Babitha's Note on Unit 01: Introduction to Research & Research Process

Mrs. Babitha K Devu
Assistant Professor
SMVD College of Nursing

INTRODUCTION
• Nursing is considered one of the oldest arts,
yet finds place among the youngest of
professions. It is an evolving profession, which
needs a continuously growing and expanding
body of knowledge, which can be developed
only through research.
• Research is the one of the few ways by which
knowledge can be generated, and a discipline
can maintain its professional status and
growth.

INTRODUCTION
• In all parts of the world, nursing has experienced
a profound culture change. Nurses are
increasingly expected to understand and conduct
research and to base their professional practice
on research evidence – that is, to adopt an
Evidence-Based Practice (EBP).
• Nursing research provides the scientific basis for
the practice of the profession. The nurse scholars
should recognize that nursing is growing rapidly
and they must be ready to take challenges of
rapidly growing demand of new knowledge and
refinement of old outdated knowledge.

Meaning & Definition of Research
• The word was derived from the old French
word re-cerchier, meaning to "seek or
search”.
• The prefix re means “again” and signifies
replication of the search.
• Search means “to look for something or
examine closely and carefully”.
• Thus research means close and careful
examination of facts and their relationship to
discover new knowledge.

• Webster (1971), “research is a studious
inquiry or examination, investigation, or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and
interpretation of facts, revision of accepted
theories or laws in the light of new facts or
practical applications of such new or revised
theories or laws.”

• Treece and Treece (1973) stated: “Research is
an attempt to gain solutions to problems. It is
the collection of data in a rigorously controlled
situation for the purpose of prediction or
explanation.”

Definition of Nursing Research
• Polit and Beck (2004) - systematic inquiry
designed to generate trustworthy evidence
about issues of importance to the nursing
profession, including nursing practice,
education, administration, and informatics.
• Burns and Grove (2005) - defined nursing
research as a “scientific process that validates
and refines existing knowledge and generates
new knowledge that directly and indirectly
influences nursing practice.

Definition of Nursing Research
• International Council of Nurses (1986) – It is a
way to identify new knowledge, improve
professional education and practices and use
of resources effectively.
• National Institute for Nursing Research
(NINR) (1998), “Nursing research is the testing
of knowledge that can be used to guide
nursing practice. It is concerned with
examining questions and verifying
interventions based on human experiences.”

Sources of Knowledge
• Customs and tradition - “we’ve always done it
that way”.
• Assembled information (e.g., quality
improvement data, rates of using various
procedures like rates of C.S)
• Scientific research – the most objective and the
source of nursing knowledge.
• Trial and error – “if it works, we’ll use it”.
• Logical reasoning (inductive(S to G)& deductive)
• Experts or authorities or Experiences

Scientific Method
• It is defined as controlled, systematic
investigations that are rooted in objective reality
and that aim to develop general knowledge
about natural phenomena.
• Characteristics:
– Orderly & systematic processes.
– Control: minimize bias and maximize the precision
and validity of data gathered.
– Findings are based on the empirical evidences &
can be generalized.
– Based on assumptions or hypotheses.
– Conducted to develop or test theories.

Scientific Method
• STEPS: The steps of scientific methods depends on
the type of the study, which follows either a
qualitative or a quantitative approach. The main
steps are as follows:-
Selecting the topic and identifying the problem
Defining the objectives of the study
Reviewing the literature from theory and other
related studies
Defining concepts and variables to be studied
Stating hypothesis about expected observations or
phenomenon to be studied

Scientific Method
• STEPS:
Identifying assumptions and implications
Determining the ethical implication of the proposed
study
Describing the research design and methods for data
collection
Defining study population and sample
Planning the data analysis and discussion
Collecting data from subjects
Analyzing and interpreting data
Communicating findings of the study

Scientific Method
• LIMITATIONS:
Moral or ethical problem
Human complexity
Measurement problems
External variable control problems

Need & Purpose of Nursing Research
The specific purpose of nursing research
includes identification, description,
exploration, explanation, prediction and
control of facts. Therefore nursing research
enables nurses in the following ways:
Develop, refine and extend the scientific base
of knowledge, which is required for quality
nursing care, education and administration.
Enhance the body of professional knowledge
in nursing for continued professional growth.

Provide foundation for EN Practices.
Enhance their professional identity as
research is an essential component of any
profession.
Define the parameters of nursing, which will
help the nurse to identify the professional
boundaries.
Refine and eliminate old knowledge and
invent new intervention and evaluate its
effectiveness.

Enhance accuracy of different nursing
educational and administrative techniques.
Develop and refine nursing theories &
principles.
Solve the problems or answer the questions
related to nursing practices, nursing education
and nursing administration.

