Assignment final
- 1. ASSIGNMENT COVER SHEET Electronic or manual submission Form: SSC-115-07-06 UNIT CODE: SPS4108 TITLE: PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTING OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE NAME OF STUDENT (PRINT CLEARLY) ANDRERWS SCOTT FAMILY NAME FIRST NAME STUDENT ID. NO. 10101810 NAME OF LECTURER (PRINT CLEARLY) DR. HAFF DUE DATE 27/10/2014 Topic of assignment MAJOR ASSIGNMENT Group or tutorial (if applicable) NA Course MASTERS OF EXERCISE SCIENCE (STRENGTH & CONDITIONING) Campus JOONDALUP I certify that the attached assignment is my own work and that any material drawn from other sources has been acknowledged. Copyright in assignments remains my property. I grant permission to the University to make copies of assignments for assessment, review and/or record keeping purposes. I note that the University reserves the right to check my assignment for plagiarism. Should the reproduction of all or part of an assignment be required by the University for any purpose other than those mentioned above, appropriate authorisation will be sought from me on the relevant form. OFFICE USE ONLY If handing in an assignment in a paper or other physical form, sign here to indicate that you have read this form, filled it in completely and that you certify as above. Signature Date OR, if submitting this paper electronically as per instructions for the unit, place an ‘X’ in the box below to indicate that you have read this form and filled it in completely and that you certify as above. Please include this page in/with your submission. Any electronic responses to this submission will be sent to your ECU email address. Agreement X Date 21/10/2014 PROCEDURES AND PENALTIES ON LATE ASSIGNMENTS Admission, Enrolment and Academic Progress Rule 24(6) and Assessment Policy • A student who wishes to defer the submission of an assignment must apply to the lecturer in charge of the relevant unit or course for an extension of the time within which to submit the assignment. • Where an extension is sought for the submission of an assignment the application must : • be in writing - preferably before the due date; and • set out the grounds on which deferral is sought. • Assignments submitted after the normal or extended date without approval shall incur a penalty of loss of marks. Academic Misconduct Rules (Students) All forms of cheating, plagiarism or collusion are regarded seriously and could result in penalties including loss of marks, exclusion from the unit or cancellation of enrolment. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ASSIGNMENT RECEIPT To be completed by the student if the receipt is required UNIT NAME OF STUDENT STUDENT ID. NO. NAME OF LECTURER RECEIVED BY Topic of assignment DATE RECEIVED
- 2. TITLE PAGE: Talent Identification in Sprinting Among Adolescent Male Athletes. Sprinting. Andrews, S, C, N. Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia 6027. S, C, N, Andrews Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research Edith Cowan University 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, Western Australia, 6027. Phone: (618) 6304-5416 E-mail: sandrew6@our.ecu.edu.au Word count: 2 631.
- 3. BLINDED TITLE PAGE: Talent Identification in Sprinting Among Adolescent Male Athletes.
- 4. BLUF: Performance in the 100 m sprint is specifically associated with lower body strength- power (rapid velocity emphasis) measurements. The best predictor of the 100 m performance is the squat jump, counter movement jump, lower body strength tests specifically the one repetition maximum back squat and isokinetic testing of the knee and hip at specific velocities. In order to successfully identify a potentially talented sprinter a test battery should be assembled that measures these characteristics which allows quick and accessible feedback for the coaching staff and strength and conditioning coach. Critical areas of testing should be targeted at key performance characteristics to ensure procedures are time efficient and are specific to the sporting discipline.
