BASIC-SURVIVAL_DOCUMEN_IN_DANGEROUS_SITUATION.ppt

OBJECTIVE
To familiarize to the students the
various field craft, survival at
sea, water and food discipline
and other technique of survival.

SCOPE
• INTRODUCTION
• SURVIVAL ACTIONS
• DIFINITION OF SURVIVAL
• KEY WORDFOR SURVIVAL
• GENERAL PROBLEMSOF SURVIVAL
• PATTERN FOR SURVIVAL
• SURVIVALAT SEA
• WATER ANDFOODDISCIPLINE AND VARIOUS FIELDCRAFT
• OTHER SURVIVALTECHNIQUE

Introduction
• This manual is based entirely on the
keyword SURVIVAL. The letters in
this word can help guide you in your
actions in any survival situation.
Whenever faced with a survival
situation, remember the word
SURVIVAL.

SURVIVAL ACTIONS
• The following paragraphs expand on the
meaning of each letter of the word
survival. Study and remember what each
letter signifies because you may some day
have to make it work for you.

S -Size Up the Situation
• If you are in a combat situation, find a place
where you can conceal yourself from the
enemy. Remember, security takes priority. Use
your senses of hearing, smell, and sight to get a
feel for the battlefield. What is the enemy
doing? Advancing? Holding in place?
Retreating? You will have to consider what is
developing on the battlefield when you make
your survival plan.

SizeUp Your Surroundings
• Determine the pattern of the area. Get a
feel for what is going on around you.
Every environment, whether forest,
jungle, or desert, has a rhythm or pattern.
This rhythm or pattern includes animal
and bird noises and movements and
insect sounds. It may also include enemy
traffic and civilian movements.

Size Up Your PhysicalCondition
• The pressure of the battle you were in or the
trauma of being in a survival situation may have
caused you to overlook wounds you received.
Check your wounds and give yourself first aid.
Take care to prevent further bodily harm. For
instance, in any climate, drink plenty of water to
prevent dehydration. If you are in a cold or wet
climate, put on additional clothing to prevent
hypothermia.

SizeUp Your Equipment
• Perhaps in the heat of battle, you lost or
damaged some of your equipment. Check
to see what equipment you have and what
condition it is in.
• Now that you have sized up your situation,
surroundings, physical condition, and
equipment, you are ready to make your
survival plan. In doing so, keep in mind
your basic physical needs--water, food,
and shelter.

U -Use All Your Senses, Undue Haste Makes Waste
• You may make a wrong move when you react quickly
without thinking or planning. That move may result in
your capture or death. Don't move just for the sake of
taking action. Consider all aspects of your situation
(size up your situation) before you make a decision
and a move. If you act in haste, you may forget or lose
some of your equipment. In your haste you may also
become disoriented so that you don't know which way
to go. Plan your moves. Be ready to move out quickly
without endangering yourself if the enemy is near you.
Use all your senses to evaluate the situation. Note
sounds and smells. Be sensitive to temperature
changes. Be observant.

R -Remember Where You Are
• Spot your location on your map and relate it to
the surrounding terrain. This is a basic principle
that you must always follow. If there are other
persons with you, make sure they also know
their location. Always know who in your group,
vehicle, or aircraft has a map and compass. If
that person is killed, you will have to get the
map and compass from him. Pay close
attention to where you are and to where you are
going. Do not rely on others in the group to
keep track of the route. Constantly orient
yourself.

R -Remember Where You Are cont.
Always try to determine, as a minimum, how your
location relates to--
• The location of enemy units and controlled areas.
• The location of friendly units and controlled areas.
• The location of local water sources (especially
important in the desert).
• Areas that will provide good cover and concealment.
This information will allow you to make intelligent
decisions when you are in a survival and evasion
situation.

V -Vanquish Fear and Panic
• The greatest enemies in a combat survival and
evasion situation are fear and panic. If
uncontrolled, they can destroy your ability to
make an intelligent decision. They may cause
you to react to your feelings and imagination
rather than to your situation. They can drain
your energy and thereby cause other negative
emotions. Previous survival and evasion
training and self-confidence will enable you to
vanquish fear and panic.

I -Improvise
• In the Philippines, we have items available for all our
needs. Many of these items are cheap to replace
when damaged. Our easy come, easy go, easy-to-
replace culture makes it unnecessary for us to
improvise. This inexperience in improvisation can be
an enemy in a survival situation. Learn to improvise.
Take a tool designed for a specific purpose and see
how many other uses you can make of it.
• Learn to use natural objects around you for different
needs. An example is using a rock for a hammer. No
matter how complete a survival kit you have with you,
it will run out or wear out after a while. Your
imagination must take over when your kit wears out.

V -Value Living
• All of us were born kicking and fighting to live, but
we have become used to the soft life. We have
become creatures of comfort. We dislike
inconveniences and discomforts. What happens
when we are faced with a survival situation with its
stresses, inconveniences, and discomforts? This is
when the will to live- placing a high value on living-
is vital. The experience and knowledge you have
gained through life and your Army training will have
a bearing on your will to live. Stubbornness, a
refusal to give in to problems and obstacles that
face you, will give you the mental and physical
strength to endure.

A -Act Like the Natives
• The natives and animals of a region have
adapted to their environment. To get a feel of
the area, watch how the people go about their
daily routine. When and what do they eat?
When, where, and how do they get their food?
When and where do they go for water? What
time do they usually go to bed and get up?
These actions are important to you when you
are trying to avoid capture.

A -Act Like the Natives cont.
• Animal life in the area can also give you clues
on how to survive. Animals also require food,
water, and shelter. By watching them, you can
find sources of water and food.
• WARNING Animals cannot serve as an
absolute guide to what you can eat and
drink. Many animals eat plants that are toxic
to humans.
• Keep in mind that the reaction of animals can
reveal your presence to the enemy.

A -Act Like the Natives cont.
• If in a friendly area, one way you can gain
rapport with the natives is to show interest in
their tools and how they get food and water. By
studying the people, you learn to respect them,
you often make valuable friends, and, most
important, you learn how to adapt to their
environment and increase your chances of
survival.

L -Live by Your Wits, ButforNow,Learn BasicSkills
• Without training in basic skills for surviving and
evading on the battlefield, your chances of
living through a combat survival and evasion
situation are slight.
• Learn these basic skills now--not when you are
headed for or are in the battle. How you decide
to equip yourself before deployment will impact
on whether or not you survive. You need to
know about the environment to which you are
going, and you must practice basic skills geared
to that environment. For instance, if you are
going to a desert, you need to know how to get
water in the desert.

L -Live by Your Wits, ButforNow,Learn BasicSkills
• Practice basic survival skills during all
training programs and exercises. Survival
training reduces fear of the unknown and
gives you self-confidence. It teaches you
to live by your wits.

General Problems of Survival:
 Adjusting to the strange environment to the
general area.
 Our Cunning (Common Sense):
a. Rugged Terrain.
b. Climate.
c. Vegetation and wild life.
d. Obstacles.
 Over Cunning (FEAR) Psychological condition
one must conquer:
a. Fear of the unknown.
b. Fear of Discomfort.
c. Fear of the people in strange territory.
d. Fear of your own weakness

PATTERNFOR SURVIVAL
• Develop a survival pattern that lets you beat the
enemies of survival. This survival pattern must include
food, water, shelter, fire, first aid, and signals placed in
order of importance. For example, in a cold
environment, you would need a fire to get warm; a
shelter to protect you from the cold, wind, and rain or
snow; traps or snares to get food; a means to signal
friendly aircraft; and first aid to maintain health. If
injured, first aid has top priority no matter what climate
you are in.
• Change your survival pattern to meet your immediate
physical needs as the environment changes.
• As you read the rest of this manual, keep in mind the
keyword SURVIVAL and the need for a survival
pattern.

SEA SURVIVAL
Perhaps the most difficult survival situation
to be in is sea survival. Short-or long-term
survival depends upon rations and equipment
available and your ingenuity. You must be
resourceful to survive.
Water covers about 75 percent of the earth's
surface, with about 70 percent being oceans
and seas. You can assume that you will
sometime cross vast expanses of water. There
is always the chance that the plane or ship you
are on will become crippled by such hazards as
storms, collision, fire, or war.

THE OPEN SEA
As a survivor on the open sea, you will face waves
and wind. You may also face extreme heat or cold. To
keep these environmental hazards from becoming
serious problems, take precautionary measures as
soon as possible. Use the available resources to
protect yourself from the elements and from heat or
extreme cold and humidity.
Protecting yourself from the elements meets only
one of your basic needs. You must also be able to
obtain water and food. Satisfying these three basic
needs will help prevent serious physical and
psychological problems. However, you must know how
to treat health problems that may result from your
situation.

Precautionary Measures
Your survival at sea depends upon--
• Your knowledge of and ability to use the available
survival equipment.
• Your special skills and ability to apply them to cope
with the hazards you face.
• Your will to live.
When you board a ship or aircraft, find out what
survival equipment is on board, where it is stowed,
and what it contains. For instance, how many life
preservers and lifeboats or rafts are on board? Where
are they located? What type of survival equipment do
they have? How much food, water, and medicine do
they contain? How many people are they designed to
support?
If you are responsible for other personnel on
board, make sure you know where they are and they
know where you are.

Precautionary Measures cont.
Down at Sea
If you are in an aircraft that goes down at sea,
take the following actions once you clear the
aircraft. Whether you are in the water or in a raft --
• Get clear and upwind of the aircraft as soon as
possible, but stay in the vicinity until the aircraft sinks.
• Get clear of fuel-covered water in case the fuel ignites.
• Try to find other survivors.
A search for survivors usually takes place around
the entire area of and near the crash site. Missing
personnel may be unconscious and floating low in the
water. Figure 16-1 illustrates rescue procedures.

• The best technique for rescuing personnel from the
water is to throw them a life preserver attached to a
line. Another is to send a swimmer (rescuer) from the
raft with a line attached to a flotation device that will
support the rescuer's weight. This device will help
conserve a rescuer's energy while recovering the
survivor. The least acceptable technique is to send an
attached swimmer without flotation devices to retrieve
a survivor. In all cases, the rescuer wears a life
preserver. A rescuer should not underestimate the
strength of a panic-stricken person in the water. A
careful approach can prevent injury to the rescuer.

• When the rescuer approaches a survivor in trouble
from behind, there is little danger the survivor will kick,
scratch, or grab him. The rescuer swims to a point
directly behind the survivor and grasps the life
preserver's backstrap. The rescuer uses the
sidestroke to drag the survivor to the raft.
• If you are in the water, make your way to a raft. If no
rafts are available, try to find a large piece of floating
debris to cling to. Relax; a person who knows how to
relax in ocean water is in very little danger of
drowning. The body's natural buoyancy will keep at
least the top of the head above water, but some
movement is needed to keep the face above water.

• Floating on your back takes the least energy.
Lie on your back in the water, spread your arms
and legs, and arch your back. By controlling
your breathing in and out, your face will always
be out of the water and you may even sleep in
this position for short periods. Your head will be
partially submerged, but your face will be above
water. If you cannot float on your back or if the
sea is too rough, float facedown in the water as
shown in Figure 16-2.

The following are the best swimming strokes
during a survival situation:
• Dog paddle. This stroke is excellent when clothed or
wearing a life jacket. Although slow in speed, it
requires very little energy.
• Breaststroke. Use this stroke to swim underwater,
through oil or debris, or in rough seas. It is probably
the best stroke for long-range swimming: it allows you
to conserve your energy and maintain a reasonable
speed.
• Sidestroke. It is a good relief stroke because you use
only one arm to maintain momentum and buoyancy.
• Backstroke. This stroke is also an excellent relief
stroke. It relieves the muscles that you use for other
strokes. Use it if an underwater explosion is likely.

If you are in an area where surface oil is
burning--
• Discard your shoes and buoyant life preserver.
Note: If you have an uninflated life preserver, keep it.
• Cover your nose, mouth, and eyes and quickly go
underwater.
• Swim underwater as far as possible before surfacing
to breathe.
• Before surfacing to breathe and while still underwater,
use your hands to push burning fluid away from the
area where you wish to surface. Once an area is clear
of burning liquid, you can surface and take a few
breaths. Try to face downwind before inhaling.
• Submerge feet first and continue as above until clear
of the flames.

• If you are in oil-covered water that is free of fire, hold
your head high to keep the oil out of your eyes. Attach
your life preserver to your wrist and then use it as a
raft.
• If you have a life preserver, you can stay afloat for an
indefinite period. In this case, use the "HELP" body
position: Heat Escaping Lessening Posture (HELP).
Remain still and assume the fetal position to help you
retain body heat. You lose about 50 percent of your
body heat through your head. Therefore, keep your
head out of the water. Other areas of high heat loss
are the neck, the sides, and the groin. Figure 16-3
illustrates the HELP position.

