Artificial intelligence, full course masterclass from beginner to advanced

CptS 440 / 540
Artificial Intelligence
Logical Reasoning

Unification
• We sometimes want to “match” statements
 -dog(?x) v feathers(?x)
 Feathers(Tweety)
 Dog(Rufus)
 (?x Tweety)
• The match needs to be consistent
• During the match we build a binding list
• Example
 -hold(P1, ?card) ^ -hold(P2, ?card) ^ -hold(P3, ?card) -> solution(?card)
 -hold(P1, Rope) ^ -hold(P2, Rope) ^ -hold(P3, Rope)
 If we substitute ?card with Rope everywhere (?card Rope) then
statement is equivalent to the left-hand side of the rule
• Two expressions are unifiable iff there exists a subsitution list
(binding list) that, when applied to both expressions, makes them
the same

Unification
• Three valid types of
substitutions:
1. variable -> constant
2. variable1 -> variable2
3. variable -> function, if
function doesn't contain
variable
• Things to look out for:
1. What if variable is already
bound (substituted)?
(f ?x ?x) and (f Peter Mary)
2. What if function contains a
second variable, which is
already bound to the first
variable?
(f ?x) and (f red(balloon))
(f ?x) and (f ?y)
(f ?x) and (f red(?x))
1. Programmer(?x)
2. Programmer(Cook)
– ((?x Cook))
1. Programmer(Cook)
2. Programmer(Cook)
1. Father(?x, Father(john))
2. Father(Grandfather(?y), Father(?y))
– ((?x Grandfather(?y)) (?y John))
1. Father(Grandfather(John), Father(John))
2. Father(Grandfather(John), Father(John))

Unification Code
// Determine whether two expressions can be
unified. If yes, return bindings. If no, return FAIL
• Function unify(p1, p2, bindings)
1. If (p1 = p2) return bindings
2. If var(p1) try to add (p1 p2) to list of bindings
3. If var(p2) try to add (p2 p1) to list of bindings
4. If p1&p2 are length 1 return FAIL
5. If (length(p1) != length(p2)) return FAIL
6. Recursively unify each term pair in p1 and p2
7. Return binding list

Unification Code
// See if (var pat) can be added to bindings
• Function varunify(var, pat, bindings)
1. If var is already in bindings unify new match with
old match
2. See if pattern already unifies with var using
bindings
3. If var occurs in pat return FAIL
4. Else add (var pat) to bindings

Unification Code
• Function unify(p1, p2, bindings)
1. If (p1 = p2) return bindings
2. If var(p1) try to add (p1 p2) to
list of bindings
3. If var(p2) try to add (p2 p1) to
list of bindings
4. If p1&p2 are length 1 return FAIL
5. If (length(p1) != length(p2))
return FAIL
6. Recursively unify each term pair
in p1 and p2, return result
7. Return binding list
• Function varunify(var, pat,
bindings)
1. If var is already in bindings unify
new match with old match
2. See if pattern already unifies
with var using bindings
3. If var occurs in pat return FAIL
4. Else add (var pat) to bindings

Examples
• f(?x, ?x) and f(?y, ?z)
– ?
• f(?x, ?x) and f(John, Fred)
– ?
• f(?x, ?y, ?z) and f(?y, John, Fred)
– ?
• f(?x, ?y, ?z) and f(?y, ?z,
Fred)
– ?
• p(?x, ?x) and
p(cook,henderson)
?
• p(?x, ?x) and p(cook, ?y)
?
• Try:
(r, f(?y), ?y, ?x) and
(r, ?x, f(A), f(?v)))

Examples
• f(?x, ?x) and f(?y, ?z)
– OK ((?x ?y) (?y ?z))
– ?
– ?
• f(?x, ?y, ?z) and f(?y, ?z,
Fred)
– ?
• p(?x, ?x) and
p(cook,henderson)
?
?
• Try:
(r, f(?y), ?y, ?x) and
(r, ?x, f(A), f(?v)))

Examples
• f(?x, ?x) and f(?y, ?z)
– OK ((?x ?y) (?y ?z))
– NO
– ?
• f(?x, ?y, ?z) and f(?y, ?z,
Fred)
– ?
• p(?x, ?x) and
p(cook,henderson)
?
?
• Try:
(r, f(?y), ?y, ?x) and
(r, ?x, f(A), f(?v)))

Examples
• f(?x, ?x) and f(?y, ?z)
– OK ((?x ?y) (?y ?z))
– NO
– NO
• f(?x, ?y, ?z) and f(?y, ?z, Fred)
– ?
• p(?x, ?x) and
p(cook,henderson)
?
?
• Try:
(r, f(?y), ?y, ?x) and
(r, ?x, f(A), f(?v)))

Examples
• f(?x, ?x) and f(?y, ?z)
– OK ((?x ?y) (?y ?z))
– NO
– NO
– OK ((?x ?y) (?y ?z) (?z Fred))
• p(?x, ?x) and
p(cook,henderson)
?
?
• Try:
(r, f(?y), ?y, ?x) and
(r, ?x, f(A), f(?v)))

Examples
• f(?x, ?x) and f(?y, ?z)
– OK ((?x ?y) (?y ?z))
– NO
– NO
– OK ((?x ?y) (?y ?z) (?z Fred))
• p(?x, ?x) and
p(cook,henderson)
NO
?
• Try:
(r, f(?y), ?y, ?x) and
(r, ?x, f(A), f(?v)))