Characteristics of Research
Orderly and systematic process
Based on current professional issues
Begin with clearly defined purposes
Emphasize to develop, refine and expand
professional knowledge
Directed towards development or testing
theories
Finding solution of a problem
Dedicated to develop empirical evidence
Strives to collect first hand information/data

An objective and logical process
Generate findings to refine and improve
professional practices
Use of appropriate methodology
Conducted on representative sample
Conducted through appropriate use of methods
and tools of data collection
Use of valid and reliable data collection tools
Carefully recorded and reported
Adequately and appropriately analyzed research

Patiently carried out
activity
Researcher’s expertise,
interest, motivation and
courage
Adequately
communicated

Qualities of A Good Researcher
R – Research
Oriented
E – Efficient
S – Scientific
E – Effective
A – Active
R – Resourceful
C – Creative
H – Honest
E – Economical
R – Research
Mindedness

Babitha's Note on Unit 01: Introduction to Research & Research Process

Types of Research
Based on Approach
Qualitative
Research
Quantitativ
e Research
Based on Purpose
Basic
Research
Applied
Research

Types of Research
Based on
Approach
Qualitative
Research
Phenome
nology
Ethnogra
phy
Grounde
d Theory
Case
Study
Historical
Quantitative
Research

Types of Research
Based on Approach
Qualitative
Research
Quantitative
Research
True
Experimental
Quasi-
Experimental
Non-
experimental

Terminologies in Research
Abstract: A clear, concise summary of a study
that communicates the essential information
about the study.
Analysis: Method of organizing, sorting and
scrutinizing data in such a way that research
question can be answered or meaningful
inferences can be drawn.
Data: Units of information or any statistics.
Hypothesis: A tentative statement or statement
of the predicted relationship between two or
more variables in a research study.

ROL: A critical summary or research on topic
of interest.
Limitations: Restrictions in a study.
Manipulation: An intervention or treatment
introduced by the researcher in an
experimental or quasi-experimental study.
Operational Definitions: The way by which a
researcher clarifies and defines the variables
under investigation.

Population: The entire set of individuals or
objects selected for the study.
Pilot Study: Trial study conducted after the
completion of planning phase.
Reliability: The degree of accuracy with which an
instrument measures the attribute it is designed
to measure.
Settings: The study setting is the location in
which the research study is conducted.
Sample: A part or subset of population selected
to participate in research study.

Sampling: The process of selecting sample.
– Probability Sampling: The selection of samples
from a population by randomization.
– Nonprobability Sampling: The selection is using
non random procedures.
Validity: The degree to which an instrument
measures what it is intended to measure.
Variables: Attributes or characteristics that
can have more than one value or that can
change or vary.

Quantitative Research Process:
Overview
There are five phases in this type of study. They are:
Phase I: The conceptual Phase
Phase II: The design & Planning Phase
Phase III: The Empirical Phase
Phase IV: The Analytic Phase
Phase V: The Dissemination Phase

Overview
Phase I: The conceptual Phase: The 1st phase
consist of the following steps.
1. Formulating and Delimiting the Problem
2. Reviewing the Literature
3. Undertaking clinical fieldwork
4. Developing a Theoretical Framework
5. Formulating Hypotheses

Overview
Phase I: The conceptual Phase:
1. Formulating and Delimiting the
Problem
In developing research questions, nurse
researcher must attend to substantive
issues (What kind of new evidence is
needed), theoretical issues, clinical
issues, methodological issues and
ethical issues.

Overview
Examples:
Perhaps a research team has a ‘ hunch ’ that the use of pelvic floor
exercises might help women in the second stage of labour. This
hunch is probably based on knowledge of the anatomy of the
pelvic muscles and the process of delivery. It might also be
supported by personal or professional experience of midwives.
There are several ways in which the question could be
developed.

Overview
Q1(a) Are patients’ understanding from an informed consent for
coronary angiography/plasty by routine method?
Q1(b) Is there any need of other methods to learn and are they
willing to learn through new methods?
Q1(c) Does the other method of teaching have any influence in
reducing the stress during procedure? Obviously, each of these
research questions will give us very different kinds of information
and will require different research methods to be employed.

Overview
2. Reviewing the Related Literature
The next stage is to find out what evidence already exists in
the chosen research area. It is a waste of time and
money to conduct research where the answer to the
question is already known. What is already known about
a subject can be found from a variety of sources. Books
may be a starting point, but quickly become out of date if
the subject matter is topical. Academic journals are a
better place to start, and access to online databases such
as CINAHL (Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied
Health Literature) make this task speedy and relatively
simple.

