Benson voller learner autonomy
1 like1,032 views
This document discusses how cooperative learning can promote language learner autonomy. It defines learner autonomy as students taking responsibility for their own learning. Cooperative learning involves students learning in groups towards a common goal. While cooperative learning seems to contradict autonomy by emphasizing group work, it can actually help develop autonomy in several ways. By enhancing self-esteem, increasing motivation, encouraging responsibility, and developing self-management skills, cooperative learning provides scaffolding for students to become more independent learners over time. The document argues cooperative learning is a good method for cultivating learner autonomy.
Benson voller learner autonomy
- 1. Feb. 2010, Volume 7, No.2 (Serial No.74) Sino-US English Teaching, ISSN 1539-8072, USA 1 Promoting language Learners’Autonomy in Cooperative Learning WANG Xu-sheng (Foreign Language Department, Liaoyuan Vocational and Technical College, Jilin 136201, China) Abstract: Learner Autonomy (LA) is the desirable goal of the education. To date, many Learner Autonomy training programs have been carried out in foreign language teaching. Cooperative Learning (CL) is a language teaching and learning strategy which gets learners actively and cooperatively involved in learning a foreign language in groups. Both of them have been respectively advocated from pedagogical point of view and from the perspective of philosophy. However, being autonomous does not necessarily mean learning alone. Language learners should learn cooperatively and autonomously. It is the author’s contention that CL is a good method to promote LA. CL has positive effects on both students’ readiness and their ability to be more autonomous. CL enhances self-esteem and self-confidence, increases high motivation, encourages learners’ responsibility for learning, enhances self-management skills, increases support for language learners to move from interdependence to independence. The paper stresses in the end that promoting LA is the teacher’s long-term pedagogic goal. Key words: Cooperative Learning; language learner; autonomy 1. Introduction Over the last three decades, autonomy in language learning has taken on a growing importance in the field of language education. David Little (1991, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997, p. 1) has described autonomy as a “buzz-word” of the 1990’s, and this is borne out by a number of books (Dam, 1995; Dickinson & Wenden, 1995; Gardner & Miller, 2002), Anita Wenden (1991, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997, p. 1) states that “few teachers will disagree with the importance of helping language learners become more autonomous as learners”. Many Chinese language teachers are convinced of the importance of learner autonomy into their practice, they have done a lot of programs to improve the learner autonomy and write some papers on it (ZHOU, 1998; ZHENG, 2000; HUA, 2001; PENG, 2002; WEI, 2002; DAI, 2004；HE & WANG, 2007; ZHANG, 2009). Many of these contributions deal principally with the theoretical background of learner autonomy, and the program to promote the learner autonomy. LA can be promoted, but it does not mean it can only be promoted through designed program or self-access resources. In this paper, the author wants to suggest that by CL learners can be more autonomous. Cooperative learning seems to be contradicting to promote the learner autonomy. Because CL demands the learners to learn cooperatively while learner autonomy emphasizes learners’ independence. Little attention has been paid to the contribution CL does to promote learner autonomy. The paper will first deal with the definitions of LA and CL, then sum up the characteristics of the autonomous learner and CL, and analyze what individual learner can get from the cooperative learning which is helpful to promoting his autonomy. 2. Literature review WANG Xu-sheng (1972- ), female, associate professor of Foreign Language Department, Liaoyuan Vocational and Technical College; research field: English teaching methodology.
- 2. Promoting language Learners’Autonomy in Cooperative Learning 2 LA is the desirable goal of the education. However, with regard to what is LA and the approaches to the promotion of LA, there exists controversy. In this part, definition of LA and characteristics of autonomous learner will be reviewed. It also includes the definition of CL and the characteristics of CL. 2.1 Definition of learner autonomy The concept of “autonomous” originated from debates about the development of life-long learning skills in the 1960s. By 1981, Holec (1981, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997, p. 1) had defined autonomy as “the ability to take charge of one’s own learning”. He has been a major influence in the debate about autonomy in language learning. Definitions of autonomy have of course varied. Dickinson (1987, p. 11) accepts the definition of autonomy as “situation in which the learner is totally responsible for all of the decisions concerned with his or her learning and the implementation of those decisions”. It defined as “the techniques in order to direct one’s own learning” (Pemberton, 1996, p. 3). It refers to “learning in which the learners themselves take responsibility for their own learning” (Thomson, 1996, p. 78). This implies that an autonomous learner is capable of setting goals and objectives, choosing material, methods and tasks, carrying out and evaluating his/her work/learning. Learners are able to make significant decisions about what is to be learned, as well as how and when to learn it. On a general note, the term autonomy has come to be used in at least five ways (Benson & Voller, 1997, p. 2): (1) for “situations” in which learners study entirely on their own; (2) for a set of “skills” which can be learned and applied in self-directed learning; (3) for an inborn “capacity” which is suppressed by institutional education; (4) for the exercise of “learners’ responsibility” for their own learning; (5) for the “right” of learners to determine the direction of their own learning. 2.2 Characteristics of the autonomous learner Most of the characteristics imputed to the “autonomous learner” encapsulate a wide range of attributes not commonly associated with learners. For instance, Benn (1976, cited in Candy, 1991, p. 102) likens the autonomous learner to one “whose life has a consistency that derives from a coherent set of beliefs, values and principles—and who engages in a still-continuing process of criticism and re-evaluation”, while Rousseau (1981, cited in Candy, 1991, p. 102) regards the autonomous learner “is obedient to a law that he prescribes to himself”. Within the context of education, though, there seem to be seven main attributes characterising autonomous learners (Omaggio, 1978, cited in Wenden, 1998, pp. 41-42): (1) Autonomous learners have insights into their learning styles and strategies; (2) take an active approach to the learning task at hand; (3) are willing to take risks, i.e., to communicate in the target language at all costs; (4) are good guessers; (5) attend to form as well as to content, that is, place importance on accuracy as well as appropriateness; (6) develop the target language into a separate reference system and are willing to revise and reject hypotheses and rules that do not apply; (7) have a tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language. 2.3 Definition of Cooperative Learning Cooperative Learning may be broadly defined as any group learning situation in which students of all levels of performance work together in structured groups toward a shared or common goal. Brody and Albany (1998, p. 8) defined it as “students work in groups toward a common goal or outcome, or share a common problem or task in such a way that they can only succeed in completing the work through behavior that demonstrate