Examples
• f(?x, ?x) and f(?y, ?z)
– OK ((?x ?y) (?y ?z))
– NO
– NO
– OK ((?x ?y) (?y ?z) (?z Fred))
• p(?x, ?x) and
p(cook,henderson)
NO
OK ((?x cook) (?y cook))
• Try:
(r, f(?y), ?y, ?x) and
(r, ?x, f(A), f(?v)))

Unifiers
• Note that there can be more than one binding list that
unifies two expressions.
– (f ?x) (f ?y)
– binding list = ((?x ?y)) or ((?x foo) (?y foo))
• In general, we prefer to not overly constrain the
substitutions.
• If keep general, result can apply to greater number of
future situations.
• The less constraints placed, the more general the
substitution (the binding list, or unifier)
• Given expressions p and q, a unifier of p and q is any
binding list b such that pb = qb (pb means binding list b is
applied to expression p)

Most General Unifier
• Unifier b1 is more general than unifier b2 if for every
expression p, pb2 is an instance of pb1 (or pb1b3 = pb2)
• ((?x ?y)) is more general than ((?x foo) (?y foo))
– because (f ?x) ((?x ?y)) ((?y foo)) = (f ?x) ((?x foo) (?y foo))
• If two expressions are unifiable, then there exists an mgu
(most general unifier)
• The code we designed returns an mgu.
– Q(F(?x), ?z, A) and Q(?a, ?z, ?y)
– Unifiable?
– Yes! substitution list = ((?a F(?x)) (?y A))
– P(?x) and P(A)?
– P(F(?x, G(A,?y)), G(A,?y)) and P(F(?x,?z), ?z)?
– Q(?x, ?y, A) and Q(B, ?y, ?z)?
– R(?x) and R(F(?x))?

Unification and Eliza
• Very popular AI program developed in the 60s.
• Eliza simulates a Rogerian psychiatrist.
• Takes your statements, permutes them, rephrases them as a question.
• Can it pass the Turing test?
• Parry - simulates paranoiac
• Simulator of autistic child
– hello
– i would like to talk about artificial intelligence
– i don't want to talk about you right now
– what?
– i want to know about ai
– i like wsu but i have to read this book
– help
– goodbye
• Try it out

Eliza
• Eliza uses unification to match input sentences against a set
of rules.
Looks at *eliza-rules*.
• Here variable can match a series of words.
• Rule 2:
– (((?* ?x) I want (?* ?y))
(What would it mean if you got ?y))
– means
– Look for the words “I want”. Match ?x to everything before the
phrase, and match ?y to everything after the phrase.
– Now respond “What would it mean if you got ?y”
– Every now and then, I want a chocolate malt.
– What would it mean it you got a chocolate malt

Eliza Rules
(defparameter *eliza-rules*
'((((?* ?x) hello (?* ?y))
(How do you do. Please state your problem.))
(((?* ?x) computer (?* ?y))
(Do computers worry you?)
(What do you think about machines?)
(Why do you mention computers?)
(What do you think machines have to do with
your problem?))
(((?* ?x) name (?* ?y))
(I am not interested in names))
(((?* ?x) sorry (?* ?y))
(Please don't apologize)
(Apologies are not necessary)
(What feelings do you have when you
apologize))
(((?* ?x) I remember (?* ?y))
(Do you often think of ?y)
(Does thinking of ?y bring anything else to
mind?)
(What else do you remember)
(Why do you recall ?y right now?)
(What in the present situation reminds you of
?y)
(What is the connection between me and ?y))
((((?* ?x) do you remember (?* ?y))
(Did you think I would forget ?y ?)
(Why do you think I should recall ?y now)
(What about ?y)
(You mentioned ?y))
(((?* ?x) if (?* ?y))
(Do you really think its likely that ?y)
(Do you wish that ?y)
(What do you think about ?y)
(Really-- if ?y))

Eliza Rules
(((?* ?x) I dreamed about (?* ?y))
(Really-- ?y)
(Have you ever fantasized ?y while you were awake?)
(Have you dreamed about ?y before?))
(((?* ?x) dream about (?* ?y))
(How do you feel about ?y in reality?))
(((?* ?x) dream (?* ?y))
(What does this dream suggest to you?)
(Do you dream often?)
(What persons appear in your dreams?)
(Don't you believe that dream has to do with your
problem?))
(((?* ?x) my mother (?* ?y))
(Who else in your family ?y)
(Tell me more about your family))
(((?* ?x) my father (?* ?y))
(Your father)
(Does he influence you strongly?)
(What else comes to mind when you think of your father?))
(((?* ?x) I want (?* ?y))
(What would it mean if you got ?y)
(Why do you want ?y)
(Suppose you got ?y soon))
(((?* ?x) if (?* ?y))
(Do you really think its likely that ?y)
(Do you wish that ?y)
(What do you think about ?y)
(Really-- if ?y))
(((?* ?x) no (?* ?y))
(Why not?)
(You are being a bit negative)
(Are you saying "NO" just to be negative?))
(((?* ?x) I was (?* ?y))
(Were you really?)
(Perhaps I already knew you were ?y)
(Why do you tell me you were ?y now?))
(((?* ?x) I am glad (?* ?y))
(How have I helped you to be ?y)
(What makes you happy just now)
(Can you explain why you are suddenly ?y)) (((?* ?x) I am
sad (?* ?y))
(I am sorry to hear you are depressed)
(I'm sure its not pleasant to be sad))
(((?* ?x) are like (?* ?y))
(What resemblance do you see between ?x and ?y))
(((?* ?x) is like (?* ?y))
(In what way is it that ?x is like ?y)
(What resemblance do you see?)
(Could there really be some connection?)
(How?))
(((?* ?x) alike (?* ?y))
(In what way?)
(What similarities are there?))
(((?* ?x) same (?* ?y))
(What other connections do you see?))