If you are in a raft--
• Check the physical condition of all on board. Give first
aid if necessary. Take seasickness pills if available.
The best way to take these pills is to place them under
the tongue and let them dissolve. There are also
suppositories or injections against seasickness.
Vomiting, whether from seasickness or other causes,
increases the danger of dehydration.
• Try to salvage all floating equipment--rations;
canteens, thermos jugs, and other containers;
clothing; seat cushions; parachutes; and anything else
that will be useful to you. Secure the salvaged items in
or to your raft. Make sure the items have no sharp
edges that can puncture the raft.

If you are in a raft— cont.
• If there are other rafts, lash the rafts together so
they are about 7.5 meters apart. Be ready to
draw them closer together if you see or hear an
aircraft. It is easier for an aircrew to spot rafts
that are close together rather than scattered.
• Remember, rescue at sea is a cooperative
effort. Use all available visual or electronic
signaling devices to signal and make contact
with rescuers. For example, raise a flag or
reflecting material on an oar as high as possible
to attract attention.

• Locate the emergency radio and get it into operation.
Operating instructions are on it. Use the emergency
transceiver only when friendly aircraft are likely to be in the
area.
• Have other signaling devices ready for instant use. If you
are in enemy territory, avoid using a signaling device that
will alert the enemy. However, if your situation is desperate,
you may have to signal the enemy for rescue if you are to
survive.
• Check the raft for inflation, leaks, and points of possible
chafing. Make sure the main buoyancy chambers are firm
(well rounded) but not overly tight (Figure 16-4). Check
inflation regularly. Air expands with heat; therefore, on hot
days, release some air and add air when the weather cools.
• Decontaminate the raft of all fuel. Petroleum will weaken its
surfaces and break down its glued joints.

• Throw out the sea anchor, or improvise a drag from
the raft's case, bailing bucket, or a roll of clothing. A
sea anchor helps you stay close to your ditching site,
making it easier for searchers to find you if you have
relayed your location. Without a sea anchor, your raft
may drift over 160 kilometers in a day, making it much
harder to find you. You can adjust the sea anchor to
act as a drag to slow down the rate of travel with the
current, or as a means to travel with the current. You
make this adjustment by opening or closing the sea
anchor's apex. When open, the sea anchor (Figure
16-5) acts as a drag that keeps you in the general
area. When closed, it forms a pocket for the current to
strike and propels the raft in the current's direction.

Additionally, adjust the sea anchor so that
when the raft is on the wave's crest, the sea
anchor is in the wave's trough (Figure 16-6).
• Wrap the sea anchor rope with cloth to prevent
its chafing the raft. The anchor also helps to
keep the raft headed into the wind and waves.
• In stormy water, rig the spray and windshield at
once. In a 20-man raft, keep the canopy
erected at all times. Keep your raft as dry as
possible. Keep it properly balanced. All
personnel should stay seated, the heaviest one
in the center.

• Calmly consider all aspects of your situation
and determine what you and your companions
must do to survive. Inventory all equipment,
food, and water. Waterproof items that salt
water may affect. These include compasses,
watches, sextant, matches, and lighters. Ration
food and water.
• Assign a duty position to each person: for
example, water collector, food collector, lookout,
radio operator, signaler, and water bailers.

Note: Lookout duty should not exceed 2 hours.
Keep in mind and remind others that
cooperation is one of the keys to survival.
• Keep a log. Record the navigator's last fix, the
time of ditching, the names and physical
condition of personnel, and the ration schedule.
Also record the winds, weather, direction of
swells, times of sunrise and sunset, and other
navigational data.

 If you are down in unfriendly waters, take
special security measures to avoid detection.
Do not travel in the daytime. Throw out the sea
anchor and wait for nightfall before paddling or
hoisting sail. Keep low in the raft; stay covered
with the blue side of the camouflage cloth up.
Be sure a passing ship or aircraft is friendly or
neutral be-fore trying to attract its attention. If
the enemy detects you and you are close to
capture, destroy the log book, radio, navigation
equipment, maps, signaling equipment, and
firearms. Jump overboard and submerge if the
enemy starts strafing.

Cold Weather Considerations
If you are in a cold climate--
• Put on an antiexposure suit. If unavailable, put on any
extra clothing available. Keep clothes loose and
comfortable.
• Take care not to snag the raft with shoes or sharp
objects. Keep the repair kit where you can readily
reach it.
• Rig a windbreak, spray shield, and canopy.
• Try to keep the floor of the raft dry. Cover it with
canvas or cloth for insulation.
• Huddle with others to keep warm, moving enough to
keep the blood circulating. Spread an extra tarpaulin,
sail, or parachute over the group.
• Give extra rations, if available, to men suffering from

Cold Weather Considerations cont.
• The greatest problem you face when
submerged in cold water is death due to
hypothermia. When you are immersed in cold
water, hypothermia occurs rapidly due to the
decreased insulating quality of wet clothing and
the result of water displacing the layer of still air
that normally surrounds the body. The rate of
heat exchange in water is about 25 times
greater than it is in air of the same temperature.
Figure 16-7 lists life expectancy times for
immersion in water.

Cold Weather Considerations cont.
• Your best protection against the effects of cold
water is to get into the life raft, stay dry, and
insulate your body from the cold surface of the
bottom of the raft. If these actions are not
possible, wearing an antiexposure suit will
extend your life expectancy considerably.
Remember, keep your head and neck out of the
water and well insulated from the cold water's
effects when the temperature is below 19
degrees C. Wearing life preservers increases
the predicted survival time as body position in
the water increases the chance of survival.

Hot Weather Considerations
If you are in a hot climate--
• Rig a sunshade or canopy. Leave enough
space for ventilation.
• Cover your skin, where possible, to protect it
from sunburn. Use sunburn cream, if available,
on all exposed skin. Your eyelids, the back of
your ears, and the skin under your chin sunburn
easily.

Hot Weather Considerations cont.
• Raft Procedures
• Most of the rafts in the U. S. Army and Air Force
inventories can satisfy the needs for personal
protection, mode of travel, and evasion and
camouflage.
• Note: Before boarding any raft, remove and
tether (attach) your life preserver to yourself or
the raft. Ensure there are no other metallic or
sharp objects on your clothing or equipment
that could damage the raft. After boarding the
raft, don your life preserver again.

Raft Procedures cont.
• One-Man Raft
• The one-man raft has a main cell inflation. If the
CO2 bottle should malfunction or if the raft
develops a leak, you can inflate it by mouth.
• The spray shield acts as a shelter from the cold,
wind, and water. In some cases, this shield
serves as insulation. The raft's insulated bottom
limits the conduction of cold thereby protecting
you from hypothermia (Figure 16-8).

• You can travel more effectively by inflating or
deflating the raft to take advantage of the wind
or current. You can use the spray shield as a
sail white the ballast buckets serve to increase
drag in the water. You may use the sea anchor
to control the raft's speed and direction.
• There are rafts developed for use in tactical
areas that are black. These rafts blend with the
sea's background. You can further modify these
rafts for evasion by partially deflating them to
obtain a lower profile.

• A lanyard connects the one-man raft to a
parachutist (survivor) landing in the water. You
(the survivor) inflate it upon landing. You do not
swim to the raft, but pull it to you via the
lanyard. The raft may hit the water upside
down, but you can right it by approaching the
side to which the bottle is attached and flipping
the raft over. The spray shield must be in the
raft to expose the boarding handles. Follow the
steps outlined in the note under raft procedures
above when boarding the raft (Figure 16-9).

• If you have an arm injury, the best way to board
is by turning your back to the small end of the
raft, pushing the raft under your buttocks, and
lying back. Another way to board the raft is to
push down on its small end until one knee is
inside and lie forward (Figure 16-10).

• In rough seas, it may be easier for you to grasp the
small end of the raft and, in a prone position, to kick
and pull yourself into the raft. When you are lying face
down in the raft, deploy and adjust the sea anchor. To
sit upright, you may have to disconnect one side of the
seat kit and roll to that side. Then you adjust the spray
shield. There are two variations of the one-man raft;
the improved model incorporates an inflatable spray
shield and floor that provide additional insulation. The
spray shield helps keep you dry and warm in cold
oceans and protects you from the sun in the hot
climates (Figure 16-11).

• Seven-Man Raft
• Some multiplace aircraft carry the seven-man
raft. It is a component of the survival drop kit
(Figure 16-12). This raft may inflate upside
down and require you to right the raft before
boarding. Always work from the bottle side to
prevent injury if the raft turns over. Facing into
the wind, the wind provides additional help in
righting the raft. Use the handles on the inside
bottom of the raft for boarding (Figure 16-13).

• Use the boarding ramp if someone holds down
the raft's opposite side. If you don't have help,
again work from the bottle side with the wind at
your back to help hold down the raft. Follow the
steps outlined in the note under raft procedures
above. Then grasp an oarlock and boarding
handle, kick your legs to get your body prone
on the water, and then kick and pull yourself
into the raft. If you are weak or injured, you may
partially deflate the raft to make boarding easier
(Figure 16-14).

• Use the hand pump to keep the buoyancy chambers and
cross seat firm. Never overinflate the raft.

• Twenty- or Twenty-Five-Man Rafts
• You may find 20- or 25-man rafts in multiplace aircraft
(Figures 16-15 and 16-16). You will find them in
accessible areas of the fuselage or in raft
compartments. Some may be automatically deployed
from the cock-pit, while others may need manual
deployment. No matter how the raft lands in the water,
it is ready for boarding. A lanyard connects the
accessory kit to the raft and you retrieve the kit by
hand. You must manually inflate the center chamber
with the hand pump. Board the 20- or 25-man raft from
the aircraft, if possible. If not, board in the following
manner:

Board the 20- or 25-man raft from the
aircraft, if possible. If not, board in the
following manner:
• Approach the lower boarding ramp.
• Remove your life preserver and tether it to
yourself so that it trails behind you.
• Grasp the boarding handles and kick your legs
to get your body into a prone position on the
water's surface; then kick and pull until you are
inside the raft.

• An incompletely inflated raft will make boarding
easier. Approach the intersection of the raft and
ramp, grasp the upper boarding handle, and
swing one leg onto the center of the ramp, as in
mounting a horse (Figure 16-17).

• Immediately tighten the equalizer clamp upon entering the
raft to prevent deflating the entire raft in case of a puncture
(Figure 16-18). Use the pump to keep these rafts' chambers
and center ring firm. They should be well rounded but not
overly tight.

Sailing Rafts
• Rafts do not have keels, therefore, you can't
sail them into the wind. However, anyone can
sail a raft downwind. You can successfully sail
multiplace (except 20- to 25-man) rafts 10
degrees off from the direction of the wind. Do
not try to sail the raft unless land is near. If you
decide to sail and the wind is blowing toward a
desired destination, fully inflate the raft, sit high,
take in the sea anchor, rig a sail, and use an
oar as a rudder.

Water
• Water is your most important need. With it
alone, you can live for ten days or longer,
depending on your will to live. When
drinking water, moisten your lips, tongue,
and throat before swallowing.

Water cont.
• Short Water Rations
• When you have a limited water supply and you can't
replace it by chemical or mechanical means, use the
water efficiently. Protect freshwater supplies from
seawater contamination. Keep your body well shaded,
both from overhead sun and from reflection off the sea
surface. Allow ventilation of air; dampen your clothes
during the hottest part of the day. Do not exert
yourself. Relax and sleep when possible. Fix your
daily water ration after considering the amount of
water you have, the output of solar stills and desalting
kit, and the number and physical condition of your
party.

Water cont.
• Solar Still
• When solar stills are available, read the
instructions and set them up immediately. Use
as many stills as possible, depending on the
number of men in the raft and the amount of
sunlight available. Secure solar stills to the raft
with care. This type of solar still only works on
flat, calm seas.

Water cont.
• Desalting Kits
• When desalting kits are available in addition to
solar stills, use them only for immediate water
needs or during long overcast periods when
you cannot use solar stills. In any event, keep
desalting kits and emergency water stores for
periods when you cannot use solar stills or
catch rainwater.

Water cont.
• Water From Fish
• Drink the aqueous fluid found along the spine
and in the eyes of large fish. Carefully cut the
fish in half to get the fluid along the spine and
suck the eye. If you are so short of water that
you need to do this, then do not drink any of
the other body fluids. These other fluids are rich
in protein and fat and will use up more of your
reserve water in digestion than they supply.

Water cont.
• Sea Ice
• In arctic waters, use old sea ice for water. This
ice is bluish, has rounded comers, and splinters
easily. It is nearly free of salt. New ice is gray,
milky, hard, and salty. Water from icebergs is
fresh, but icebergs are dangerous to approach.
Use them as a source of water only in
emergencies.

Water cont.
REMEMBER!
• Do not drink seawater.
• Do not drink urine.
• Do not drink alcohol.
• Do not smoke.
• Do not eat, unless water is available.
• Sleep and rest are the best ways of enduring periods
of reduced water and food intake. However, make
sure that you have enough shade when napping
during the day. If the sea is rough, tie yourself to the
raft, close any cover, and ride out the storm as best
you can. Relax is the key word--at least try to relax.