- 5. Talent Identification in Sprinting Among Adolescent Male Athletes Completed by Scott Colin Norman Andrews, High Performance Coach, Curtin University Track & Field Club. Head weight room coordinator, Aquinas College. ABSTRACT: Sprinting involves the rapid generation of power resulting in high peak power production. As an elite sprint athlete they will plan to complete the 100 m distance in less than 10 seconds (Velocity of 10 m.s). The processes involved in running at such a velocity are complex and requires an immense generation of force in a rapid time (power) and require numerous physiological processes to be called upon in a specific sequence. Specific bioenergetics of sprinting involves a high level of involvement from the ATP-PC energy system and fast glycolytic energy systems, which allows for rapid muscular contractions in order to quickly development force without the reliance on oxygen. Muscle fascicle length, tendon stiffness and muscle architecture (volume of type IIx fibres within a cross sectional area) are key physiological contributions that are relative to sprinting performance and the relevant literature will highlight its importance. From a review of the scientific literature on sprinting the key performance tests include the 40 m sprint test, 30 m flying start, drop jump test, counter movement jump test and one repetition back squat should be focused on for testing. Over complicated and time consuming testing should be avoided due to issues with impracticality and problems with interfering with training. Current literature highlights a strong correlation coefficient to suggest that jumping tests, one repetition maximal lower body strength and isokinetic testing were linked to good sprinting performances, especially drop jump performance given its specificity to rate of force development. Key words: Sprint running, Rate of force development, Power, Talent identification, Performance testing.
- 6. INTRODUCTION: The 100m Olympic final is an event that carries a great deal of prestige and honor as the winner is crowned the fastest man in the world and represents the peak of human velocity, acceleration, and power. It is a feat that is marveled by many with what seems like ease that these athletes perform such athletic displays. This processes involved at running with such fast velocity are complex and requires an immense generation of force in a short time (muscular power emphasis) and require numerous physiological processes (28). Sprinting involves a high level of involvement from the ATP-PC energy system and fast glycolytic systems at the later stages of the sprint events in order to maintain maximal speed, where there is rapid muscular contractions in order to quickly development force (8). This results in a desired target of sprinting the 100m in less than 10 seconds for a male which appears to be the gold standard in modern sprinting terms (17). In physiology terms it has been shown that a successful track sprinter will have a high content of fast twitch fibres (Type 11x) in the lower body musculature which is critical in producing the high power required in the sprint events (16, 17, 28) along with stiff tendon response and long fascicles within the lower body musculature given its associated tendencies with generating high power outputs. To master a skill requires years of training and focus, in terms of sprinting in the 100m event this involves an acceleration phase, maximal velocity phase and maintenance of maximal speed in the later stages of the event. Breaking down the 100m event indicates to the Strength and Conditioning (S&C) and other coaching staff that there is a reliance on high forces, power and an ability to maintain these values until race completion (28).
- 7. From a basis of testing for potentially talented athletes in this event the literature has found counter movement jump, drop jump and repeated jump tests generate values that are strongly correlated with 100m sprint performance (16). Other research has indicated that the muscularity of the erector spinae and quadratus lumborum (posterior chain musculature) contributes to achieving a high performance in the initial accelaretion starting phase of the race which is associated with distances of less than 20m (20, 22), attributed to the one repetition maximum back squat. An effective sprint technique involves applying force generated from the lower body into the ground to propel the athlete dynamically as quick as possible. This involves a drive and recovery phase, the drive phase involves an explosive drive up of the upper leg (knee drive) with the foot in a dorsi-flexed position (toe pointing up position, to keep the gluteus maximum activated) the upper leg should be at parallel with the ground avoiding wasting energy (27). The recovery phase involves bringing the lower leg up towards the gluteus, this movement should be completed when the lower leg is at parallel with the ground. The stretch shortening cycle movements can be tested with the drop jump and counter movement jump where there is a high reliance on rate of force development which is specific to sprinting(3). REVIEW OF PHYSIOLOGOCAL ATTRIBUTES FOR SPRINTING FASICLE LENGTH AND SPRINTING PERFORMANCE Review of the literature observed from B – mode ultrasonography measures indicated the muscle thickness and fascicle pennation angle of the lower body musculature. Elite sprinters were observed to have greater fascicle lengths in the vastus lateralis and medial gastrocnemius, along with a greater accumulation of muscle mass in comparison to distance runners. Less pennation angle in the upper thigh of the vastus lateralis was associated in the literature with muscles that had longer fascicles. Muscle thickness is