Eliza Rules
(((?* ?x) I was (?* ?y))
(Were you really?)
(Perhaps I already knew you were ?y)
(Why do you tell me you were ?y now?))
(((?* ?x) was I (?* ?y))
(What if you were ?y ?)
(Do you thin you were ?y)
(What would it mean if you were ?y))
(((?* ?x) I am (?* ?y))
(In what way are you ?y)
(Do you want to be ?y ?))
(((?* ?x) am I (?* ?y))
(Do you believe you are ?y)
(Would you want to be ?y)
(You wish I would tell you you are ?y)
(What would it mean if you were ?y))
(((?* ?x) am (?* ?y))
(Why do you say "AM?")
(I don't understand that))
(((?* ?x) are you (?* ?y))
(Why are you interested in whether I am ?y or not?)
(Would you prefer if I weren't ?y)
(Perhaps I am ?y in your fantasies))
(((?* ?x) you are (?* ?y))
(What makes you think I am ?y ?))
…
(((?* ?x))
(Very interesting)
(I am not sure I understand you fully)
(What does that suggest to you?)
(Please continue)
(Go on)
(Do you feel strongly about discussing such things?))))

Sample Run
#<STRING-CHAR-FILE-STREAM #"out">
> (hello there eliza)
> (eliza)
ELIZA> (hello there eliza)(HOW DO YOU DO. PLEASE STATE YOUR PROBLEM.)
ELIZA> (computer are like students)(DO COMPUTERS WORRY YOU?)
ELIZA> (computers are like students)
(WHAT RESEMBLANCE DO YOU SEE BETWEEN COMPUTERS AND STUDENTS)
ELIZA> (they both run if they see programs)(REALLY-- IF THEY SEE PROGRAMS)
ELIZA> (yes that is correct)(YOU ARE SURE)
ELIZA> (yes)(I UNDERSTAND)
ELIZA> (what computer is your mother)(DO COMPUTERS WORRY YOU?)
ELIZA> (only your mother)(PLEASE CONTINUE)
ELIZA> (my mother is not a computer)
(WHAT DO YOU THINK MACHINES HAVE TO DO WITH YOUR PROBLEM?)

Sample Run
ELIZA> (my mother is not a machine)(TELL ME MORE ABOUT YOUR FAMILY)
ELIZA> (my father is not a machine either)(DOES HE INFLUENCE YOU STRONGLY?)
ELIZA> (no)(YOU ARE BEING A BIT NEGATIVE)
ELIZA> (yes)(YOU ARE SURE)
ELIZA> (i want to stop this conversation)(WHY DO YOU WANT TO STOP THIS CONVERSATION)
ELIZA> (do you remember what happened last time you talked this way)
(WHAT ABOUT WHAT HAPPENED LAST TIME I TALKED THIS WAY)
ELIZA> (enough)(PLEASE CONTINUE)
ELIZA> (no)(ARE YOU SAYING "NO" JUST TO BE NEGATIVE?)
ELIZA> (yes)(I UNDERSTAND)
ELIZA> (bye)(DO YOU FEEL STRONGLY ABOUT DISCUSSING SUCH THINGS?)
ELIZA> (quit)(WHAT DOES THAT SUGGEST TO YOU?)

Eliza and Parry Sample Run
I don't understand your motives.
WHY DON'T YOU UNDERSTAND MY MOTIVES?
Shouldn't I be?
WHY DID YOU SAY THAT JUST NOW?
That's just the way it is.
SUPPOSE THAT'S JUST THE WAY IT WERE NOT.
So?
I'M NOT SURE I UNDERSTAND YOU FULLY.
You harp on the same questions too much.
WHAT DOES THAT SIMILARITY SUGGEST TO YOU?
I don't get you.
DO YOU WISH THAT YOU DID GET I?

Example Proof With Unification
Bob is a buffalo 1. Buffalo(Bob)
Pat is a pig 2. Pig(Pat)
Buffalo outrun pigs 3.
FA x,y
Buffalo(x) ^ Pig(y) ->
Faster(x, y)
Prove: Bob is faster
than Pat

FA x,y
Faster(x, y)
than Pat
AI 1 & 2
(or GMP(1,2,3))
4. Buffalo(Bob) ^ Pig(Pat)

FA x,y
Faster(x, y)
than Pat
AI 1 & 2 4. Buffalo(Bob) ^ Pig(Pat)
UE 3, {x/Bob, y/Pat} 5.
Buffalo(Bob) ^ Pig(Pat)
-> Faster(Bob, Pat)

FA x,y
Faster(x, y)
than Pat
AI 1 & 2 4. Buffalo(Bob) ^ Pig(Pat)
UE 3, {x/Bob, y/Pat} 5.
Buffalo(Bob) ^ Pig(Pat)
-> Faster(Bob, Pat)
MP 4 & 5 6. Faster(Bob,Pat)

Resolution
• A complete inference rule
– (a v b, ~b) -? a
– (p1 v p2 v … v pm,
~p1 v pn v .. v pq) ->
p2 v pm v pn v .. v pq)
• Unification with resolution
– P(?x) Q(?x), Q(Mary)
– UNIFY the two clauses P(Mary) v Q(Mary), ~Q(Mary),
binding list ((?x Mary))
– Result is P(Mary)