Food Procurement
• In the open sea, fish will be the main food
source. There are some poisonous and
dangerous ocean fish, but, in general, when out
of sight of land, fish are safe to eat. Nearer the
shore there are fish that are both dangerous
and poisonous to eat. There are some fish,
such as the red snapper and barracuda, that
are normally edible but poisonous when taken
from the waters of atolls and reefs. Flying fish
will even jump into your raft!

Food Procurement cont.
Fish
• When fishing, do not handle the fishing line with bare
hands and never wrap it around your hands or tie it to
a life raft. The salt that adheres to it can make it a
sharp cutting edge, an edge dangerous both to the raft
and your hands. Wear gloves, if they are available, or
use a cloth to handle fish and to avoid injury from
sharp fins and gill covers.
• In warm regions, gut and bleed fish immediately after
catching them. Cut fish that you do not eat
immediately into thin, narrow strips and hang them to
dry. A well-dried fish stays edible for several days. Fish
not cleaned and dried may spoil in half a day. Fish
with dark meat are very prone to decomposition. If you
do not eat them all immediately, do not eat any of the
leftovers. Use the leftovers for bait.

• Fishing Aids
• You can use different materials to make fishing aids as
described in the following paragraphs:
• Fishing line. Use pieces of tarpaulin or canvas.
Unravel the threads and tie them together in short
lengths in groups of three or more threads. Shoelaces
and parachute suspension line also work well.
• Fish hooks. No survivor at sea should be without
fishing equipment but if you are, improvise hooks as
shown in Chapter 8.
• Fish lures. You can fashion lures by attaching a
double hook to any shiny piece of metal.

• Fishing Aids cont.
• Grapple. Use grapples to hook seaweed. You may
shake crabs, shrimp, or small fish out of the seaweed.
These you may eat or use for bait. You may eat
seaweed itself, but only when you have plenty of
drinking water. Improvise grapples from wood. Use a
heavy piece of wood as the main shaft, and lash three
smaller pieces to the shaft as grapples.
• Bait. You can use small fish as bait for larger ones.
Scoop the small fish up with a net. If you don't have a
net, make one from cloth of some type. Hold the net
under the water and scoop upward. Use all the guts
from birds and fish for bait. When using bait, try to
keep it moving in the water to give it the appearance
of being alive.

Helpful Fishing Hints
Your fishing should be successful if you
remember the following important hints:
• Be extremely careful with fish that have teeth and
spines.
• Cut a large fish loose rather than risk capsizing
the raft. Try to catch small rather than large fish.
• Do not puncture your raft with hooks or other
sharp instruments.
• Do not fish when large sharks are in the area.
• Watch for schools of fish; try to move close to
these schools.
• Fish at night using a light. The light attracts fish.

Helpful Fishing Hints cont.
• In the daytime, shade attracts some fish.
You may find them under your raft.
• Improvise a spear by tying a knife to an oar
blade. This spear can help you catch larger
fish, but you must get them into the raft
quickly or they will slip off the blade. Also,
tie the knife very securely or you may lose
it.
• Always take care of your fishing equipment.
Dry your fishing lines, clean and sharpen
the hooks, and do not allow the hooks to
stick into the fishing lines.

• Birds
• As stated in Chapter 8, all birds are edible. Eat any
birds you can catch. Sometimes birds may land on
your raft, but usually they are cautious. You may be
able to attract some birds by towing a bright piece of
metal behind the raft. This will bring the bird within
shooting range, provided you have a firearm.
• If a bird lands within your reach, you may be able to
catch it. If the birds do not land close enough or land
on the other end of the raft, you may be able to catch
them with a bird noose. Bait the center of the noose
and wait for the bird to land. When the bird's feet are
in the center of the noose, pull it tight.
• Use all parts of the bird. Use the feathers for
insulation, the entrails and feet for bait, and so on. Use
your imagination.

Medical Problems Associated With
Sea Survival
• At sea, you may become seasick, get
saltwater sores, or face some of the same
medical problems that occur on land, such
as dehydration or sunburn. These
problems can become critical if left
untreated.

Sea Survival cont.
Seasickness
Seasickness is the nausea and vomiting
caused by the motion of the raft. It can
result in--
• Extreme fluid loss and exhaustion.
• Loss of the will to survive.
• Others becoming seasick.
• Attraction of sharks to the raft.
• Unclean conditions.

Sea Survival cont.
To treat seasickness--
• Wash both the patient and the raft to remove the sight
and odor of vomit.
• Keep the patient from eating food until his nausea is
gone.
• Have the patient lie down and rest.
• Give the patient seasickness pills if available. If the
patient is unable to take the pills orally, insert them
rectally for absorption by the body.
• Note: Some survivors have said that erecting a
canopy or using the horizon as a focal point helped
overcome seasickness. Others have said that
swimming alongside the raft for short periods helped,
but extreme care must be taken if swimming.

Sea Survival cont.
• Saltwater Sores
• These sores result from a break in skin
exposed to saltwater for an extended period.
The sores may form scabs and pus. Do not
open or drain. Flush the sores with fresh water,
if available, and allow to dry. Apply an
antiseptic, if available.

Sea Survival cont.
Immersion Rot, Frostbite, and Hypothermia
• These problems are similar to those encountered in
cold weather environments. Symptoms and treatment
are the same as covered in Chapter 15.
Blindness/Headache
• If flame, smoke, or other contaminants get in the eyes,
flush them immediately with salt water, then with fresh
water, if available. Apply ointment, if available.
Bandage both eyes 18 to 24 hours, or longer if
damage is severe. If the glare from the sky and water
causes your eyes to become bloodshot and inflamed,
bandage them lightly. Try to prevent this problem by
wearing sunglasses. Improvise sunglasses if
necessary.

Medical Problems Associated With Sea
Survival cont.
Constipation
• This condition is a common problem on a raft. Do not
take a laxative, as this will cause further dehydration.
Exercise as much as possible and drink an adequate
amount of water, if available.
Difficult Urination
• This problem is not unusual and is due mainly to
dehydration. It is best not to treat it, as it could cause
further dehydration.
Sunburn
• Sunburn is a serious problem in sea survival. Try to
prevent sunburn by staying in shade and keeping your
head and skin covered. Use cream or Chap Stick from
your first aid kit. Remember, reflection from the water
also causes

Sharks
• Whether you are in the water or in a boat or
raft, you may see many types of sea life around
you. Some may be more dangerous than
others. Generally, sharks are the greatest
danger to you. Other animals such as whales,
porpoises, and stingrays may look dangerous,
but really pose little threat in the open sea.

Sharks cont.
• Sharks may hunt alone, but most reports of
attacks cite more than one shark present. The
smaller sharks tend to travel in schools and
attack in mass. Whenever one of the sharks
finds a victim, the other sharks will quickly join
it. Sharks will eat a wounded shark as quickly
as their prey.
• Sharks feed at all hours of the day and night.
Most reported shark contacts and attacks were
during daylight, and many of these have been
in the late afternoon.

Sharks cont.
Some of the measures that you can take to
protect yourself against sharks when you
are in the water are-
• Stay with other swimmers. A group can maintain a
360-degree watch. A group can either frighten or fight
off sharks better than one man.
• Always watch for sharks. Keep all your clothing on,
to include your shoes. Historically, sharks have
attacked the unclothed men in groups first, mainly in
the feet. Clothing also protects against abrasions
should the shark brush against you.
• Avoid urinating. If you must, only do so in small
amounts. Let it dissipate between discharges. If you
must defecate, do so in small amounts and throw it as
far away from you as possible. Do the same if you
must vomit.

Sharks cont.
When you are in a raft and see sharks--
• Do not fish. If you have hooked a fish, let it go.
Do not clean fish in the water.
• Do not throw garbage overboard.
• Do not let your arms, legs, or equipment hang
in the water.
• Keep quiet and do not move around.
• Bury all dead as soon as possible. If there are
many sharks in the area, conduct the burial at
night.

Detecting Land
• You should watch carefully for any signs of
land. There are many indicators that land is
near.
• A fixed cumulus cloud in a clear sky or in a sky
where all other clouds are moving often hovers
over or slightly downwind from an island.
• In the tropics, the reflection of sunlight from
shallow lagoons or shelves of coral reefs often
causes a greenish tint in the sky.

Detecting Land cont.
• In the arctic, light-colored reflections on clouds often
indicate ice fields or snow-covered land. These
reflections are quite different from the dark gray ones
caused by open water.
• Deep water is dark green or dark blue. Lighter color
indicates shallow water, which may mean land is near.
• At night, or in fog, mist, or rain, you may detect land by
odors and sounds. The musty odor of mangrove
swamps and mud flats carry a long way. You hear the
roar of surf long before you see the surf. The
continued cries of seabirds coming from one direction
indicate their roosting place on nearby land.

Detecting Land cont.
• There usually are more birds near land than over the
open sea. The direction from which flocks fly at dawn
and to which they fly at dusk may indicate the direction
of land. During the day, birds are searching for food
and the direction of flight has no significance.
• Mirages occur at any latitude, but they are more likely
in the tropics, especially during the middle of the day.
Be careful not to mistake a mirage for nearby land. A
mirage disappears or its appearance and elevation
change when viewed from slightly different heights.
• You may be able to detect land by the pattern of the
waves (refracted) as they approach land (Figure 16-
20). By traveling with the waves and parallel to the
slightly turbulent area marked "X" on the illustration,
you should reach land.

SEASHORES
• Search planes or ships do not always spot a
drifting raft or swimmer. You may have to land
along the coast before being rescued. Surviving
along the seashore is different from open sea
survival. Food and water are more abundant
and shelter is obviously easier to locate and
construct.

SEASHORES cont.
• If you are in friendly territory and decide to
travel, it is better to move along the coast than
to go inland. Do not leave the coast except to
avoid obstacles (swamps and cliffs) or unless
you find a trail that you know leads to human
habitation.

SEASHORES cont.
• In time of war, remember that the enemy patrols
most coastlines. These patrols may cause
problems for you if you land on a hostile shore.
You will have extremely limited travel options in
this situation. Avoid all contact with other
humans, and make every effort to cover all
tracks you leave on the shore.

Special Health Hazards
• Coral, poisonous and
aggressive fish, crocodiles, sea
urchins, sea biscuits, sponges,
anemones, and tides and
undertow pose special health
hazards.

Special Health Hazards cont.
• Coral
• Coral, dead or alive, can inflict painful cuts.
There are hundreds of water hazards that can
cause deep puncture wounds, severe bleeding,
and the danger of infection. Clean all coral cuts
thoroughly. Do not use iodine to disinfect any
coral cuts. Some coral polyps feed on iodine
and may grow inside your flesh if you use
iodine.

• Poisonous Fish
• Many reef fish have toxic flesh. For some
species, the flesh is always poisonous, for other
species, only at certain times of the year. The
poisons are present in all parts of the fish, but
especially in the liver, intestines, and eggs.
• Fish toxins are water soluble--no amount of
cooking will neutralize them. They are tasteless,
therefore the standard edibility tests are use-
less. Birds are least susceptible to the poisons.
Therefore, do not think that because a bird can
eat a fish, it is a safe species for you to eat.

• Aggressive Fish
• You should also avoid some ferocious fish. The
bold and inquisitive barracuda has attacked
men wearing shiny objects. It may charge lights
or shiny objects at night. The sea bass, which
can grow to 1.7 meters, is another fish to avoid.
The moray eel, which has many sharp teeth
and grows to 1.5 meters, can also be
aggressive if disturbed.

• Sea Snakes
• Sea snakes are venomous and sometimes
found in mid ocean. They are unlikely to bite
unless provoked. Avoid them.

• Crocodiles
• Crocodiles inhabit tropical saltwater bays and
mangrove-bordered estuaries and range up to
65 kilometers into the open sea. Few remain
near inhabited areas. You commonly find
crocodiles in the remote areas of the East
Indies and Southeast Asia. Consider specimens
over 1 meter long dangerous, especially
females guarding their nests. Crocodile meat is
an excellent source of food when available.

• Sea Urchins, Sea Biscuits, Sponges, and
Anemones
• These animals can cause extreme, though
seldom fatal, pain. Usually found in tropical
shallow water near coral formations, sea
urchins resemble small, round porcupines. If
stepped on, they slip fine needles of lime or
silica into the skin, where they break off and
fester. If possible, remove the spines and treat
the injury for infection. The other animals
mentioned inflict injury similarly.

• Tides and Undertow
• These are another hazard to contend with. If
caught in a large wave's undertow, push off the
bottom or swim to the surface and proceed
shoreward in a trough between waves. Do not
fight against the pull of the undertow. Swim with
it or perpendicular to it until it loses strength,
then swim for shore.

• Mollusks
• Mussels, limpets, clams, sea snails, octopuses,
squids, and sea slugs are all edible. Shellfish
will usually supply most of the protein eaten by
coastal survivors. Avoid the blue-ringed octopus
and cone shells (described in Chapter 11 and
Appendix F). Also beware of "red tides" that
make mollusks poisonous. Apply the edibility
test on each species before eating.