Overview
3. Undertaking clinical fieldwork
Clinical fieldwork can provide perspectives on recent
clinical trends, current diagnostic procedures and
relevant health care delivery models; it also helps
researchers better understand client and settings in
which care is provided. Such fieldwork can also be
valuable in gaining access to an appropriate site or
in developing research strategies.

Overview
4. Defining the Framework and Developing Conceptual
Definitions
Theory is the ultimate aim of science: it transcends the
specifics of a particular time, place, and group of people
and aims to identify regularities in the relationships
among variables. When quantitative research is
performed within the context of a theoretical
framework—that is, when previous theory is used as a
basis for generating predictions that can be tested
through empirical research—the findings may have
broader significance and utility.

Overview
4. Defining the Framework and Developing
Conceptual Definitions
Even when the research question is not
embedded in a theory, researchers must have a
clear sense of the concepts under study. Thus,
an important task in the initial phase of a
project is the development of conceptual
definitions.

Overview
A hypothesis is a statement of the researcher’s
expectations about relationships between the
variables under investigation. Hypotheses, in other
words, are predictions of expected outcomes; they
state the relationships researchers expect to find as
a result of the study.

Overview
The research question identifies the concepts under
investigation and asks how the concepts might be
related; a hypothesis is the predicted answer.
Example: H1: There will be a significant difference in
the mean score of understanding of a patient
receiving informed consent for coronary
angiography/plasty by routine method and using a
visual package.

Overview
Researchers make decision about the methods
and procedures to be used to address the
research questions and plan for the actual
collection of data. Methodological decisions
have crucial implications for the validity and
reliability of the study findings. If the methods
used to collect and analyse research data are
seriously flawed then the evidence from the
study may be of little value.

Overview
6. Selecting a research design
7. Developing intervention protocols
8. Identifying the population
9. Designing the sampling plan
10. Specifying methods to measure
research variables
11. Developing methods to safeguard
subjects
12. Finalizing the research plan

Overview
The research design is the overall plan for obtaining
answers to the questions being studied and for
handling some of the difficulties encountered during
the research process. A wide variety of research
designs is available for quantitative studies, including
numerous experimental and nonexperimental
designs. Researchers specify which specific design
will be adopted and what controls will be used to
minimize bias and enhance the interpretability of
results

Overview
In quantitative studies, research designs tend to be
highly structured with tight controls over
extraneous variables. Designs indicates what
types of comparisons will be made and where the
study will take place.
The research design is essentially the architectural
backbone of the study

Overview
7. Developing intervention protocols
In experimental research, researchers actively intervene and
create the independent variable, which means that people in
the sample will be exposed to different treatments or
conditions.
Example
• Independent Variable: In this study, visual package on
coronary angiography/plasty is the independent variable.
• Dependent Variable: The dependent variable in this study
is patients’ understanding for an informed consent for
coronary angiography/plasty.
• Extraneous Variables: age, education

Overview
8. Identifying the population
Before selecting subjects, quantitative researchers need
to know what characteristics participants should
possess. Researchers and others using the findings also
need to know whom study results can be generalized.
During the planning phase of quantitative studies,
researcher must identify the population to be studied.
• Example:
– In the present study population consisted of
patients who are undergoing coronary
angiography/plasty.

Overview
9. Designing the sampling plan
A sample of subject who are a subset (a set whose members are
members of another set) of the population. It is practical and
less costly to collect data from a sample than from an entire.
Various methods of obtaining samples are available, these
methods vary in cost, effort and skills required but there
adequacy is assessed by its size & representativeness.
The sampling plan specifies how the sample will be selected and
recruited and how many subjects there will be. The most
sophisticated methods are probability sampling methods,
which use random procedures for selecting subjects

Overview
10. Specifying methods to measure research
variables
Quantitative researchers must develop methods to
observe or measure the research variables as accurately
as possible. Based on the conceptual definitions, the
researcher selects or design appropriate methods of
operationalizing the variables and collecting data. A
variety of quantitative data collection approaches exist.
Biophysiologic measurements often play an important
role in clinical research

Overview
11. Developing methods to safeguard subjects
Most nursing research involves human subjects, some
studies involve animals. In either case procedures
need to be developed to ensure that the study
adheres to ethical principles. For example, forms often
need to be developed to document that subjects
´participation in the study was voluntary.
Each aspect of the study plan needs to be reviewed to
determine whether the rights of subjects have been
adequately protected. Often the review involves a
formal presentation to an external committee

Overview
12. Finalizing and Reviewing the
Research Plan
Before collecting research data,
researchers often perform a number of
test to ensure that plans will work
smoothly. For example, they may check
the readability of written materials or may
pre-test the tool.