- 8. greater in the upper thigh in comparison to distance runners although similar in mass at the lower portion of the quadriceps musculature. It was concluded that longer fascicle length is associated with greater sprinting performance when combined with increases in muscle mass, and appears to be responsible for higher force generation given the increased shortening velocity potential being realised (22). BIOENERGETICS IN SPRINTING: Brechue W. (2011) examined the 100 m sprint and determined from the starting blocks (acceleration phase) up until the 50 m (attainment of maximal velocity) period of the race is that there is a maximal dependence on the adenosine triphosphate creatine phosphate energy system (ATP – PC). From 50 m onwards there is an apparent and significant depletion of the creatine phosphate and the energy system relied upon shifts to fast glycolytic until completion of the event. Maximal velocity of the sprinter is strongly associated with the efficiency of the ATP – PC energy system, the glycolytic capacity and how the athlete tolerates the rise in lactate accumulation (maximum values were seen to be around 15 mmol at completion of the race) which was said in the literature to be at around 40 m to be the point of significant increases. Changes in blood lactate were seen from around 40 m and then the data indicated from this phase of the race it increased in a linear fashion ( within elite sprinters running at maximal velocities of 9.75 – 10.07 ms) (5). In the 100 m event it appears that metabolic conditioning within the final 30 m (maintenance of maximal velocity) is of critical importance to avoid mechanical inefficiencies. There is a high reliance of the ATP – PC energy system within the acceleration phase especially from push – off from the starting blocks (500N force application) and is dependent on maximal relative strength.
- 9. TENDON STIFFNESS AND SPRINTING PERFORMANCE: The importance of muscle-tendon stiffness in sprint performance is related to maintenance of maximal velocity in the last 50 m or so of the 100 m sprint. The elastic component of the leg muscle-tendon structure provides additional power to sustain higher velocity up to maximal velocity (6). Muscle stiffness is a term which refers to the muscles tendency to return to its original length once stretched (19); this is similar to the behavior displayed in an elastic band (8, 15). Each individual has a unique stiffness present in their muscles; research from Kubo et al. 2001(19) has indicated that lower body strength is strongly correlated to muscle stiffness which results in higher power outputs being generated (increased vertical jump performance and sprinting performance) (6). Recent research (19) has found that training improved elastic energy return from (14.8J ± 2.2 to 18.6 ± 1.9J) in the shortening cycle. The act of strengthening the lower body musculature essentially allows the muscles and tendons (tendons connect the muscles) the ability to develop a quicker return to normal length once stretched (13, 30). This is critical in sprinting as athlete’s desire to minimize their time that their feet are in contact with the ground, although they also desire to propel themselves forward as forcefully as possible within the period during contact with the ground (effective contact is the goal with emphasis on avoiding blocking- stepping in front of your centre of gravity which prevents reaching maximum velocity) (2)(30). MUSCLE ARCHITECTURE AND SPRINTING PERFORMANCE: Brechue (2011)(6) observed from his review of the current literature that the skeletal muscle distribution was largely accumulated in the vastus lateralis of the upper thigh and medial gastrocnemius. It is suggested that muscle mass (thickness) is strongly correlated with muscle cross sectional area (r = 0.91). It was suggested that 50-70% fast twitch fibre content within the screened musculature (type IIx) was associated with
- 10. sprint athletes (5). These fast twitch muscle fibres work in conjunction with rapid velocity shortening seen in elite sprinters. This increased shortening capacity allows for higher power outputs which is crucial given its role in reduced ground contact time when applying force into the track. FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS FOR RESEARCH From review of the current literature there was an emerging method of identifying individuals who potentially have genetic traits (presence of the a-actinin 3 R577X genotype) for being a talented sprinter. This can aid the strength and conditioning coach to have a clear indicator of whether sprinting is the right option for the prospective athlete. The key indicator is the presence of a-actinin 3 R577X polymorphism/ ACTN3 (12). PROPOSED TESTING BATTERY: JUSTIFICATION OF TESTING BATTERY SELECTION: According to the current scientific literature this testing protocol has been assembled in order to test key performance markers, to identify prospective talented sprinters with an aim of succeeding in the 100 m. Dynamic movement was of most importance when testing for efficacy in sprinting. Statistical analysis has indicated the drop jump test is strongly correlated with sprint performance (r = 0.71) as well as the half back squat with 100 m velocity strongly correlated to maximal strength (r = 0.74). COUNTER MOVEMENT JUMP TESTING The counter movement jump requires the athlete to call upon the stretch shortening cycle for a rapid application of power. This method of measurement is effective for providing quick results to the coaching staff and the athlete as the data requires minimal time to be presented when correctly set up (10, 23). A short stretch shortening phase is