• Worms
• Coastal worms are generally edible, but it is
better to use them for fish bait. Avoid bristle
worms that look like fuzzy caterpillars. Also
avoid tubeworms that have sharp-edged tubes.
Arrowworms, alias amphioxus, are not true
worms. You find them in the sand and are
excellent either fresh or dried.

• Crabs, Lobsters, and Barnacles
• These animals are seldom dangerous to man
and are an excellent food source. The pincers
of larger crabs or lobsters can crush a man's
finger. Many species have spines on their
shells, making it preferable to wear gloves
when catching them. Barnacles can cause
scrapes or cuts and are difficult to detach from
their anchor, but the larger species are an
excellent food source.

• Sea Urchins
• These are common and can cause painful
injuries when stepped on or touched. They are
also a good source of food. Handle them with
gloves, and remove all spines.
• Sea Cucumbers
• This animal is an important food source in the
Indo-Pacific regions. Use them whole after
evisceration or remove the five muscular strips
that run the length of its body. Eat them
smoked, pickled, or cooked.

WATER PROCUREMENT
• Water is one of your most urgent needs in a
survival situation. You can' t live long without it,
especially in hot areas where you lose water
rapidly through perspiration. Even in cold areas,
you need a minimum of 2 liters of water each
day to maintain efficiency.
• More than three-fourths of your body is
composed of fluids. Your body loses fluid as a
result of heat, cold, stress, and exertion. To
function effectively, you must replace the fluid
your body loses. So, one of your first goals is to
obtain an adequate supply of water.

WATER SOURCES
• Almost any environment has water present to
some degree. Figure 6-1 lists possible sources
of water in various environments. It also
provides information on how to make the water
potable.

WATER SOURCES cont.
Note: If you do not have a canteen, a cup, a
can, or other type of container, improvise one
from plastic or water-resistant cloth. Shape the
plastic or cloth into a bowl by pleating it. Use
pins or other suitable items--even your hands--
to hold the pleats.
• If you do not have a reliable source to replenish
your water supply, stay alert for ways in which
your environment can help you.
CAUTION: Do not substitute the fluids listed in
Figure 6-2 for water.

WATER SOURCES cont.
• Heavy dew can provide water. Tie rags or tufts of
fine grass around your ankles and walk through dew-
covered grass before sunrise. As the rags or grass
tufts absorb the dew, wring the water into a container.
Repeat the process until you have a supply of water or
until the dew is gone. Australian natives sometimes
mop up as much as a liter an hour this way.
• Bees or ants going into a hole in a tree may point
to a water-filled hole. Siphon the water with plastic
tubing or scoop it up with an improvised dipper. You
can also stuff cloth in the hole to absorb the water and
then wring it from the cloth.

WATER SOURCES cont.
• Water sometimes gathers in tree crotches or
rock crevices. Use the above procedures to
get the water. In arid areas, bird droppings
around a crack in the rocks may indicate water
in or near the crack.
• Green bamboo thickets are an excellent
source of fresh water. Water from green
bamboo is clear and odorless. To get the water,
bend a green bamboo stalk, tie it down, and cut
off the top (Figure 6-3). The water will drip
freely during the night. Old, cracked bamboo
may contain water.

WATER SOURCES cont.
CAUTION: Purify the water before drinking it.
• Wherever you find banana or plantain trees,
you can get water. Cut down the tree, leaving
about a 30-centimeter stump, and scoop out the
center of the stump so that the hollow is bowl-
shaped. Water from the roots will immediately
start to fill the hollow. The first three fillings of
water will be bitter, but succeeding fillings will
be palatable. The stump (Figure 6-4) will supply
water for up to four days. Be sure to cover it to
keep out insects.

• Some tropical vines can give you water. Cut a notch in the
vine as high as you can reach, then cut the vine off close to
the ground. Catch the dropping liquid in a container or in
your mouth (Figure 6-5).

• The milk from green (unripe) coconuts is a good
thirst quencher. However, the milk from mature
coconuts contains an oil that acts as a laxative.
Drink in moderation only.
CAUTION:
Do not drink the liquid if it is sticky,
milky, or bitter tasting.

WATER SOURCES cont.
• You can get water from plants with moist
pulpy centers. Cut off a section of the plant
and squeeze or smash the pulp so that the
moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a
container.
• Plant roots may provide water. Dig or pry the
roots out of the ground, cut them into short
pieces, and smash the pulp so that the moisture
runs out. Catch the liquid in a container.
• Fleshy leaves, stems, or stalks, such as
bamboo, contain water. Cut or notch the
stalks at the base of a joint to drain out the
liquid.

The following trees can also provide
water:
• Palms. Palms, such as the buri, coconut, sugar,
rattan, and nips, contain liquid. Bruise a lower frond
and pull it down so the tree will "bleed" at the injury.
• Traveler's tree. Found in Madagascar, this tree has a
cuplike sheath at the base of its leaves in which water
collects.
• Umbrella tree. The leaf bases and roots of this tree of
western tropical Africa can provide water.
• Baobab tree. This tree of the sandy plains of northern
Australia and Africa collects water in its bottlelike trunk
during the wet season. Frequently, you can find clear,
fresh water in these trees after weeks of dry weather.
CAUTION: Do not keep the sap from plants longer
than 24 hours. It begins fermenting, becoming
dangerous as a water source.

STILL CONSTRUCTION
• You can use stills in various areas of the world.
They draw moisture from the ground and from
plant material. You need certain materials to
build a still, and you need time to let it collect
the water. It takes about 24 hours to get 0.5 to 1
liter of water.

Aboveground Still
• To make the aboveground still, you need a
sunny slope on which to place the still, a clear
plastic bag, green leafy vegetation, and a small
rock (Figure 6-6).

Aboveground Still cont.
To make the still--
• Fill the bag with air by turning the opening into the breeze or by
"scooping" air into the bag.
• Fill the plastic bag half to three-fourths full of green leafy
vegetation. Be sure to remove all hard sticks or sharp spines
that might puncture the bag.
• CAUTION: Do not use poisonous vegetation. It will provide
poisonous liquid.
• Place a small rock or similar item in the bag.
• Close the bag and tie the mouth securely as close to the end of
the bag as possible to keep the maximum amount of air space.
If you have a piece of tubing, a small straw, or a hollow reed,
insert one end in the mouth of the bag before you tie it securely.
Then tie off or plug the tubing so that air will not escape. This
tubing will allow you to drain out condensed water without
untying the bag.

Aboveground Still cont.
• Place the bag, mouth downhill, on a slope in full
sunlight. Position the mouth of the bag slightly higher
than the low point in the bag.
• Settle the bag in place so that the rock works itself into
the low point in the bag.
To get the condensed water from the still, loosen the
tie around the bag's mouth and tip the bag so that the
water collected around the rock will drain out. Then
retie the mouth securely and reposition the still to
allow further condensation.
Change the vegetation in the bag after extracting
most of the water from it. This will ensure maximum
output of water.

Belowground Still
• To make a belowground still, you need a
digging tool, a container, a clear plastic
sheet, a drinking tube, and a rock (Figure
6-7).

Belowground Still cont.
• Select a site where you believe the soil will
contain moisture (such as a dry stream bed or a
low spot where rainwater has collected). The
soil at this site should be easy to dig, and
sunlight must hit the site most of the day.

To construct the still--
• Dig a bowl-shaped hole about 1 meter across and 60
centimeters deep.
• Dig a sump in the center of the hole. The sump's
depth and perimeter will depend on the size of the
container that you have to place in it. The bottom of
the sump should allow the container to stand upright.
• Anchor the tubing to the container's bottom by forming
a loose overhand knot in the tubing.
• Place the container upright in the sump.
• Extend the unanchored end of the tubing up, over, and
beyond the lip of the hole.

• Place the plastic sheet over the hole, covering its
edges with soil to hold it in place.
• Place a rock in the center of the plastic sheet.
• Lower the plastic sheet into the hole until it is about 40
centimeters below ground level. It now forms an
inverted cone with the rock at its apex. Make sure that
the cone's apex is directly over your container. Also
make sure the plastic cone does not touch the sides of
the hole because the earth will absorb the condensed
water.
• Put more soil on the edges of the plastic to hold it
securely in place and to prevent the loss of moisture.
• Plug the tube when not in use so that the moisture will
not evaporate.

• You can drink water without disturbing the still by
using the tube as a straw.
• You may want to use plants in the hole as a moisture
source. If so, dig out additional soil from the sides of
the hole to form a slope on which to place the plants.
Then proceed as above.
• If polluted water is your only moisture source, dig a
small trough outside the hole about 25 centimeters
from the still's lip (Figure 6-8). Dig the trough about 25
centimeters deep and 8 centimeters wide. Pour the
polluted water in the trough. Be sure you do not spill
any polluted water around the rim of the hole where
the plastic sheet touches the soil. The trough holds the
polluted water and the soil filters it as the still draws it.
The water then condenses on the plastic and drains
into the container. This process works extremely well
when your only water source is salt water.

• You will need at least three stills to meet
your individual daily water intake needs.

WATER PURIFICATION
• Rainwater collected in clean containers or in
plants is usually safe for drinking. However,
purify water from lakes, ponds, swamps,
springs, or streams, especially the water near
human settlements or in the tropics.
• When possible, purify all water you got from
vegetation or from the ground by using iodine or
chlorine, or by boiling.

WATER PURIFICATION cont.
Purify water by--
• Using water purification tablets. (Follow the
directions provided.)
• Placing 5 drops of 2 percent tincture of iodine in
a canteen full of clear water. If the canteen is
full of cloudy or cold water, use 10 drops. (Let
the canteen of water stand for 30 minutes
before drinking.)
• Boiling water for 1 minute at sea level, adding 1
minute for each additional 300 meters above
sea level, or boil for 10 minutes no matter
where you are.

WATER PURIFICATION cont.
By drinking nonpotable water you may contract
diseases or swallow organisms that can harm you.
Examples of such diseases or organisms are--
• Dysentery. Severe, prolonged diarrhea with bloody
stools, fever, and weakness.
• Cholera and typhoid. You may be susceptible to
these diseases regardless of inoculations.
• Flukes. Stagnant, polluted water--especially in tropical
areas--often contains blood flukes. If you swallow
flukes, they will bore into the bloodstream, live as
parasites, and cause disease.
• Leeches. If you swallow a leech, it can hook onto the
throat passage or inside the nose. It will suck blood,
create a wound, and move to another area. Each
bleeding wound may become infected.

WATER FILTRATION DEVICES
If the water you find is also muddy, stagnant,
and foul smelling, you can clear the water--
• By placing it in a container and letting it stand
for 12 hours.
• By pouring it through a filtering system.
• Note: These procedures only clear the water
and make it more palatable. You will have to
purify it.
To make a filtering system, place several
centimeters or layers of filtering material such
as sand, crushed rock, charcoal, or cloth in
bamboo, a hollow log, or an article of clothing
(Figure 6-9).

• Remove the odor from water by adding charcoal
from your fire. Let the water stand for 45 minutes
before drinking it.

FIRECRAFT
• In many survival situations, the ability to start a
fire can make the difference between living and
dying. Fire can fulfill many needs. It can provide
warmth and comfort. It not only cooks and
preserves food, it also provides warmth in the
form of heated food that saves calories our
body normally uses to produce body heat. You
can use fire to purify water, sterilize bandages,
signal for rescue, and provide protection from
animals. It can be a psychological boost by
providing peace of mind and companionship.
You can also use fire to produce tools and
weapons.

FIRECRAFT
• Fire can cause problems, as well. The enemy
can detect the smoke and light it produces. It
can cause forest fires or destroy essential
equipment. Fire can also cause burns carbon
monoxide poisoning when used in shelters.
• Remember weigh your need for fire against
your need to avoid enemy detection

BASIC FIRE PRINCIPLES
• To build a fire, it helps to understand the basic
principles of a fire. Fuel (in a nongaseous state) does
not burn directly. When you apply heat to a fuel, it
produces a gas. This gas, combined with oxygen in
the air, burns.
• Understanding the concept of the fire triangle is very
important in correctly constructing and maintaining a
fire. The three sides of the triangle represent air, heat,
and fuel. If you remove any of these, the fire will go
out. The correct ratio of these components is very
important for a fire to burn at its greatest capability.
The only way to learn this ratio is to practice.

SITE SELECTION AND PREPARATION
You will have to decide what site and arrangement
to use. Before building a fire consider--
• The area (terrain and climate) in which you are
operating.
• The materials and tools available.
• Time: how much time you have?
• Need: why you need a fire?
• Security: how close is the enemy?
Look for a dry spot that--
• Is protected from the wind.
• Is suitably placed in relation to your shelter (if any).
• Will concentrate the heat in the direction you desire.
• Has a supply of wood or other fuel available. (See
Figure 7-4 for types of material you can use.)