Proof By Refutation Using Resolution
• To prove a statement using resolution:
– Convert each statement in database to clausal form
(Clausal form is a disjunction of literals)
– Negate the goal statement and convert to clausal form
– Repeatedly apply resolution to generate new statements
– If generate empty statement [], proof is complete
• This is Proof by refutation
– We know database statements are all true
– Resolution is sound
All statements generated are true if database is true
– How can we come up with empty (false) clause?
– Only possible false statement is negated goal
– If negated goal is false, goal must be true (A v -A is a tautology)

Example
• If Linus is sitting in the pumpkin patch, it must be Halloween. The
Great Pumpkin appears on Halloween. Linus is sitting in the
pumpkin patch. Prove the Great Pumpkin will appear today.
1. SitPatch(Linus) -> Halloween(Today)
2. Halloween(Today) -> GrPumpkin(Today)
3. SitPatch(Linus)
Rewrite:
1. ~SitPatch(Linus) v Halloween(Today)
2. ~Halloween(Today) v GrPumpkin(Today)
3. SitPatch(Linus)
4. ~GrPumpkin(Today) // Negated goal
Proof:

Example
• If Linus is sitting in the pumpkin patch, it must be Halloween. The
Great Pumpkin appears on Halloween. Linus is sitting in the
pumpkin patch. Prove the Great Pumpkin will appear today.
1. SitPatch(Linus) -> Halloween(Today)
2. Halloween(Today) -> GrPumpkin(Today)
3. SitPatch(Linus)
Rewrite:
1. ~SitPatch(Linus) v Halloween(Today)
2. ~Halloween(Today) v GrPumpkin(Today)
3. SitPatch(Linus)
4. ~GrPumpkin(Today) // Negated goal
Proof:
5. [2,4] ~Halloween(Today)
6. [1,5] ~SitPatch(Linus)
7. [3,6] NULL

Example
• If the maid stole the jewelry, then the butler wasn't guilty. Either
the maid stole the jewelry or she milked the cows. If the maid
milked the cows, then the butler got the cream.
• Goal: Therefore, if the butler was guilty, then he got the cream.
G(M) -> ~G(B)
G(M) v Cows(M)
~Cows(M) v Cream(B)
~(G(B) -> Cream(B))
Rewrite:
1. ~G(M) v ~G(B)
2. G(M) v Cows(M)
3. ~Cows(M) v Cream(B)
4. G(B)
5. ~Cream(B)

Example
• If the maid stole the jewelry, then the butler wasn't guilty. Either
the maid stole the jewelry or she milked the cows. If the maid
milked the cows, then the butler got the cream.
• Goal: Therefore, if the butler was guilty, then he got the cream.
G(M) -> ~G(B)
G(M) v Cows(M)
~Cows(M) v Cream(B)
~(G(B) -> Cream(B))
Rewrite:
1. ~G(M) v ~G(B)
2. G(M) v Cows(M)
3. ~Cows(M) v Cream(B)
4. G(B)
5. ~Cream(B)
Proof:
6. [3, 5] ~Cows(M)
7. [2, 6] G(M)
8. [1, 7] ~G(B)
9. [4, 8] NULL
Q.E.D.

Unification and Resolution
Using the database below, prove that Colonel Mustard is a suspect.
1. crime(Kitchen)
2. in(ProfPlum, Library)
3. talking(MissScarlet, ProfPlum)
4. -talking(?x4, ?y4) v with(?x4, ?y4)
5. -with(?x5, ?y5) v -in(?y5, ?z5) v in(?x5, ?z5)
6. -in(?x6, ?y6) v -crime(?y6) v suspect(?x6)
7. talking(ColonelMustard, MisterGreen)
8. -hungry(?x8) v in(?x8, Kitchen)
9. hungry(MisterGreen)

Example
1. crime(Kitchen)
2. in(ProfPlum, Library)
3. talking(MissScarlet,
ProfPlum)
4. -talking(?x4, ?y4) v
with(?x4, ?y4)
5. -with(?x5, ?y5) v -in(?y5,
?z5) v in(?x5, ?z5)
6. -in(?x6, ?y6) v -
crime(?y6) v suspect(?x6)
7. talking(ColonelMustard,
MisterGreen)
8. -hungry(?x8) v in(?x8,
Kitchen)
9. hungry(MisterGreen)
10. -suspect(CM)
11. (6&10) -in(CM, ?y11) v -
crime(?y11)
12. (1&11) -in(CM, Kitchen)
13. (8&9) in(MG, Kitchen)
14. (4&7) with(CM, MG)
15. (5&14) -in(MG, ?z15) v
in(CM, ?z15)
16. (12&15) in(CM, Kitchen)
17. (12&16) []
Q.E.D.
What clause would you add to
the database instead of the
negated goal if you were trying
to find out who is a suspect?