- 11. reported in the literature to be around 100-250ms, this movement time is associated with small angular displacements and are seen in the 100m sprint (during the maximal velocity phase) where there is a very quick ground contact time and there is minimal time to generate force therefore is highly dependent on rate of force development (27) refer to appendix table 4. It was reported that counter movement jump was mildly correlated with sprint performance at r= 0.65 (10). DROP JUMP TESTING These measurements are critical in assessing the aim of the project as it provides information required to assess vertical jump height, ground reaction forces and power output (18). Maximum running velocity and drop jump performance from 30 cm was correlated at r = 0.71, (3). The stretch shortening cycle capacity of the individual can be tested with the drop jump where there is a high reliance on rate of force development and not necessarily the generation of maximal force. This elicits a slower stretch shortening cycle (3) refer to appendix table 4. Biomechanical analysis conducted on sprint performance over 100 m indicates that a slow stretch shortening cycle phase is reported to be around 300-500ms, these are associated with the starting phase (acceleration emphasis) where there is large angular displacements during the drive phase of the race (26, 28). 40 M SPRINT PERFORMANCE & 30 M FLYING START PERFORMANCE A 40 m sprint performance is a key measure of the ability to quickly accelerate and rapidly generate power (9, 11, 24, 25). Refer to appendix tables 1 and 2 for relative
- 12. normative data. Specifically 40 m sprint data demonstrates how the athlete can move over a short distance which replicates the starting phase of the 100 m and is of key importance in setting up the race. From analysis of testing protocol from (9) the distance for the flying start should be specified in order to capture genuine maximal velocity, with a starting point of a 30 m flying start and a further 30 m distance is used for determining running time (total distance is 60 m). ). Davis, B. (2000)(11) indicated through his research that for males aged between 16-19 a flying 30 m time of less than 4 seconds was determined to be excellent. 1 REPETITION MAXIMUM BACK SQUAT The ability to generate force is important in sprinting given its role in the production of power (force x velocity). Sprint runners heavily rely on the lower body musculature in applying the force to the track in a rapid contact time (rate of force development)(10, 24) and also minimizing wasted energy with technical issues. Baker and Nance (1) conducted a study that concluded half squat performance was strongly correlated with 100m velocity (r = 0.74) and mean velocity (r = 0.75). The literature presents strong evidence to suggest that including the 1 RM back squat is a gold standard test among identifying talented sprint runners (9, 10). 100 m sprint speed is strongly correlated with half squat performance (r=0.74) and maximal leg strength (5, 29).
- 13. ISOKINECTIC HAMSTRING TESTING In order to determine the ability of the hamstrings to maintain rapid velocity, isokinetic testing will allow the coaching staff to assess the concentric contraction velocity of the hamstrings musculature. From review of the literature the velocity should be set at 240 degrees per second and to be repeated over a period that mimics the bioenergetics of the sprinting events and adequately assess the ATP-PC and glycolytic energy systems (4). From reviewing current literature strong correlations can be observed between peak torque at the hip and knee using fast velocity isokinetic measures. The literature has reported a correlation coefficient of around 0.80 relative to maximal running velocity and forces generated during isokinetic testing (14). CONCLUSION & PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: It can be concluded from the literature that the testing battery involved in identifying potentially talented sprinters should involve tests utilising the stretch-shortening complex and maximal strength. Sprinting has been shown to be strongly correlated with tests such as the counter movement jump, drop jump, repeated jump tests, half back squat, 40 m sprint and the 30m flying start tests. Statistical analysis has indicated the drop jump test is strongly correlated with sprint performance (r = 0.71) as well as the half back squat with 100 m velocity strongly correlated to maximal strength (r = 0.74). The drop jump measures reaction time as well as concentric and eccentric phases of the stretch-shortening cycle and can give a measure of rate of force development which the literature has highlighted is of up most importance in sprinting performance. Performance in the 100 m sprint is specifically associated with lower body strength- power (rapid velocity emphasis) measurements. The best predictor of the 100 m performance is the squat jump, counter movement jump, lower body strength tests specifically the one repetition maximum squat and isokinetic testing of the knee and hip
- 14. at specific velocities. Critical areas of testing should be targeted at key performance characteristics to ensure procedures are time efficient and are specific to the sporting discipline.