SITE SELECTION AND PREPARATION cont.
• If you are in a wooded or brush-covered area, clear
the brush and scrape the surface soil from the spot
you have selected. Clear a circle at least 1 meter in
diameter so there is little chance of the fire spreading.
• If time allows, construct a fire wall using logs or rocks.
This wall will help to reflector direct the heat where
you want it (Figure 7-1). It will also reduce flying
sparks and cut down on the amount of wind blowing
into the fire. However, you will need enough wind to
keep the fire burning.
• CAUTION Do not use wet or porous rocks as they
may explode when heated.

SITE SELECTION AND PREPARATION cont.
• In some situations, you may find that an
underground fireplace will best meet your
needs. It conceals the fire and serves well for
cooking food.
To make an underground fireplace or Dakota
fire hole (Figure 7-2)--
• Dig a hole in the ground.
• On the upwind side of this hole, poke or dig a
large connecting hole for ventilation.
• Build your fire in the hole as illustrated.

FIRE MATERIAL SELECTION
You need three types of materials (Figure 7-
4) to build a fire--tinder, kindling, and fuel.
• Tinder is dry material that ignites with little heat--a
spark starts a fire. The tinder must be absolutely dry to
be sure just a spark will ignite it. If you only have a
device that generates sparks, charred cloth will be
almost essential. It holds a spark for long periods,
allowing you to put tinder on the hot area to generate
a small flame. You can make charred cloth by heating
cotton cloth until it turns black, but does not burn.
Once it is black, you must keep it in an airtight
container to keep it dry. Prepare this cloth well in
advance of any survival situation. Add it to your
individual survival kit.

FIRE MATERIAL SELECTION cont.
• Kindling is readily combustible material
that you add to the burning tinder. Again,
this material should be absolutely dry to
ensure rapid burning. Kindling increases
the fire's temperature so that it will ignite
less combustible material.
• Fuel is less combustible material that
burns slowly and steadily once ignited.

HOW TO BUILD A FIRE
There are several methods for laying a fire,
each of which has advantages. The situation
you find yourself in will determine which fire
to use.
• Tepee
To make this fire (Figure 7-5), arrange the tinder and a
few sticks of kindling in the shape of a tepee or cone.
Light the center. As the tepee burns, the outside logs
will fall inward, feeding the fire. This type of fire burns
well even with wet wood.

Methods for laying a fire
• Lean-To
To lay this fire (Figure 7-5), push a green stick into
the ground at a 30-degree angle. Point the end of the
stick in the direction of the wind. Place some tinder
deep under this lean-to stick. Lean pieces of kindling
against the lean-to stick. Light the tinder. As the
kindling catches fire from the tinder, add more kindling.
• Cross-Ditch
To use this method (Figure 7-5), scratch a cross about
30 centimeters in size in the ground. Dig the cross 7.5
centimeters deep. Put a large wad of tinder in the
middle of the cross. Build a kindling pyramid above the
tinder. The shallow ditch allows air to sweep under the
tinder to provide a draft.

Methods for laying a fire cont.
• Pyramid
To lay this fire (Figure 7-5), place two small logs or
branches parallel on the ground. Place a solid layer of
small logs across the parallel logs. Add three or four
more layers of logs or branches, each layer smaller
than and at a right angle to the layer below it. Make a
starter fire on top of the pyramid. As the starter fire
burns, it will ignite the logs below it. This gives you a
fire that burns downward, requiring no attention during
the night.
• There are several other ways to lay a fire that are
quite effective. Your situation and the material
available in the area may make another method more
suitable.

HOW TO LIGHT A FIRE
• Always light your fire from the upwind
side. Make sure to lay your tinder,
kindling, and fuel so that your fire will burn
as long as you need it. Igniters provide the
initial heat required to start the tinder
burning. They fall into two categories:
modern methods and primitive methods.

HOW TO LIGHT A FIRE cont.
• Modern Methods
Modem igniters use modem devices--items we
normally think of to start a fire.
• Matches
Make sure these matches are waterproof. Also, store
them in a waterproof container along with a
dependable striker pad.
• Convex Lens
Use this method (Figure 7-6) only on bright, sunny
days. The lens can come from binoculars, camera,
telescopic sights, or magnifying glasses. Angle the
lens to concentrate the sun's rays on the tinder. Hold
the lens over the same spot until the tinder begins to
smolder. Gently blow or fan the tinder into flame, and
apply it to the fire lay.

• Metal Match
Place a flat, dry leaf under your tinder with a portion
exposed. Place the tip of the metal match on the dry
leaf, holding the metal match in one hand and a knife
in the other. Scrape your knife against the metal match
to produce sparks. The sparks will hit the tinder. When
the tinder starts to smolder, proceed as above.
• Battery
Use a battery to generate a spark. Use of this method
depends on the type of battery available. Attach a wire
to each terminal. Touch the ends of the bare wires
together next to the tinder so the sparks will ignite it.

• Gunpowder
Often, you will have ammunition with your equipment.
If so, carefully extract the bullet from the shell casing,
and use the gunpowder as tinder. A spark will ignite
the powder. Be extremely careful when extracting the
bullet from the case.
• Primitive Methods
Primitive igniters are those attributed to our early
ancestors.

• Flint and Steel
The direct spark method is the easiest of the primitive
methods to use. The flint and steel method is the most
reliable of the direct spark methods. Strike a flint or
other hard, sharp-edged rock edge with a piece of
carbon steel (stainless steel will not produce a good
spark). This method requires a loose-jointed wrist and
practice. When a spark has caught in the tinder, blow
on it. The spark will spread and burst into flames.

• Fire-Plow
The fire-plow (Figure 7-7) is a friction method of
ignition. You rub a hardwood shaft against a softer
wood base. To use this method, cut a straight groove
in the base and plow the blunt tip of the shaft up and
down the groove. The plowing action of the shaft
pushes out small particles of wood fibers. Then, as
you apply more pressure on each stroke, the friction
ignites the wood particles.

• Bow and Drill
• The technique of starting a fire with a bow and drill
(Figure 7-8) is simple, but you must exert much effort
and be persistent to produce a fire. You need the
following items to use this method:
• Socket. The socket is an easily grasped stone or
piece of hardwood or bone with a slight depression in
one side. Use it to hold the drill in place and to apply
downward pressure.
• Drill. The drill should be a straight, seasoned
hardwood stick about 2 centimeters in diameter and
25 centimeters long. The top end is round and the low
end blunt (to produce more friction).

Bow and Drill cont.
• Fire board. Its size is up to you. A seasoned
softwood board about 2.5 centimeters thick and 10
centimeters wide is preferable. Cut a depression about
2 centimeters from the edge on one side of the board.
On the underside, make a V-shaped cut from the edge
of the board to the depression.
• Bow. The bow is a resilient, green stick about 2.5
centimeters in diameter and a string. The type of wood
is not important. The bowstring can be any type of
cordage. You tie the bowstring from one end of the
bow to the other, without any slack.

Bow and Drill cont.
• To use the bow and drill, first prepare the fire
lay. Then place a bundle of tinder under the V-
shaped cut in the fire board. Place one foot on
the fire board. Loop the bowstring over the drill
and place the drill in the precut depression on
the fire board. Place the socket, held in one
hand, on the top of the drill to hold it in position.
Press down on the drill and saw the bow back
and forth to twirl the drill (Figure 7-8). Once you
have established a smooth motion, apply more
downward pressure and work the bow faster.
This action will grind hot black powder into the
tinder, causing a spark to catch. Blow on the
tinder until it ignites.
• Note: Primitive fire-building methods are exhaustive and
require practice to ensure success.

HELPFUL HINTS
• Use nonaromatic seasoned hardwood for fuel, if
possible.
• Collect kindling and tinder along the trail.
• Add insect repellent to the tinder.
• Keep the firewood dry.
• Dry damp firewood near the fire.
• Bank the fire to keep the coals alive overnight.
• Carry lighted punk, when possible.
• Be sure the fire is out before leaving camp.
• Do not select wood lying on the ground. It may
appear to be dry but generally doesn't provide
enough friction.

FOOD PROCUREMENT
• After water, man's most urgent requirement is
food. In contemplating virtually any hypothetical
survival situation, the mind immediately turns to
thoughts of food. Unless the situation occurs in
an arid environment, even water, which is more
important to maintaining body functions, will
almost always follow food in our initial thoughts.
• The survivor must remember that the three
essentials of survival--water, food, and shelter--
are prioritized according to the estimate of the
actual situation. This estimate must not only be
timely but accurate as well. Some situations
may well dictate that shelter precede both food
and water.

ANIMALS FOR FOOD
• Unless you have the chance to take large
game, concentrate your efforts on the
smaller animals, due to their abundance.
The smaller animal species are also
easier to prepare. You must not know all
the animal species that are suitable as
food. Relatively few are poisonous, and
they make a smaller list to remember.
What is important is to learn the habits
and behavioral patterns of classes of
animals.

ANIMALS FOR FOOD cont.
• You can, with relatively few exceptions, eat
anything that crawls, swims, walks, or flies. The
first obstacle is overcoming your natural
aversion to a particular food source. Historically,
people in starvation situations have resorted to
eating everything imaginable for nourishment. A
person who ignores an otherwise healthy food
source due to a personal bias, or because he
feels it is unappetizing, is risking his own
survival. Although it may prove difficult at first, a
survivor must eat what is available to maintain
his health.

Anything that crawls, swims, walks,
or flies are edible:
• Insects
• Worms
• Crustaceans
• Mollusks
• Fish
• Amphibians
• Reptiles
• Birds
• Mammals

Anything that crawls, swims, walks,
or flies are edible cont.
• Mussels usually form dense colonies in rock
pools, on logs, or at the base of boulders.
• CAUTION: Mussels may be poisonous in
tropical zones during the summer! Steam, boil,
or bake mollusks in the shell. They make
excellent stews in combination with greens and
tubers.
• CAUTION: Do not eat shellfish that are not
covered by water at high tide!

TRAPS AND SNARES
For an unarmed survivor or evader, or when
the sound of a rifle shot could be a problem,
trapping or snaring wild game is a good
alternative. Several well-placed traps have the
potential to catch much more game than a man
with a rifle is likely to shoot.
To be effective with any type of trap or
snare, you must--
• Be familiar with the species of animal you
intend to catch.
• Be capable of constructing a proper trap.
• Not alarm the prey by leaving signs of your
presence.

TRAPS AND SNARES cont.
There are no catchall traps you can set for all
animals. You must determine what species are
in a given area and set your traps specifically
with those animals in mind. Look for the
following:
• Runs and trails.
• Tracks.
• Droppings.
• Chewed or rubbed vegetation.
• Nesting or roosting sites.
• Feeding and watering areas.

Trap and Snare Construction
• Traps and snares crush, choke, hang, or entangle the
prey. A single trap or snare will commonly incorporate
two or more of these principles. The mechanisms that
provide power to the trap are almost always very
simple. The struggling victim, the force of gravity, or a
bent sapling's tension provides the power.
• The heart of any trap or snare is the trigger. When
planning a trap or snare, ask yourself how it should
affect the prey, what is the source of power, and what
will be the most efficient trigger. Your answers will help
you devise a specific trap for a specific species. Traps
are designed to catch and hold or to catch and kill.
Snares are traps that incorporate a noose to
accomplish either function.

Trap and Snare Construction cont.
• Simple Snare
A simple snare (Figure 8-5) consists of a noose
placed over a trail or den hole and attached to a firmly
planted stake. If the noose is some type of cordage
placed upright on a game trail, use small twigs or
blades of grass to hold it up. Filaments from spider
webs are excellent for holding nooses open. Make
sure the noose is large enough to pass freely over the
animal's head. As the animal continues to move, the
noose tightens around its neck. The more the animal
struggles, the tighter the noose gets. This type of
snare usually does not kill the animal. If you use
cordage, it may loosen enough to slip off the animal's
neck. Wire is therefore the best choice for a simple
snare.

• Drag Noose
• Use a drag noose on an animal run (Figure 8-6). Place
forked sticks on either side of the run and lay a sturdy
crossmember across them. Tie the noose to the
crossmember and hang it at a height above the
animal's head. (Nooses designed to catch by the head
should never be low enough for the prey to step into
with a foot.) As the noose tightens around the animal's
neck, the animal pulls the crossmember from the
forked sticks and drags it along. The surrounding
vegetation quickly catches the crossmember and the
animal becomes entangled.

• Twitch-Up
A twitch-up is a supple sapling, which,
when bent over and secured with a
triggering device, will provide power to a
variety of snares. Select a hardwood
sapling along the trail. A twitch-up will
work much faster and with more force if
you remove all the branches and foliage.

• Twitch-Up Snare
A simple twitch-up snare uses two forked sticks, each
with a long and short leg (Figure 8-7). Bend the twitch-
up and mark the trail below it. Drive the long leg of one
forked stick firmly into the ground at that point. Ensure
the cut on the short leg of this stick is parallel to the
ground. Tie the long leg of the remaining forked stick
to a piece of cordage secured to the twitch-up. Cut the
short leg so that it catches on the short leg of the other
forked stick. Extend a noose over the trail. Set the trap
by bending the twitch-up and engaging the short legs
of the forked sticks. When an animal catches its head
in the noose, it pulls the forked sticks apart, allowing
the twitch-up to spring up and hang the prey.
• Note: Do not use green sticks for the trigger. The sap
that oozes out could glue them together.