Example
1. Mother(Lulu, Fifi)
2. Alive(Lulu)
3. FA x, y [Mother(x,y) -> Parent(x,y)
-Mother(x,y) v Parent(x,y)
4. FA x, y [Parent(x,y) ^ Alive(x)) -> Older(x,y)
-Parent(x,y) v -Alive(x) v Older(x,y)
5. (Negated Goal) -Older(Lulu, Fifi)
6. [1,3] Parent(Lulu, Fifi)
7. [4,6] -Alive(Lulu) v Older(Lulu, Fifi)
8. [2,7] Older(Lulu, Fifi)
9. [5,8] NULL

Example
• What if the desired conclusion was “Something is older than Fifi”?
– EXISTS x Older(x, Fifi)
– (Negated Goal) ~EXISTS x Older(x, Fifi)
– ~Older(x, Fifi)
• The last step of the proof would be
– [5,8] Older(Lulu, Fifi) resolved with ~Older(x, Fifi)
NULL (with x instantiated as Lulu)
• Do not make the mistake of first forming clause from conclusion
and then denying it
– Goal: EXISTS x Older(x, Fifi)
– Clausal Form: Older(C, Fifi)
– (Negated Goal): ~Older(C, Fifi)
• Cannot unify this statement with Older(Lulu, Fifi)

Converting To Clausal Form
• Two benefits of seeing this process:
1. Learn sound inference rules
2. Convert FOPC to clausal form for use in resolution proofs

Examples
• FORALL x P(x)
P(x)
• FORALL x P(x) -> Q(x,A)
~P(x) v Q(x,A)
• EXISTS x P(x)
P(E), where E is a new constant
• P(A) -> EXISTS x Q(x)
~P(A) v Q(F)
• FORALL x P(x)
~P(G)
• P(A) -> Q(B,C)
~P(A) v Q(B,C)
• ~(P(A) -> Q(B,C))
P(A), ~Q(B,C)
• P(A) ^ (Q(B,C) v R(D))
P(A), Q(B,C) v R(D)
• P(A) v (Q(B,C) ^ R(D))
P(A) v Q(B,C)
P(A) v R(D)

Example
• First, a brick is on something that is not a
pyramid; second, there is nothing that a brick is
on and that is on the brick as well; and third,
there is nothing that is not a brick and also is
the same thing as a brick.
• FORALL x [Brick(x) -> (EXISTS y [On(x,y) & ~Pyramid(y)] &
~EXISTS y [On(x,y) & On(y,x)] &
FORALL y [~Brick(y) -> ~Equal(x,y)])]

Example
• FORALL x [Brick(x) -> (EXISTS y [On(x,y) & ~Pyramid(y)] &
FORALL y [~Brick(y) -> ~Equal(x,y)])]
1) Eliminate implications
Note that p->q <-> ~p v q
FORALL x [~Brick(x) v
(EXISTS y [On(x,y) & ~Pyramid(y)] &
FORALL y [~~Brick(y) v ~Equal(x,y)])]

Example
FORALL x [~Brick(x) v (EXISTS y [On(x,y) & ~Pyramid(y)] &
2) Move ~ to literals
Note that ~(pvq) <-> ~p & ~q
~(p&q) <-> ~p v ~q
~FORALL x [p] <-> EXISTS x [~p]
~EXISTS x [p] <-> FORALL x [~p]
~~p <-> p
FORALL y ~[On(x,y) & On(y,x)] &
FORALL y [Brick(y) v ~Equal(x,y)])]
FORALL y [~On(x,y) v ~On(y,x)] &

Example
FORALL y [~On(x,y) v ~On(y,x)] &
3) Standardize variables (rename variables if duplicates)
FORALL a [~On(x,a) v ~On(a,x)] &
FORALL b [Brick(b) v ~Equal(x,b)])]

Example
4) Skolemization
Remove existential quantifiers using Existential Elimination.
Make sure new constant is not used anywhere else.
Dangerous because could be inside universal quantifiers

Example
4) Skolemization
FORALL x Person(x) -> EXISTS y Heart(y) & Has(y,x)
If we just replace y with H, then
FORALL x Person(x) -> Heart(H) & Has(x,H)
which says that everyone has the same heart.
• Remember that because y is in the scope of x, y is dependent
on the choice of x. In fact, we can represent y as a Skolemized
function of x.
• FORALL x Person(x) -> Heart(F(x)) & Has(x,F(x))

Example
4) Skolemization
FORALL x [~Brick(x) v (On(x,F(x)) & ~Pyramid(F(x)) &

Example
FORALL x [~Brick(x) v (On(x,F(x)) & ~Pyramid(F(x)) &
5) Remove universal quantifiers
~Brick(x) v (On(x,F(x)) & ~Pyramid(F(x)) &
(~On(x,a) v ~On(a,x)) &
(Brick(b) v ~Equal(x,b)))
6) Distribute & over v
(~Brick(x) v On(x,F(x)) &
(~Brick(x) v ~Pyramid(F(x))) &
(~Brick(x) v ~On(x,a) v ~On(a,x)) &
(~Brick(x) v Brick(b) v ~Equal(x,b))
Note that
a & (b v c v d)
<->
(a & b) v (a & c) v (a & d)
and
a v (b & c & d)
<->
(a v b) & (a v c) & (a v d)

Example
(~Brick(x) v On(x,F(x)) &
(~Brick(x) v ~Pyramid(F(x))) &
(~Brick(x) v ~On(x,a) v ~On(a,x)) &
(~Brick(x) v Brick(b) v ~Equal(x,b))
7) Separate conjuncts into unique sentences
1. ~Brick(x) v On(x,F(x))
2. ~Brick(x) v ~Pyramid(F(x))
3. ~Brick(x) v ~On(x,a) v ~On(a,x)
4. ~Brick(x) v Brick(b) v ~Equal(x,b)
8) Give each sentence unique variables (uniquify)
1. ~Brick(x1) v On(x1,F(x1))
2. ~Brick(x2) v ~Pyramid(F(x2))
3. ~Brick(x3) v ~On(x3,a3) v ~On(a3,x3)
4. ~Brick(x4) v Brick(b4) v ~Equal(x4,b4)