- 15. REFERENCES: 1).Baker, N., & Nance, S. (1999). The relation between running speed and measures of strength and power in professional rugby league players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 13(3), 230-235. 2). Balk, M., & Shields, A. (2006). Master the art of running: raising your performance with the Alexander technique (1st .ed.). London, Great Britain: Collins & Brown. 3). Bissas, A, I., & Havenetidis, K.(2008). The use of various strength-power tests as predictors of sprint running performance. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. 49-54, 48(1). 4). Bracic, M., Hadzic, V., Coh, M., & Dervisevic, E. (2011). Relationship between time to peak torque of hamstrings and sprint running performance. Isokinetics and Exercise Science. 281-286, 19. 5). Bret, C., Rahmani, A., Dufour, A.B., Messonnier, L., & Lacour, J.R. Leg strength and stiffness as ability factors in 100m sprint running. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. 42. 2002. 6). Brechue, W, F. (2011). Structure-function relationships that determine sprint performance and running speed in sport. International Journal of Applied Sports Sciences. 23(2), 313-350. 7).Brughelli, M., & Cronin, J. (2008). A review of research on the mechanical stiffness in running and jumping: methodology and implications. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sport. 18, 417-26. 8). Cheetham, M, E., Boobis, L, H., Brooks, S., & Williams, C. (1986). Human muscle metabolism during sprint running. Journal of Applied Physiology. 54-60, 61(1). 9). Chu, D. (1996). Explosive Power and Strength. USA; Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc. 10). Cronin, J., Ogden, T., Lawton, T., & Brughellis, M. (2007). Does increasing maximal strength improve sprint running performance. Strength and Conditioning Journal. 86-95, 29(3). 11). Davis, B. (2000). Physical Education and the Study of Sport. UK: Harcourt Publishers Ltd. 12). Eynon, N., Hanson, E, D., Lucia A., Houweling, P, J., Garton, F., North, K, N., & Bishop D, J. (2013). Genes for elite power and sprint performance: ACTN3 leads the way. Sports Medicine, 43, 803-817. 13). Farley,C, T., Blickhan, R., Saito, J., & Taylor, R. (1991). Hopping frequency in humans: a test of how springs set stride frequency in bouncing gaits. The American Physiological Society, 161, 2127-32. 14). Finni, T., Ikegawa, S., Lepola, V., & Komi, P, V. (2003). Comparison of force- velocity relationships of vastus lateralis muscle in isokinetic and in stretch-shortening cycle exercises. Acta Physiology Scandinavia, 177, 483-91. 15). Fukashiro, S., Noda, M., & Shibayama, A. (2001). In vivo determination of muscle viscoelasticity in the human leg. Acta Physiology Scandinavia, 172, 241-48. 16). Haff, G, G. (2014). SPS5126 Lecture Notes. Retrieved from Edith Cowan University, BlackBoard Website: http://blackboard.ecu.edu.au/bbcswebdav/pid-
- 16. 3376432-dt-content-rid- 3699104_1/courses/SPS4108.2014.2.OFFCAMPUS/SPS4108/Lecture %20Handouts/Topic%204/Topic%204/Topic-4-Interpreting%20and %20Reporting%20of%20Physiological%20Testing%20Data%201%20slide.pdf. 17). International Association of Athletics Federations. (2010). Outdoor World Records. Retrieved on October 18, 2010 from http://www.iaaf.org/statistics/records/inout=O/index.html. 18). Jonsson, H, D., Stålbom, M., Keogh, J, W, L., and Cronin, J. (2008). Relationship between the kinetics and kinematics of a unilateral horizontal drop jump to sprint performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 22(5): 1589-1596. 