• Bow Trap
A bow trap is one of the deadliest traps. It is dangerous
to man as well as animals (Figure 8-14). To construct
this trap, build a bow and anchor it to the ground with
pegs. Adjust the aiming point as you anchor the bow.
Lash a toggle stick to the trigger stick. Two upright
sticks driven into the ground hold the trigger stick in
place at a point where the toggle stick will engage the
pulled bow string. Place a catch stick between the
toggle stick and a stake driven into the ground. Tie a
trip wire or cordage to the catch stick and route it
around stakes and across the game trail where you tie
it off (as in Figure 8-14). When the prey trips the trip
wire, the bow looses an arrow into it. A notch in the
bow serves to help aim the arrow.
• WARNING This is a lethal trap. Approach it with
caution and from the rear only!

• Pig Spear Shaft
• To construct the pig spear shaft, select a stout
pole about 2.5 meters long (Figure 8-15). At the
smaller end, firmly lash several small stakes.
Lash the large end tightly to a tree along the
game trail. Tie a length of cordage to another
tree across the trail. Tie a sturdy, smooth stick
to the other end of the cord. From the first tree,
tie a trip wire or cord low to the ground, stretch
it across the trail, and tie it to a catch stick.
Make a slip ring from vines or other suitable
material. Encircle the trip wire and the smooth
stick with the slip ring.

• Emplace one end of another smooth stick
within the slip ring and its other end against the
second tree. Pull the smaller end of the spear
shaft across the trail and position it between the
short cord and the smooth stick. As the animal
trips the trip wire, the catch stick pulls the slip
ring off the smooth sticks, releasing the spear
shaft that springs across the trail and impales
the prey against the tree.
• WARNING: This is a lethal trap. Approach it
with caution!

• Bottle Trap
• A bottle trap is a simple trap for mice and voles
(Figure 8-16). Dig a hole 30 to 45 centimeters
deep that is wider at the bottom than at the top.
Make the top of the hole as small as possible.
Place a piece of bark or wood over the hole
with small stones under it to hold it up 2.5 to 5
centimeters off the ground. Mice or voles will
hide under the cover to escape danger and fall
into the hole. They cannot climb out because of
the wall's backward slope. Use caution when
checking this trap; it is an excellent hiding place
for snakes.

KILLING DEVICES
• There are several killing devices that
you can construct to help you obtain small
game to help you survive. The rabbit stick,
the spear, the bow and arrow, and the
sling are such devices.

KILLING DEVICES cont.
• Rabbit Stick
One of the simplest and most effective
killing devices is a stout stick as long as
your arm, from fingertip to shoulder, called
a "rabbit stick." You can throw it either
overhand or sidearm and with
considerable force. It is very effective
against small game that stops and freezes
as a defense.

• Spear
You can make a spear to kill small game
and to fish. Jab with the spear, do not
throw it. See spear fishing below.

• Bow and Arrow
A good bow is the result of many hours of work. You
can construct a suitable short-term bow fairly easily.
When it loses its spring or breaks, you can replace it.
Select a hardwood stick about one meter long that is
free of knots or limbs. Carefully scrape the large end
down until it has the same pull as the small end.
Careful examination will show the natural curve of the
stick. Always scrape from the side that faces you, or
the bow will break the first time you pull it. Dead, dry
wood is preferable to green wood. To increase the
pull, lash a second bow to the first, front to front,
forming an "X" when viewed from the side. Attach the
tips of the bows with cordage and only use a
bowstring on one bow.

Bow and Arrow cont.
• Select arrows from the straightest dry sticks available.
The arrows should be about half as long as the bow.
Scrape each shaft smooth all around. You will
probably have to straighten the shaft. You can bend an
arrow straight by heating the shaft over hot coals. Do
not allow the shaft to scorch or bum. Hold the shaft
straight until it cools.
• You can make arrowheads from bone, glass, metal, or
pieces of rock. You can also sharpen and fire harden
the end of the shaft. To fire harden wood, hold it over
hot coals, being careful not to bum or scorch the
wood.
• You must notch the ends of the arrows for the
bowstring. Cut or file the notch; do not split it.
Fletching (adding feathers to the notched end of an
arrow) improves the arrow's flight characteristics, but
is not necessary on a field-expedient arrow.

• Sling
• You can make a sling by tying two pieces of
cordage, about sixty centimeters long, at
opposite ends of a palm-sized piece of leather
or cloth. Place a rock in the cloth and wrap one
cord around the middle finger and hold in your
palm. Hold the other cord between the
forefinger and thumb. To throw the rock, spin
the sling several times in a circle and release
the cord between the thumb and forefinger.
Practice to gain proficiency. The sling is very
effective against small game.

FISHING DEVICES
• You can make your own fishhooks,
nets and traps and use several methods
to obtain fish in a survival situation.

Improvised Fishhooks
• You can make field-expedient
fishhooks from pins, needles, wire, small
nails, or any piece of metal. You can also
use wood, bone, coconut shell, thorns,
flint, seashell, or tortoise shell. You can
also make fishhooks from any
combination of these items (Figure 8-17).

FISHING DEVICES cont.
• Stakeout
• A stakeout is a fishing device you can use in a
hostile environment (Figure 8-18). To construct
a stakeout, drive two supple saplings into the
bottom of the lake, pond, or stream with their
tops just below the water surface. Tie a cord
between them and slightly below the surface.
Tie two short cords with hooks or gorges to this
cord, ensuring that they cannot wrap around the
poles or each other. They should also not slip
along the long cord. Bait the hooks or gorges.

• Gill Net
If a gill net is not available, you can make one using
parachute suspension line or similar material (Figure
8-19). Remove the core lines from the suspension line
and tie the easing between two trees. Attach several
core lines to the easing by doubling them over and
tying them with prusik knots or girth hitches. The
length of the desired net and the size of the mesh
determine the number of core lines used and the
space between them. Starting at one end of the
easing, tie the second and the third core lines together
using an overhand knot. Then tie the fourth and fifth,
sixth and seventh, and so on, until you reach the last
core line. You should now have all core lines tied in
pairs with a single core line hanging at each end. Start
the second row with the first core line, tie it to the
second, the third to the fourth, and so on.

• To keep the rows even and to regulate the
size of the mesh, tie a guideline to the trees.
Position the guideline on the opposite side of
the net you are working on. Move the guideline
down after completing each row. The lines will
always hang in pairs and you always tie a cord
from one pair to a cord from an adjoining pair.
Continue tying rows until the net is the desired
width. Thread a suspension line easing along
the bottom of the net to strengthen it. Use the
gill net as shown in Figure 8-20.

• Fish Traps
You may trap fish using several methods
(Figure 8-21). Fish baskets are one
method. You construct them by lashing
several sticks together with vines into a
funnel shape. You close the top, leaving a
hole large enough for the fish to swim
through.

• Chop Fishing
At night, in an area with a good fish
density, you can use a light to attract fish.
Then, armed with a machete or similar
weapon, you can gather fish using the
back side of the blade to strike them. Do
not use the sharp side as you will cut them
in two pieces and end up losing some of
the fish.

PREPARATION OF FISH AND GAME
FOR
COOKING AND STORAGE
• You must know how to prepare fish
and game for cooking and storage in
a survival situation. Improper cleaning
or storage can result in inedible fish or
game.

PREPARATION OF FISH AND GAME FOR
COOKING AND STORAGE cont.
Fish
• Do not eat fish that appears spoiled. Cooking does not
ensure that spoiled fish will be edible. Signs of
spoilage are--
• Sunken eyes.
• Peculiar odor.
• Suspicious color. (Gills should be red to pink. Scales
should be a pronounced shade of gray, not faded.)
• Dents stay in the fish's flesh after pressing it with your
thumb.
• Slimy, rather than moist or wet body.
• Sharp or peppery taste.

• Eating spoiled or rotten fish may cause
diarrhea, nausea, cramps, vomiting, itching,
paralysis, or a metallic taste in the mouth.
These symptoms appear suddenly, one to six
hours after eating. Induce vomiting if symptoms
appear.
• Fish spoils quickly after death, especially on a
hot day. Prepare fish for eating as soon as
possible after catching it. Cut out the gills and
large blood vessels that lie near the spine. Gut
fish that is more than 10 centimeters long.
Scale or skin the fish.

• Snakes
To skin a snake, first cut off its head and bury it.
Then cut the skin down the body 15 to 20
centimeters (Figure 8-24). Peel the skin back,
then grasp the skin in one hand and the body in
the other and pull apart. On large, bulky snakes
it may be necessary to slit the belly skin. Cook
snakes in the same manner as small game.
Remove the entrails and discard. Cut the snake
into small sections and boil or roast it.

• Birds
After killing the bird, remove its feathers
by either plucking or skinning. Remember,
skinning removes some of the food value.
Open up the body cavity and remove its
entrails, saving the craw (in seed-eating
birds), heart, and liver. Cut off the feet.
Cook by boiling or roasting over a spit.
Before cooking scavenger birds, boil them
at least 20 minutes to kill parasites.

Skinning and Butchering Game
• Bleed the animal by cutting its throat. If possible, clean
the carcass near a stream. Place the carcass belly up
and split the hide from throat to tail, cutting around all
sexual organs (Figure 8-25). Remove the musk glands
at points A and B to avoid tainting the meat. For
smaller mammals, cut the hide around the body and
insert two fingers under the hide on both sides of the
cut and pull both pieces off (Figure 8-26).
• Note: When cutting the hide, insert the knife blade
under the skin and turn the blade up so that only the
hide gets cut. This will also prevent cutting hair and
getting it on the meat.

Smoking Meat
• To smoke meat, prepare an enclosure
around a fire (Figure 8-27). Two ponchos
snapped together will work. The fire does not
need to be big or hot. The intent is to produce
smoke, not heat. Do not use resinous wood in
the fire because its smoke will ruin the meat.
Use hardwoods to produce good smoke. The
wood should be somewhat green. If it is too dry,
soak it. Cut the meat into thin slices, no more
than 6 centimeters thick, and drape them over a
framework.

Smoking Meat
• Make sure none of the meat touches
another piece. Keep the poncho enclosure
around the meat to hold the smoke and keep a
close watch on the fire. Do not let the fire get
too hot. Meat smoked overnight in this manner
will last about 1 week. Two days of continuous
smoking will preserve the meat for 2 to 4
weeks. Properly smoked meat will look like a
dark, curled, brittle stick and you can eat it
without further cooking. You can also use a pit
to smoke meat (Figure 8-28).

Drying Meat
• To preserve meat by drying, cut it into
6-millimeter strips with the grain. Hang the
meat strips on a rack in a sunny location
with good air flow. Keep the strips out of
the reach of animals and cover them to
keep blowflies off. Allow the meat to dry
thoroughly before eating. Properly dried
meat will have a dry, crisp texture and will
not feel cool to the touch.

Other Preservation Methods
• You can also preserve meats using the
freezing or brine and salt methods.
• Freezing
In cold climates, you can freeze and keep meat
indefinitely. Freezing is not a means of
preparing meat. You must still cook it before
eating.
• Brine and Salt
You can preserve meat by soaking it thoroughly
in a saltwater solution. The solution must cover
the meat. You can also use salt by itself. Wash
off the salt before cooking.

SURVIVAL USE OF PLANTS
• After having solved the problems
of finding water, shelter, and animal
food, you will have to consider the use
of plants you can eat. In a survival
situation you should always be on the
lookout for familiar wild foods and live
off the land whenever possible.

EDIBILITY OF PLANTS
• Plants are valuable sources of food
because they are widely available, easily
procured, and, in the proper combinations,
can meet all your nutritional needs.
• WARNING The critical factor in using
plants for food is to avoid accidental
poisoning. Eat only those plants you
can positively identify and you know
are safe to eat.

Remember the following when
collecting wild plants for food:
• Plants growing near homes and occupied buildings or
along roadsides may have been sprayed with
pesticides. Wash them thoroughly. In more highly
developed countries with many automobiles, avoid
roadside plants, if possible, due to contamination from
exhaust emissions.
• Plants growing in contaminated water or in water
containing Giardia lamblia and other parasites are
contaminated themselves. Boil or disinfect them.
• Some plants develop extremely dangerous fungal
toxins. To lessen the chance of accidental poisoning,
do not eat any fruit that is starting to spoil or showing
signs of mildew or fungus.

collecting wild plants for food: cont.
• Plants of the same species may differ in their
toxic or subtoxic compounds content because
of genetic or environmental factors. One
example of this is the foliage of the common
chokecherry. Some chokecherry plants have
high concentrations of deadly cyanide
compounds while others have low
concentrations or none. Horses have died from
eating wilted wild cherry leaves. Avoid any
weed, leaves, or seeds with an almondlike
scent, a characteristic of the cyanide
compounds.