Resolution
• Given:
– Whoever can read is literate
FA x [Read(x) -> Literate(x)]
– Dolphins are not literate
FA x [Dolphin(x) -> ~Literate(x)]
– Some dolphins are intelligent
FA x [Dolphin(x) ^ Intelligent(x)]
• Prove: Some who are intelligent cannot read
EXISTS x [Intelligent(x) ^ ~Read(x)]

Example
1. ~Read(x) v Literate(x)
2. ~Dolphin(y) v ~Literate(y)
3. Dolphin(F1)
4. Intelligent(F1)
5. (Negated Goal) ~Intelligent(z) v Read(z)
Proof:
6. [4, 5] Read(F1)
7. [1, 6] Literate(F1)
8. [2, 7] ~Dolphin(F1)
9. [3, 8] NULL

Example
• Jack owns a dog
Dog(D)
Owns(J, D)
• Tuna is a cat
Cat(T)
• Every dog owner is an animal lover
FA x,y [Dog(x)^ Owns(y,x) -> AnimalLover(y)]
• No animal lover kills an animal
FA x,z [~[AnimalLover(z) ^ Animal(w) ^ Kill(z,w)]]
• Either Jack or Curiosity killed the cat who is called Tuna
Kill(J, T) v Kill(C, T)
• Cats are animals
FA u [Cat(u) -> Animal(u)]
• Prove: Curiosity killed the cat
Kill(C, T)

Example
1. Dog(D)
2. Owns(J, D)
3. Cat(T)
4. ~Dog(x) v ~Owns(y,x) v AnimalLover(y)
5. ~AnimalLover(z) v ~Animal(w) v ~Kill(z,w)
6. Kill(J, T) v Kill(C, T)
7. ~Cat(u) v Animal(u)
8. (Negated Goal) ~Kill(C, T)
9. [6, 8] Kill(J, T)
10. [5, 9] ~AnimalLover(J) v ~Animal(T)
11. [3, 7] Animal(T)
12. [10, 11] ~AnimalLover(J)
13. [1, 2, 4] AnimalLover(J)
14. [12, 13] NULL

Resolution Strategies
• Marcus was a man.
– Man(Marcus)
• Marcus was a Pompeian.
– Pompeian(Marcus)
• All Pompeians were Romans.
– FORALL x [Pompeian(x) -> Roman(x)]
• Caesar was a ruler.
– Ruler(Caesar)
• All Romans were either loyal to Caesar
or hated him.
– FORALL x [Roman(x) -> Loyalto(x,
Caesar) v Hated(x, Caesar)
• Everyone is loyal to someone.
– FORALL x EXISTS y [Loyalto(x, y)]
• Men only try to assassinate rulers
they are not loyal to.
– FORALL x, y [Man(x) & Ruler(y) &
Tryassassinate(x,y) -> ~Loyalto(x,y)]
• Marcus tried to assassinate Caesar.
– Tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar)
• Goal: Marcus hated Caesar.
1. Man(Marcus)
2. Pompeian(Marcus)
3. -Pompeian(x1) v Roman(x1)
4. Ruler(Caesar)
5. -Roman(x2) v Loyalto(x2,
Caesar) v Hate(x2, Caesar)
6. Loyalto(x3, f1(x3))
7. -Man(x4) v -Ruler(y1) v -
Tryassassinate(x4, y1) v -
Loyalto(x4, y1)
8. Tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar)
Negated Goal:
9. -Hate(Marcus, Caesar)

• Proof:
10. [5&9] -Roman(Marcus) v
Loyalto(Marcus, Caesar)
((x2 Marcus))
11. [3&10] -Pompeian(Marcus) v
Loyalto(Marcus, Caesar)
((x1 Marcus)
12. [2&11] Loyalto(Marcus, Caesar)
13. [7&12] -Man(Marcus) v
-Ruler(Caesar) v
-Tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar)
((x4 Marcus) (y1 Caesar))
14. [8&13] -Man(Marcus) v
-Ruler(Caesar)
15. [1&14] -Ruler(Caesar)
16. [4&15] []
Q.E.D.
1. Man(Marcus)
2. Pompeian(Marcus)
4. Ruler(Caesar)
5. -Roman(x2) v Loyalto(x2,
Caesar) v Hate(x2, Caesar)
7. -Man(x4) v -Ruler(y1) v
-Tryassassinate(x4, y1) v
-Loyalto(x4, y1)
8. Tryassassinate(Marcus,
Caesar)
Negated Goal:

Resolution Properties
• Resolution is complete in the following sense:
if a formula g follows from a set of formulas S,
then there is a sequence of resolutions of
clauses in S υ ~g that terminates in the empty
clause.

Set Of Support (Depth First)
• Rationale: Conclusion should always play
major role in proof
• Method: Give priority to resolvents derived
from set of support (clauses which are part of
-G or are resolvents with a parent in the set of
support)
• Example: Resolve clauses (5&9), then (3&10),
etc., the same way we did last time

1. Man(Marcus)
2. Pompeian(Marcus)
4. Ruler(Caesar)
5. -Roman(x2) v Loyalto(x2, Caesar) v Hate(x2, Caesar)
7. -Man(x4) v -Ruler(y1) v -Tryassassinate(x4, y1) v -Loyalto(x4, y1)
8. Tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar)
Negated Goal:

Linear Format
• Rationale: Gives some direction to the search
[Anderson and Bledsoe] prove that any
provable theorem in predicate calculus can be
proven with this strategy
• Method: Use most recent resolvent as a
parent (the question of which two are
resolved first is open)
• Example: Resolve clauses (1&7), then
(4&NEW), then (8&NEW), then (5&NEW), etc.