19). Kubo, K., Kanehisa, H., & Fukunaga, T. (2001). Effects of different duration isometric contractions on tendon elasticity in human quadriceps muscles. Journal of Physiology, 536, 649-55. 20). Kubo, T., Hoshikawa, Y., Muramatsu, M., Iida, T., Komori, S., Shibukawa, K., & Kanehisa, K. (2010). Contribution of trunk muscularity on sprint run. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 223-228, 32. 21). Kukolj, M., Roperti, R., Ugarkovic, D., & Jaric, S. (1999). Anthropometric, strength and power predictors of sprinting performance. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 120-122, 39(2). 22). Kumagai, K., Abe, T., Brechue, W, F., Ryushi, T., Takano, S., and Mizuno, M. (2000). Sprint performance is related to muscle fascicle length in male 100-m sprinters. Journal of Applied Physiology, 88, 811-816. 23). Marques, M,C & Izquierdo, M.(2014). Kinetic and kinematic associations between vertical jump performance and 10-m sprint time. Journal of Strength Conditioning Research, 28(8): 2366–2371. 24). McBride, J, M., Blow, D., Kirby, T, J., Haines, T, L., Payne, A, M., & Triplett, N, T. (2009). Relationship between maximal squat strength and five, ten and forty yard sprint times. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,1633-1636, 23(6). 25). Mihailescu, L., & Valou, B. (2011). The contribution of strength and muscle power in sprint tryouts. Journal of Strength and Conditioning, 111-116, 1454. 26). Morin, J, B., Bourdin, M., Edouard, P., Peyrot, N., Samozino, P., & Lacour, J, R. (2012). Mechaninical determinants of 100m sprint running performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 3921-3930, 112. 27). Morin, J, B., Jeannin, T., Chevallier, B., & Belli, A. (2005). Spring-mass model characteristics during sprint running: correlation with performance and fatigue-induced changes. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 27, 158-65. 28). Requena, B., Garcia, I., Requena, F., Villarreal, E.S.-S.D., & Cronin, J.B. Relationship Between Traditional and Ballistic Squat Exercise with Vertical Jumping and Maximal Sprinting. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 25: 2193. 2011. 29). Sminiotous, A., Katsikas, C., Paradisis, G., Argeitakii, P., Zachargoiannis, E., & Tziortzis.(2008). Strength power parameters as predictors of sprinting performance. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 447-454, 48(4). 30). Wilson, G, J., Wood, G, A., & Elliott, B, C. (1991). Optimal stiffness of series elastic component in a stretch-shorten cycle activity. American Physiological Society, 161, 825- 33.
- 17. APPENDIX: Table 1: world class 30m flying start results (9). % Rank Females Males 91-100 2.90-2.99 2.50-2.59 81-90 3.00-3.09 2.60-2.69 71-80 3.10-3.19 2.70-2.79 61-70 3.20-3.29 2.80-2.89 51-60 3.30-3.39 2.90-2.99 41-50 3.40-3.49 3.00-3.09 31-40 3.50-3.59 3.10-3.19 Table 2: normative data for ages 16-19 years old flying 30m performance (11). Gender Excellent Above Average Average Below Average Poor Male <4 <4.0-4.2 4.3-4.4 4.5 4.6 >4.6 Female <4.5 4.5 – 4.6 4.7-4.8 4.9-5.0 >5.0 Table 3. The relationship between various measures of strength and power and 40-m sprint performance (1). Performances relative to body mass (kg) Correlation coefficient ( r ) 3 Repetition Maximum (RM) Squat/kg -0.66 3 RM power clean (hang)/kg -0.72 Maximal power/kg -0.76 Power 40kg/kg -0.52 Power 60kg/kg -0.68 Power 80kg/kg -0.75 Power 100kg/kg -0.65 Table 4: relationship between testing parameters for power and running performance, (27). Testing parameters: Correlation coefficient: Squat jump 0.79 Repeated jumps 0.77 Drop jump height 0.76 Counter movement jump 0.65