Remember the following when collecting
wild plants for food: cont.
• Some people are more susceptible to gastric
distress (from plants) than others. If you are
sensitive in this way, avoid unknown wild plants.
If you are extremely sensitive to poison ivy,
avoid products from this family, including any
parts from sumacs, mangoes, and cashews.
• Some edible wild plants, such as acorns and
water lily rhizomes, are bitter. These bitter
substances, usually tannin compounds, make
them unpalatable. Boiling them in several
changes of water will usually remove these
bitter properties.

Remember the following when collecting
wild plants for food: cont.
• Many valuable wild plants have high
concentrations of oxalate compounds, also
known as oxalic acid. Oxalates produce a sharp
burning sensation in your mouth and throat and
damage the kidneys. Baking, roasting, or drying
usually destroys these oxalate crystals. The
corm (bulb) of the jack-in-the-pulpit is known as
the "Indian turnip," but you can eat it only after
removing these crystals by slow baking or by
drying.

collecting wild plants for food: cont.
• WARNING
• Do not eat mushrooms in a survival
situation! The only way to tell if a
mushroom is edible is by positive
identification. There is no room for
experimentation. Symptoms of the most
dangerous mushrooms affecting the
central nervous system may show up after
several days have passed when it is too
late to reverse their effects.

Plant Identification
• You identify plants, other than by
memorizing particular varieties through
familiarity, by using such factors as leaf
shape and margin, leaf arrangements, and
root structure.
• The basic leaf margins (Figure 9-1) are
toothed, lobed, and toothless or smooth.

Plant Identification cont.
• These leaves may be lance-shaped,
elliptical, egg-shaped, oblong, wedge-
shaped, triangular, long-pointed, or top-
shaped (Figure 9-2).

• The basic types of leaf arrangements
(Figure 9-3) are opposite, alternate,
compound, simple, and basal rosette.

• The basic types of root structures (Figure 9-
4) are the bulb, clove, taproot, tuber, rhizome,
corm, and crown. Bulbs are familiar to us as
onions and, when sliced in half, will show
concentric rings. Cloves are those bulblike
structures that remind us of garlic and will
separate into small pieces when broken apart.
This characteristic separates wild onions from
wild garlic. Taproots resemble carrots and may
be single-rooted or branched, but usually only
one plant stalk arises from each root.

• Tubers are like potatoes and daylilies and you
will find these structures either on strings or in
clusters underneath the parent plants.
Rhizomes are large creeping rootstock or
underground stems and many plants arise from
the "eyes" of these roots. Corms are similar to
bulbs but are solid when cut rather than
possessing rings. A crown is the type of root
structure found on plants such as asparagus
and looks much like a mophead under the soil's
surface.

• Learn as much as possible about
plants you intend to use for food and
their unique characteristics. Some
plants have both edible and
poisonous parts. Many are edible only
at certain times of the year. Others
may have poisonous relatives that
look very similar to the ones you can
eat or use for medicine.

Universal Edibility Test
• There are many plants throughout
the world. Tasting or swallowing even
a small portion of some can cause
severe discomfort, extreme internal
disorders, and even death. Therefore,
if you have the slightest doubt about a
plant's edibility, apply the Universal
Edibility Test (Figure 9-5) before
eating any portion of it.

Universal Edibility Test
To avoid potentially poisonous plants,
stay away from any wild or unknown plants
that have--
• Milky or discolored sap.
• Beans, bulbs, or seeds inside pods.
• Bitter or soapy taste.
• Spines, fine hairs, or thorns.
• Dill, carrot, parsnip, or parsley like foliage.
• "Almond" scent in woody parts and leaves.
• Grain heads with pink, purplish, or black spurs.
• Three-leaved growth pattern.

EDIBLE AND MEDICINAL PLANTS
• In a survival situation, plants can
provide food and medicine. Their safe
usage requires absolutely positive
identification, knowing how to prepare
them for eating, and knowing any
dangerous properties they might have.
Familiarity with botanical structures of
plants and information on where they grow
will make them easier to locate and
identify.

TEMPERATE ZONE FOOD PLANTS
• Amaranth (Amaranthus retroflexus and other species)
• Arrowroot (Sagittaria species)
• Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis)
• Beechnut (Fagus species)
• Blackberries (Rubus species)
• Blueberries (Vaccinium species)
• Burdock (Arctium lappa)
• Cattail (Typha species)
• Chestnut (Castanea species)
• Chicory (Cichorium intybus)
• Chufa (Cyperus esculentus)
• Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)
• Daylily (Hemerocallis fulva)
• Nettle (Urtica species)

TEMPERATE ZONE FOOD PLANTS
cont.
• Oaks (Quercus species)
• Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana)
• Plantain (Plantago species)
• Pokeweed (Phytolacca americana)
• Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia species)
• Purslane (Portulaca oleracea)
• Sassafras (Sassafras albidum)
• Sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella)
• Strawberries (Fragaria species)
• Thistle (Cirsium species)
• Water lily and lotus (Nuphar, Nelumbo, and other species)
• Wild onion and garlic (Allium species)
• Wild rose (Rosa species)
• Wood sorrel (Oxalis species

TROPICAL ZONE FOOD PLANTS
• Bamboo (Bambusa and other species)
• Bananas (Musa species)
• Breadfruit (Artocarpus incisa)
• Cashew nut (Anacardium occidental)
• Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
• Mango (Mangifera indica)
• Palms (various species)
• Papaya (Carica species)
• Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
• Taro (Colocasia species)

DESERT ZONE FOOD PLANTS
• Acacia (Acacia farnesiana)
• Agave (Agave species)
• Cactus (various species)
• Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera)
• Desert amaranth (Amaranths palmeri)

cont.
Acacia Agave
Almond
Amaranth

cont.
Arctic willow
Arrowroot
Asparagus
Bael fruit

cont.
Bamboo
Banana and plantain
Baobab
Batoko plum

cont.
Bearberry or kinnikinnick
Beech
Bignay Blackberry, raspberry, and dewberry

cont.
Canna lily
Burl Palm
Burdock
Breadfruit

Carob tree
Cashew nut
Cattail
Cereus cactus

Chestnut
Chicory
Chufa
Coconut

Common jujube
Cranberry
Crowberry
Dandelion

Date palm
Daylily
Duchesnea or Indian strawberry
Elderberry

Fireweed
Fishtail palm
Foxtail grass
Foxtail grass

Hackberry
Hazelnut or wild filbert
Horseradish tree
Iceland moss

Indian potato or Eskimo potato
Juniper
Lotus
Malanga

Mango
Manioc
Marsh marigold
Mulberry

Palmetto palm
Papaya or pawpaw
Persimmon
Pincushion cactus

Pine
Plantain, broad and narrow leaf
Pokeweed
Prickly pear cactus

Purslane
Rattan palm
Reed
Reindeer moss

Rock tripe
Rose apple
Sago palm
Sassafras

Screw pine
Sheep sorrel
Sorghum
Spatterdock or yellow
water lily

• Sugarcane
Sterculia
Strawberry

SHELTERS
• A shelter can protect you from the sun, insects,
wind, rain, snow, hot or cold temperatures, and enemy
observation. It can give you a feeling of well-being. It
can help you maintain your will to survive.
• In some areas, your need for shelter may take
precedence over your need for food and possibly even
your need for water. For example, prolonged exposure
to cold can cause excessive fatigue and weakness
(exhaustion). An exhausted person may develop a
"passive" outlook, thereby losing the will to survive.
• The most common error in making a shelter is to
make it too large. A shelter must be large enough to
protect you. It must also be small enough to contain
your body heat, especially in cold climates.

SHELTER SITE SELECTION
When you are in a survival situation
and realize that shelter is a high
priority, start looking for shelter as
soon as possible. As you do so,
remember what you will need at the
site. Two requisites are--
• It must contain material to make the type
of shelter you need.
• It must be large enough and level enough
for you to lie down comfortably.

SHELTER SITE SELECTION cont.
When you consider these requisites,
however, you cannot ignore your tactical
situation or your safety. You must also
consider whether the site--
• Provides concealment from enemy observation.
• Has camouflaged escape routes.
• Is suitable for signaling, if necessary.
• Provides protection against wild animals and
rocks and dead trees that might fall.
• Is free from insects, reptiles, and poisonous
plants.

SHELTER SITE SELECTION cont.
You must also remember the problems
that could arise in your environment.
For instance--
• Avoid flash flood areas in foothills.
• Avoid avalanche or rockslide areas in
mountainous terrain.
• Avoid sites near bodies of water that are
below the high water mark.

SHELTER SITE SELECTION cont
• In some areas, the season of the year has a strong
bearing on the site you select. Ideal sites for a shelter
differ in winter and summer. During cold winter months
you will want a site that will protect you from the cold
and wind, but will have a source of fuel and water.
During summer months in the same area you will want
a source of water, but you will want the site to be
almost insect free.
When considering shelter site selection, use the word
BLISS as a guide.
• B - Blend in with the surroundings.
• L - Low silhouette.
• I - Irregular shape.
• S - Small.
• S - Secluded location.

TYPES OF SHELTERS
When looking for a shelter site, keep in mind
the type of shelter (protection) you need. However,
you must also consider--
• How much time and effort you need to build the
shelter.
• If the shelter will adequately protect you from the
elements (sun, wind, rain, snow).
• If you have the tools to build it. If not, can you make
improvised tools?
• If you have the type and amount of materials needed
to build it.
To answer these questions, you need to know how
to make various types of shelters and what materials
you need to make them.

TYPES OF SHELTERS cont.
• Poncho Lean-To
• Poncho Tent
• Three-Pole Parachute Tepee
• One-Pole Parachute Tepee
• No-Pole Parachute Tepee
• One-Man Shelter
• Parachute Hammock
• Field-Expedient Lean-To
• Swamp Bed
• Natural Shelters
• Debris Hut
• Tree-Pit Snow Shelter
• Beach Shade Shelter
• Desert Shelters

FIELD-EXPEDIENT WEAPONS,
TOOLS, AND EQUIPMENT

TOOLS, AND EQUIPMENT
As a soldier you know the importance of
proper care and use of your weapons, tools,
and equipment. This is especially true of your
knife. You must always keep it sharp and ready
to use. A knife is your most valuable tool in a
survival situation. Imagine being in a survival
situation without any weapons, tools, or
equipment except your knife. It could happen!
You might even be without a knife. You would
probably feel helpless, but with the proper
knowledge and skills, you can easily improvise
needed items.

TOOLS, AND EQUIPMENT cont.
In survival situations, you may have to
fashion any number and type of field-expedient
tools and equipment to survive. Examples of
tools and equipment that could make your life
much easier are ropes, rucksacks, clothes,
nets, and so on.
Weapons serve a dual purpose. You use
them to obtain and prepare food and to provide
self-defense. A weapon can also give you a
feeling of security and provide you with the
ability to hunt on the move.

CLUBS
• You hold clubs, you do not throw them.
As a field-expedient weapon, the club
does not protect you from enemy soldiers.
It can, however, extend your area of
defense beyond your fingertips. It also
serves to increase the force of a blow
without injuring yourself. There are three
basic types of clubs. They are the simple,
weighted, and sling club.

CLUBS cont.
• Simple Club
A simple club is a staff or branch. It must
be short enough for you to swing easily,
but long enough and strong enough for
you to damage whatever you hit. Its
diameter should fit comfortably in your
palm, but it should not be so thin as to
allow the club to break easily upon impact.
A straight-grained hardwood is best if you
can find it.

CLUBS cont.
• Weighted Club
A weighted club is any simple club with a weight on
one end. The weight may be a natural weight, such as
a knot on the wood, or something added, such as a
stone lashed to the club.
To make a weighted club, first find a stone that has
a shape that will allow you to lash it securely to the
club. A stone with a slight hourglass shape works well.
If you cannot find a suitably shaped stone, you must
fashion a groove or channel into the stone by a
technique known as pecking. By repeatedly rapping
the club stone with a smaller hard stone, you can get
the desired shape.

CLUBS cont.
Next, find a piece of wood that is the
right length for you. A straight-grained
hardwood is best. The length of the wood
should feel comfortable in relation to the
weight of the stone. Finally, lash the stone
to the handle.

CLUBS cont.
There are three techniques for lashing
the stone to the handle: split handle,
forked branch, and wrapped handle. The
technique you use will depend on the type
of handle you choose. See Figure 12-1.

CLUBS cont.
• Sling Club
A sling club is another type of weighted
club. A weight hangs 8 to 10 centimeters
from the handle by a strong, flexible
lashing (Figure 12-2). This type of club
both extends the user's reach and
multiplies the force of the blow.

EDGED WEAPONS
Knives, spear blades, and arrow
points fall under the category of
edged weapons. The following
paragraphs will discuss the making of
such weapons.

EDGED WEAPONS cont.
• Knives
A knife has three basic functions. It
can puncture, slash or chop, and cut. A
knife is also an invaluable tool used to
construct other survival items. You may
find yourself without a knife or you may
need another type knife or a spear. To
improvise you can use stone, bone, wood,
or metal to make a knife or spear blade.

