Assyrian Lion Hunting Scene c. 2850 BC The Asiatic lion was a slightly smaller cousin to the African lion and was finally driven to extinction around 1850. In ancient Mesopotamia kings and other assorted royals would hunt the lions. To demonstrate their strength and bravery they had relief sculpture created showing them overcoming the beasts..

This sculpted panel reveals that the hunt was rigged, with the lions being released from captivity for the hunters’ convenience. This raises many possibilities such as the lions being drugged, or declawed making them less dangerous to the hunters. It is somewhat surprising that this image was created since the purpose of this art was to celebrate the king’s prowess and it certainly calls the accomplishment of the killing into question.

Mesopotamian king killing a lion.

Even the king would want himself portrayed as defeating the “king of the jungle” to impress his subjects. It’s up to the individual to decide the likelihood that the king ever really dismounted his chariot and took on wounded lions with nothing more than a big knife. How do you know we are seeing the king?

Dying Lioness Slide 132 There are basically two options when depicting an enemy in art. One can ridicule the opponent, making him appear inept and foolish or one can celebrate the enemy and highlight his skill and bravery. We can call these conflicting techniques “the worthless and weak” or “the worthy opponent.” Both styles have been used at various times and places by different cultures. In The Dying Lioness the animal is mortally wounded, paralyzed by the arrows that have struck her. Yet she refuses to give up, and continues to drag herself forward, towards her tormentors with the intention of killing them before she herself dies. This determination in battle is the heart of the warrior spirit and a warrior culture would respect and admire such an adversary. Indeed, the lioness is depicted as proud and defiant even in death. This is why the kings wanted to be shown killing lions. Where is the glory in a depiction of the king stomping an aardvark to death?

Art History I Part 1 Intro to Mesopotamia

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Art History I Part 1 Intro to Mesopotamia