Unit Resolution
• Rationale:
– Want to derive [] (0 literals), therefore, we want to make smaller and
smaller resolvents.
– Suppose c1 has 4 literals, c2 has 7 literals, R will have 9 literals!
• Method:
– Use unit clause as a parent
– R = #literals(c1) + #literals(c2) - 2
– If c1 is a unit, R = #literals(c2) - 1 (getting smaller)
• Variation:
– Unit Preference
– Use unit if available, otherwise look for next smaller clause size
• Example:
– Resolve clauses (1&7), then (4&10), then (8&11), then (5&9), then
(2&3), etc.

Subsumption
• Keep knowledge base small
• If one sentence subsumed by another,
remove it (the subsumed sentence).
• P(A) subsumed by P(x)
– can remove P(A)
• P(A) v Q(B) subsumed by P(A)
– Can remove P(A)vQ(B)

Green’s Trick
• We have shown how resolution can prove a specific theorem.
– Named after Cordell Green, who used logic for software engineering
applications.
– We can also use resolution to extract answers (perform problem
solving).
• Procedure:
– The question to be answered, or the goal, must be an existentially
quantified statement. It is this variable that we will derive.
– Converted negated goal to clausal form.
– Form a disjunction between the positive goal clause and the negated
goal clause, and add this disjunction to the database.
– Apply resolution as usual. When the positive goal clause is resolved,
the variable will be instantiated with the answer

Example
• Sally is studying with Morton. Morton is in the student union information office. If
any person is studying with another person who is at a particular place, the first
person is also at that place. If someone is at a particular place, then he or she can be
reached on the telephone at the number for that place.
– What is the number where Sally can be reached?
– Sw(x, y): x is studying with y
– A(x, y): x is at place y
– R(x, y): x can be reached (by telephone) at number y
– Ph(x): the telephone number for place x
• We want to find a sequence that will provide an answer to the problem. We therefore
represent the question as a statement that the solution EXISTS.
• The question to be answered, or the goal, must be an existentially quantified
statement. It is this variable that we will derive.
• The negated form will be eliminated (theorem proving), and the positive form will
contain the answer.
• FOPC statements
– Sw(Sally, Morton)
– A(Morton, Union)
– Forall x, y, z [Sw(x, y) ^ A(y, z) -> A(x, z)]
– Forall x, y [A(x, y) -> R(x, Ph(y))]
– GOAL: exists x R(Sally, x)

Example
• Who is Lulu older than?
• Prove that there is an x such that Lulu is older
than x
• FOPC: EXISTS x Older(Lulu, x)
(Negated Goal): ~Older(Lulu, x)
• A successful proof will yield x/Fifi

Example
2. Alive(Lulu)
3. -Mother(x,y) v Parent(x,y)
4. -Parent(x,y) v -Alive(x) v Older(x,y)
5. Query: Who is Lulu older than?
 There exists someone that Lulu is older than
 We want to find out who
 Exists x Older(Lulu,x)
 Negate goal and create disjunction with “opposite”
 Older(Lulu,x) v –Older(Lulu,x)

Example
2. Alive(Lulu)
3. -Mother(x3,y3) v Parent(x3,y3)
4. -Parent(x4,y4) v -Alive(x4) v Older(x4,y4)
5. Older(Lulu,x) v –Older(Lulu,x)
6. [4,5] –Parent(Lulu,y6) v –Alive(Lulu) v Older(Lulu,y6)
7. [2,6] –Parent(Lulu,y7) v Older(Lulu,y7)
8. [3,7] –Mother(Lulu,y8) v Older(Lulu,y8)
9. [1,8] Older(Lulu,Fifi)

Example
• What is older than what?
• FOPC: EXISTS x,y Older(x, y)
(Negated Goal) ~Older(x,y)
• A successful proof will yield x/Lulu, y/Fifi

Example
2. Alive(Lulu)
3. -Mother(x3,y3) v Parent(x3,y3)
4. -Parent(x4,y4) v -Alive(x4) v Older(x4,y4)
5. Older(x,y) v –Older(x,y)
6. [4,5] –Parent(x6,y6) v –Alive(x6) v Older(x6,y6)
7. [2,6] –Parent(Lulu,y7) v Older(Lulu,y7)
8. [3,7] –Mother(Lulu,y8) v Older(Lulu,y8)
9. [1,8] Older(Lulu,Fifi)

OTTER
• `Organized Techniques for Theorem proving and
Effective Research''
• OTTER was developed at Argonne, written in C,
described in book ``Automated Reasoning''
• Otter Home Page
• Employs binary resolution, hyperresolution, binary
paramodulation (use equality substitutions), set of
support resolution, and unit-resulting resolution
• Takes FOPC statements, converts to clausal form,
applies resolution

OTTER Features
• Can use autonomous mode, where OTTER selects resolution
strategies
• Answer literals
– Can extract answer to query like we will in class
– Our example has an answer literal
– If no answer literal, end of proof yields “.” clause
• Forward and backward subsumption
– If clause P(x) exists in database and clause P(x) v Q(x) exists in
database, we know P(x) SUBSUMES P(x) v Q(x), so delete P(x) v Q(x)
from database.
• Factoring
– Unifying 2 literals of same sign within a clause
• Weighting
– Weight terms to affect ordering in the proof