EDGED WEAPONS cont.
• Stone
To make a stone knife, you will need a
sharp-edged piece of stone, a chipping tool,
and a flaking tool. A chipping tool is a light,
blunt-edged tool used to break off small pieces
of stone. A flaking tool is a pointed tool used to
break off thin, flattened pieces of stone. You
can make a chipping tool from wood, bone, or
metal, and a flaking tool from bone, antler tines,
or soft iron (Figure 12-3).

EDGED WEAPONS cont.
• Bone
You can also use bone as an effective field-
expedient edged weapon. First, you will need to select
a suitable bone. The larger bones, such as the leg
bone of a deer or another medium-sized animal, are
best. Lay the bone upon another hard object. Shatter
the bone by hitting it with a heavy object, such as a
rock. From the pieces, select a suitable pointed
splinter. You can further shape and sharpen this
splinter by rubbing it on a rough-surfaced rock. If the
piece is too small to handle, you can still use it by
adding a handle to it. Select a suitable piece of
hardwood for a handle and lash the bone splinter
securely to it.

EDGED WEAPONS cont.
• Wood
You can make field-expedient edged
weapons from wood. Use these only to
puncture. Bamboo is the only wood that will
hold a suitable edge. To make a knife using
wood, first select a straight-grained piece of
hardwood that is about 30 centimeters long and
2.5 centimeters in diameter. Fashion the blade
about 15 centimeters long. Shave it down to a
point. Use only the straight-grained portions of
the wood. Do not use the core or pith, as it
would make a weak point.

EDGED WEAPONS cont.
Harden the point by a process known as fire
hardening. If a fire is possible, dry the blade
portion over the fire slowly until lightly charred.
The drier the wood, the harder the point. After
lightly charring the blade portion, sharpen it on
a coarse stone. If using bamboo and after
fashioning the blade, remove any other wood to
make the blade thinner from the inside portion
of the bamboo. Removal is done this way
because bamboo's hardest part is its outer
layer. Keep as much of this layer as possible to
ensure the hardest blade possible. When
charring bamboo over a fire, char only the
inside wood; do not char the outside.

EDGED WEAPONS cont.
• Metal
Metal is the best material to make field-expedient
edged weapons. Metal, when properly designed, can
fulfill a knife's three uses--puncture, slice or chop, and
cut. First, select a suitable piece of metal, one that
most resembles the desired end product. Depending
on the size and original shape, you can obtain a point
and cutting edge by rubbing the metal on a rough-
surfaced stone. If the metal is soft enough, you can
hammer out one edge while the metal is cold. Use a
suitable flat, hard surface as an anvil and a smaller,
harder object of stone or metal as a hammer to
hammer out the edge. Make a knife handle from
wood, bone, or other material that will protect your
hand.

EDGED WEAPONS cont.
• Other Materials
You can use other materials to produce
edged weapons. Glass is a good
alternative to an edged weapon or tool, if
no other material is available. Obtain a
suitable piece in the same manner as
described for bone. Glass has a natural
edge but is less durable for heavy work.
You can also sharpen plastic--if it is thick
enough or hard enough--into a durable
point for puncturing.

EDGED WEAPONS cont.
• Spear Blades
To make spears, use the same procedures to make the
blade that you used to make a knife blade. Then select a shaft
(a straight sapling) 1.2 to 1.5 meters long. The length should
allow you to handle the spear easily and effectively. Attach the
spear blade to the shaft using lashing. The preferred method is
to split the handle, insert the blade, then wrap or lash it tightly.
You can use other materials without adding a blade. Select a
1.2-to 1.5-meter long straight hardwood shaft and shave one
end to a point. If possible, fire harden the point. Bamboo also
makes an excellent spear. Select a piece 1.2 to 1.5 meters
long. Starting 8 to 10 centimeters back from the end used as
the point, shave down the end at a 45-degree angle (Figure 12-
4). Remember, to sharpen the edges, shave only the inner
portion.

EDGED WEAPONS cont.
• Arrow Points
To make an arrow point, use the same
procedures for making a stone knife
blade. Chert, flint, and shell-type stones
are best for arrow points. You can fashion
bone like stone--by flaking. You can make
an efficient arrow point using broken
glass.

OTHER EXPEDIENT WEAPONS
You can make other field-expedient
weapons such as the throwing stick,
archery equipment, and the bola.

OTHER EXPEDIENT WEAPONS cont.
• Throwing Stick
The throwing stick, commonly known as the rabbit stick, is
very effective against small game (squirrels, chipmunks, and
rabbits). The rabbit stick itself is a blunt stick, naturally curved
at about a 45-degree angle. Select a stick with the desired
angle from heavy hardwood such as oak. Shave off two
opposite sides so that the stick is flat like a boomerang (Figure
12-5). You must practice the throwing technique for accuracy
and speed. First, align the target by extending the nonthrowing
arm in line with the mid to lower section of the target. Slowly
and repeatedly raise the throwing arm up and back until the
throwing stick crosses the back at about a 45-degree angle or
is in line with the nonthrowing hip. Bring the throwing arm
forward until it is just slightly above and parallel to the
nonthrowing arm. This will be the throwing stick's release point.
Practice slowly and repeatedly to attain accuracy.

• Archery Equipment
You can make a bow and arrow (Figure 12-6) from
materials available in your survival area. To make a
bow, use the procedure described under Killing
Devices in Chapter 8.
While it may be relatively simple to make a bow
and arrow, it is not easy to use one. You must practice
using it a long time to be reasonably sure that you will
hit your target. Also, a field-expedient bow will not last
very long before you have to make a new one. For the
time and effort involved, you may well decide to use
another type of field-expedient weapon.

• Bola
The bola is another field-expedient weapon
that is easy to make (Figure 12-7). It is
especially effective for capturing running game
or low-flying fowl in a flock. To use the bola,
hold it by the center knot and twirl it above your
head. Release the knot so that the bola flies
toward your target. When you release the bola,
the weighted cords will separate. These cords
will wrap around and immobilize the fowl or
animal that you hit.

LASHING AND CORDAGE
Many materials are strong enough for
use as lashing and cordage. A number of
natural and man-made materials are
available in a survival situation. For
example, you can make a cotton web belt
much more useful by unraveling it. You
can then use the string for other purposes
(fishing line, thread for sewing, and
lashing).

LASHING AND CORDAGE cont.
• Natural Cordage Selection
Before making cordage, there are a few
simple tests you can do to determine you
material's suitability. First, pull on a length of the
material to test for strength. Next, twist it
between your fingers and roll the fibers
together. If it withstands this handling and does
not snap apart, tie an overhand knot with the
fibers and gently tighten. If the knot does not
break, the material is usable. Figure 12-8
shows various methods of making cordage.

• Lashing Material
The best natural material for lashing small
objects is sinew. You can make sinew from the
tendons of large game, such as deer. Remove
the tendons from the game and dry them
completely. Smash the dried tendons so that
they separate into fibers. Moisten the fibers and
twist them into a continuous strand. If you need
stronger lashing material, you can braid the
strands. When you use sinew for small
lashings, you do not need knots as the
moistened sinew is sticky and it hardens when
dry.

You can shred and braid plant fibers from
the inner bark of some trees to make cord. You
can use the linden, elm, hickory, white oak,
mulberry, chestnut, and red and white cedar
trees. After you make the cord, test it to be sure
it is strong enough for your purpose. You can
make these materials stronger by braiding
several strands together.

You can use rawhide for larger lashing jobs. Make
rawhide from the skins of medium or large game. After
skinning the animal, remove any excess fat and any
pieces of meat from the skin. Dry the skin completely.
You do not need to stretch it as long as there are no
folds to trap moisture. You do not have to remove the
hair from the skin. Cut the skin while it is dry. Make
cuts about 6 millimeters wide. Start from the center of
the hide and make one continuous circular cut,
working clockwise to the hide's outer edge. Soak the
rawhide for 2 to 4 hours or until it is soft. Use it wet,
stretching it as much as possible while applying it. It
will be strong and durable when it dries.

RUCKSACK CONSTRUCTION
The materials for constructing a
rucksack or pack are almost limitless. You
can use wood, bamboo, rope, plant fiber,
clothing, animal skins, canvas, and many
other materials to make a pack.
There are several construction
techniques for rucksacks. Many are very
elaborate, but those that are simple and
easy are often the most readily made in a
survival situation.

RUCKSACK CONSTRUCTION cont.
• Horseshoe Pack
This pack is simple to make and use and
relatively comfortable to carry over one
shoulder. Lay available square-shaped material,
such as poncho, blanket, or canvas, flat on the
ground. Lay items on one edge of the material.
Pad the hard items. Roll the material (with the
items) toward the opposite edge and tie both
ends securely. Add extra ties along the length of
the bundle. You can drape the pack over one
shoulder with a line connecting the two ends
(Figure 12-9).

RUCKSACK CONSTRUCTION cont.
• Square Pack
This pack is easy to construct if rope or
cordage is available. Otherwise, you must
first make cordage. To make this pack,
construct a square frame from bamboo,
limbs, or sticks. Size will vary for each
person and the amount of equipment
carried (Figure 12-10).

CLOTHING AND INSULATION
You can use many materials for clothing and
insulation. Both man-made materials, such as
parachutes, and natural materials, such as
skins and plant materials, are available and
offer significant protection.

CLOTHING AND INSULATION cont.
• Parachute Assembly
Consider the entire parachute assembly as a
resource. Use every piece of material and
hardware, to include the canopy, suspension
lines, connector snaps, and parachute harness.
Before disassembling the parachute, consider
all of your survival requirements and plan to use
different portions of the parachute accordingly.
For example, consider shelter requirements,
need for a rucksack, and so on, in addition to
clothing or insulation needs.

• Animal Skins
The selection of animal skins in a survival situation
will most often be limited to what you manage to trap
or hunt. However, if there is an abundance of wildlife,
select the hides of larger animals with heavier coats
and large fat content. Do not use the skins of infected
or diseased animals if at all possible. Since they live in
the wild, animals are carriers of pests such as ticks,
lice, and fleas. Because of these pests, use water to
thoroughly clean any skin obtained from any animal. If
water is not available, at least shake out the skin
thoroughly. As with rawhide, lay out the skin, and
remove all fat and meat. Dry the skin completely. Use
the hind quarter joint areas to make shoes and mittens
or socks. Wear the hide with the fur to the inside for its
insulating factor.

• Plant Fibers
Several plants are sources of insulation from
cold. Cattail is a marshland plant found along
lakes, ponds, and the backwaters of rivers. The
fuzz on the tops of the stalks forms dead air
spaces and makes a good down-like insulation
when placed between two pieces of material.
Milkweed has pollenlike seeds that act as good
insulation. The husk fibers from coconuts are
very good for weaving ropes and, when dried,
make excellent tinder and insulation.

COOKING AND EATING UTENSILS
Many materials may be used to make
equipment for the cooking, eating, and
storing of food.
• Bowls
Use wood, bone, horn, bark, or other similar
material to make bowls. To make wooden
bowls, use a hollowed out piece of wood that
will hold your food and enough water to cook it
in. Hang the wooden container over the fire and
add hot rocks to the water and food. Remove
the rocks as they cool and add more hot rocks
until your food is cooked.

cont.
• CAUTION: Do not use rocks with air pockets,
such as limestone and sandstone. They may
explode while heating in the fire.You can also
use this method with containers made of bark
or leaves. However, these containers will burn
above the waterline unless you keep them
moist or keep the fire low.
A section of bamboo works very well, if you
cut out a section between two sealed joints
(Figure 12-11).

• CAUTION
A sealed section of bamboo will explode if heated
because of trapped air and water in the section.

• Forks, Knives, and Spoons
Carve forks, knives, and spoons from
nonresinous woods so that you do not get
a wood resin aftertaste or do not taint the
food. Nonresinous woods include oak,
birch, and other hardwood trees.
Note: Do not use those trees that
secrete a syrup or resin like liquid on the
bark or when cut.

• Pots
You can make pots from turtle shells or wood. As
described with bowls, using hot rocks in a hollowed
out piece of wood is very effective. Bamboo is the best
wood for making cooking containers.
To use turtle shells, first thoroughly boil the upper
portion of the shell. Then use it to heat food and water
over a flame (Figure 12-11).
• Water Bottles
Make water bottles from the stomachs of larger
animals. Thoroughly flush the stomach out with water,
then tie off the bottom. Leave the top open, with some
means of fastening it closed.

SUMMARY
• INTRODUCTION
• SURVIVALACTIONS
• DIFINITION OF SURVIVAL
• KEY WORDFOR SURVIVAL
• GENERAL PROBLEMSOF SURVIVAL
• PATTERN FOR SURVIVAL
• SURVIVALAT SEA
• WATER ANDFOODDISCIPLINE ANDVARIOUS FIELDCRAFT
• OTHER SURVIVALTECHNIQUE

BASIC-SURVIVAL_DOCUMEN_IN_DANGEROUS_SITUATION.ppt

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