Overview
13. Collecting the Data
14. Preparing the data for analysis

Overview
Involves collecting research data and preparing
those data for analysis. The empirical phase is
one of the most time-consuming parts of the
investigation, the amount of time spent collecting
data varies from one study to the next. If data are
collecting by distributing a written questionnaire
to intact groups, this task may be accomplished in
a matter of days. Data collection requires several
weeks or even months of work

Overview
13. Collecting the Data
The researcher´s plan specifies procedures for the
actual collection of data (where & when the data
will be gathered), for describing the study to
participants and for recording information.
Suitable system of maintaining confidentiality of
information has been implemented.

Overview
14. Preparing the data for analysis
Coding involves the translation of verbal data into numeric
form according to a specified plan. This mean assigning
numeric codes to categorical variables as gender (1 for
female and 2 for male). Coding might be needed to
categorize narrative (something told or recounted in the
form of a story) responses to certain questions. Another
step is to transfer data to computer files for analysis.

Overview
Quantitative data gathered in the empirical phase are not
reported in raw form. They are subjected to analysis
and interpretation which occurs in the fourth major
phase of a project. The steps are as follows:
15: Analyzing the Data
16: Interpreting the Results

Overview
15: Analyzing the Data
Statistical analysis cover a broad range of techniques
from simple procedures to complex methods, Some
methods are computationally formidable (extremely
impressive in strength or excellence), the underlying
logic of statistical tests is relatively easy to grasp

Overview
Interpretation is the process of making a sense (A capacity to
appreciate or understand) and of examining their
implications. The process of interpretation begins with an
attempt to explain the findings within the context of the
theoretical framework, prior empirical (Relying on or
derived from observation or experiment) knowledge and
clinical experience.

Overview
If research hypotheses have been supported an explanation of
the results may be straightforward because the findings fit
into a previously conceived (To be of the opinion that)
argument. If hypothesis are not supported, researcher must
explain why this might be so, is the underlying
conceptualization (the act of creating something by thinking)
wrong or was it inappropriate for the research problem?

Overview
The analytic phase brings researchers full circle. It
provides answers to the questions posed in the first
phase of the project. Researchers ´responsibilities are
not complete until the study results are disseminated.
17: Communicating the Findings
18: Utilizing the Findings in Practice

Overview
17: Communicating the Findings
A study cannot contribute evidence to nursing practice if
the results are not communicated. Final task of a research
project is the preparation of a research report that can be
shared with others. Research reports can take various
forms: Term papers, Dissertation, Journal articles,
Presentations at professional conferences. Journal article-
reports appearing in such professional journal -usually are
the most useful because they are available to a broad,
international audience.

Overview
18: Utilizing the Findings in Practice
The concluding step of a high quality study is to
plan for its utilization in practice settings. Nurse
researcher may not themselves be in a position
to implement a plan for utilizing research
findings, they can contribute to the process by
including in their research reports
recommendations regarding how the evidence
from the study could be incorporated into the
practice

Qualitative Research Process:
Overview
Qualitative research is a scientific method of
observation to gather non-numerical data. It is
a process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks in-
depth understanding of social phenomena
within their natural setting.
It involves a fairly linear progression of tasks. In
this approach, the progression is closer to a
circle than a straight line. Hence it have a
flexible approach, we cannot show the flow of
activities precisely.

Overview
Planning the Study
•Identifying the research problem
•Doing ROL
•Selecting & gaining entree into research sites
•Developing an overall approach
•Developing methods to safeguard
participants
Developing Data Collection Strategies
•Decide what type & how to gather data
•Decide from whom to collect
•Decide how to enhance trustworthiness
Gathering &
Analyzing Data
Dissemina
ting
Findings

Overview
Planning the Study
Developing
Data
Collection
Strategies
Gathering & Analyzing Data
•Collecting, Organizing & Analyzing
Data
•Evaluating data: make modifications in
data collection strategies if needed
•Evaluating Data: determining if
saturation has been achieved
Disseminating Findings
•Communicating
findings
•Utilizing /recommend
findings in practice &
future research

Conclusion
Research process contains a series of closely
related activities which has to carry out by a
researcher. Research process requires
patients. There is no measure that shows your
research is the best. It is an art rather than a
science. Following are the main steps in
research process.
• Selection of Research Problem
• Extensive Literature Survey
• Making Hypothesis

Conclusion
• Preparing the Research Design
• Sampling
• Data collection
• Data Analysis
• Hypothesis Testing
• Generalization and Interpretation
• Preparation of Report
• Communicating the research findings

Babitha's Note on Unit 01: Introduction to Research & Research Process

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Babitha's Note on Unit 01: Introduction to Research & Research Process