OTTER Format
• Set parameters of the system
• Give general formulas
• Give set of support (facts and formulas used in every step of proof)
• ``%'' is used at the beginning of a comment line.
• OPTIONS
– set(ur_res) % or other inference mechanisms, if not auto
– assign(max_mem, 1500) % use at most 1.5 megabytes
– assign(max_seconds, 1800) % time limit of 30 CPU minutes
• FORMULA LIST
– formula_list(?). % "?" is either "sos" or "usable".
– ... - facts and rules
– end_of_list.
• SYNTAX
– All clauses and other statements end with"."
– & = and
– | = or
– (all x all y ())
– (exists x exists y ())
– - = not

OTTER Format
• OTTER is not case sensitive. If a symbol is quantified, it is a variable.
Otherwise, it is a predicate, function or constant.
• Put the negated goal in the sos list.
• OTTER will keep going until sos is empty
– Use clause in sos to make inferences (with clauses in usable list)
– Move used clause to usable
• For answer extraction use $answer(literal).
• OTTER output contains
– List of clauses from original database
– List of new clauses with parent and resolution strategy
– ur, 4, 1 above(B, A).
– If contradiction found
------------------ PROOF -----------------------
- list of options used
- stats
- If no contradiction found and no clauses left to resolve “sos empty”

OTTER Example
Input:
set(ur_res).
set(hyper_res).
formula_list(usable).
all x all y all z (sw(x,y) & a(y,z) -> a(x,z)).
end_of_list.
formula_list(sos).
all x all y (a(x,y) -> r(x, ph(y))).
sw(Sally, Morton).
a(Morton, StudentUnion).
-(exists x (r(Sally, x))).
end_of_list.
Output:
----- Otter 3.0.4, August 1995 -----
The job was started by …
set(ur_res).
set(hyper_res).
-------> usable clausifies to:
list(usable).
1 [] -sw(x,y)| -a(y,z)|a(x,z).
end_of_list.
-------> sos clausifies to:
list(sos).
2 [] -a(x,y)|r(x,ph(y)).
3 [] sw(Sally,Morton).
4 [] a(Morton,StudentUnion).
5 [] -r(Sally,x).
end_of_list.
======= end of input processing =======

OTTER Example
=========== start of search ===========
given clause #1: (wt=3) 3 [] sw(Sally,Morton).
given clause #2: (wt=3) 4 [] a(Morton,StudentUnion).
** KEPT (pick-wt=3): 6 [hyper,4,1,3] a(Sally,StudentUnion).
given clause #3: (wt=3) 5 [] -r(Sally,x).
given clause #4: (wt=3) 6 [hyper,4,1,3] a(Sally,StudentUnion).
given clause #5: (wt=7) 2 [] -a(x,y)|r(x,ph(y)).
** KEPT (pick-wt=4): 7 [hyper,2,6] r(Sally,ph(StudentUnion)).
----> UNIT CONFLICT at 0.08 sec ----> 8 [binary,7.1,5.1] $F.
Length of proof is 2. Level of proof is 2. ---------------- PROOF ----------------
1 [] -sw(x,y)| -a(y,z)|a(x,z).
2 [] -a(x,y)|r(x,ph(y)).
5 [] -r(Sally,x).
6 [hyper,4,1,3] a(Sally,StudentUnion).
7 [hyper,2,6] r(Sally,ph(StudentUnion)).
8 [binary,7.1,5.1] $F.
------------ end of proof -------------
Search stopped by max_proofs option.

OTTER Input Using $Answer
Input:
set(ur_res).
set(hyper_res).
formula_list(usable).
all x all y all z (sw(x,y) & a(y,z) -> a(x,z)).
end_of_list.
formula_list(sos).
all x all y (a(x,y) -> r(x, ph(y))).
sw(Sally, Morton).
a(Morton, StudentUnion).
-(exists x (-$answer(r(Sally,x)) & r(Sally, x))).
end_of_list.
Output:
----- Otter 3.0.4, August 1995 -----
The job was started by …
-------> usable clausifies to:
list(usable).
1 [] -sw(x,y)| -a(y,z)|a(x,z).
end_of_list.
-------> sos clausifies to:
list(sos).
2 [] -a(x,y)|r(x,ph(y)).
5 [] $answer(r(Sally,x))| -r(Sally,x).
end_of_list.
======= end of input processing =======

OTTER Output Using $Answer
=========== start of search ===========
given clause #1: (wt=3) 3 [] sw(Sally,Morton).
given clause #2: (wt=3) 4 [] a(Morton,StudentUnion).
** KEPT (pick-wt=3): 6 [hyper,4,1,3] a(Sally,StudentUnion).
given clause #3: (wt=3) 5 [] $answer(r(Sally,x)) | -r(Sally,x).
given clause #4: (wt=3) 6 [hyper,4,1,3] a(Sally,StudentUnion).
given clause #5: (wt=7) 2 [] -a(x,y)|r(x,ph(y)).
** KEPT (pick-wt=4): 7 [hyper,2,6] r(Sally,ph(StudentUnion)).
----> UNIT CONFLICT at 0.08 sec ---->
8 [binary,7.1,5.1] $answer(r(Sally,ph(StudentUnion))).
Length of proof is 2. Level of proof is 2.
---------------- PROOF ----------------
1 [] -sw(x,y)| -a(y,z)|a(x,z).
2 [] -a(x,y)|r(x,ph(y)).
5 [] -r(Sally,x).
6 [hyper,4,1,3] a(Sally,StudentUnion).
7 [hyper,2,6] r(Sally,ph(StudentUnion)).
8 [binary,7.1,5.1]
$answer(r(Sally,ph(StudentUnion))).
------------ end of proof -------------
Search stopped by max_proofs option.

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