- 3. Promoting language Learners’Autonomy in Cooperative Learning 3 interdependence while holding individual contributions and efforts accountable”. Jack C. Richards (2000, p. 108) listed four reasons to support such an approach to learning which is said to increase students learning: (1) It is less threatening for many students; (2) It increases the amount of student participation in the classroom; (3) It reduces the need for competitiveness; (4) It reduces the teacher’s dominance in the classroom. While the Cooperative Learning in this thesis refers those learners learn in groups, working together towards a common goal, being individually accountable for the group success. 2.4 Characteristics of CL Cooperative Learning requires social interaction and negotiation of meaning among heterogeneous group members engaged in tasks in which all group members have both something to contribute to and learn from the other members. CL shares the following essential characteristics (Crandall, 1999, p. 227): (1) positive interdependence; (2) face-to-face, group interaction; (3) individual (and group) accountability; (4) development of small group social skills; (5) group processing. Breen and Mann (1997, p. 134) combine eight qualities that characterize autonomous learners: (1) the person’s stance towards the world; (2) their desire for what it is they are learning; (3) their robust sense of self; (4) metacognitive capacity; (5) management of change; (6) their independence from educational process; (7) their strategic engagement with learning; (8) their capacity to negotiate. According to Breen and Mann, and Crandall, not only metacognitive strategies are essential for autonomy, but also learners’ attitudes towards the world, the educational environment, and themselves as language learners play a critical part. CL has been shown to encourage and support most of the affective factors with correlate positively with language learning (Crandall, 1999, p. 227), i.e., reducing (negative or debilitating) anxiety, increasing motivation, facilitating the development of positive attitudes toward learning and language learning, promoting self-esteem, as well as supporting different learning styles and encouraging perseverance in the difficult and confusing process of learning another language. All of these are important factors to be more autonomous. 3. The Cooperative Learning and Learner Autonomy Cooperative Learning does help to promote the Learner Autonomy. Individual learner can get a lot from the Cooperative Learning which is helpful to promoting his autonomy in learning. 3.1 Learner autonomy does not mean learner isolation
- 4. Promoting language Learners’Autonomy in Cooperative Learning 4 The concept of autonomy has traditionally been associated with individualism. “Independence” is used sometimes as a synonym for “autonomy” (Sheerin, 1991, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997, p. 2). Dickinson (1992, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997, p. 2) associates “autonomy” with the idea of learning alone and “independence” with active responsibility for one’s own learning. This is not surprising because autonomy, as known to many in present day western and non-western societies was born in the rationalistic tradition of 18th century Europe. Although terms, such as learner independence and autonomy may mistakenly be interpreted as solitary learning, autonomy does not mean that students go off by themselves and study all alone. Claims have been made, however, that autonomy should not necessarily imply total independence. Little (1991, 1996) shows that second language learner requires interaction. From a communication point of view, Benson (1997) argues that the individualistic view of autonomy leads to social atomism, which disempowers individuals; he emphasizes the importance of collective autonomy in the exercise of autonomy. Candy (1991, p. 337) points out that the teacher and the learner can work towards autonomy by creating a friendly atmosphere characterized by “low threat, unconditional positive regard, honest and open feedback, respect for the ideas and opinions of others, approval of self-improvement as a goal, collaboration rather than competition”. Learners need a supportive environment in order to learn to be more independent. Ryan (1991, cited in Littlewood, 1999) surveyed a number of studies of his own and others which suggest that autonomy develops most effectively in an interpersonal environment which supports it. LA is not only individual, but also social. It entails “a capacity and willingness to act independently and in cooperation with others, as a socially responsible person” (Dam, 1995, p. 1). Learning “does not take place in a vacuum and that self-direction does not necessarily imply learning on one’s own” (Pemberton, 1996). CL is an important factor in the promotion of the learner autonomy. 3.2 Cooperative Learning contributes a lot in promoting Learner Autonomy “Autonomy” combines well with “cooperation”, because cooperation offers a powerful means of promoting and enacting autonomy among foreign language learners. Phil Benson (1997, p. 33) listed eleven activities through which autonomy can be promoted. The second one is “collaborative group work and collective decision making”. Cooperative Learning promotes Learner Autonomy in the following ways: 3.2.1 CL enhances self-esteem and self-confidence “Self-esteem is a personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individual holds towards himself” (Coopersmith, 1967, cited in Andres, 2000). If the learner has a “robust sense of self”, to quote Breen and Mann (1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997, p. 134), “his relationship to himself as a learner is one which is unlikely to be undermined by any actual or assumed negative assessments of themselves or their work by significant others in the teaching—learning process”. Conversely, a lack of self-esteem is likely to lead to negative attitudes towards his capability as a learner, and to “a deterioration in cognitive performance”, thus confirming his view of himself as incapable of learning (Diener & Dweck, 1978, 1980, cited in Wenden, 1998, p. 57). In CL environment, learners help each other and in doing so build a supportive community which raises the performance level of each member. CL fosters a higher level of performance by learners. Their critical thinking skills increase and their retention of information and interest in the subject matter improves. When learners are successful, they view the subject matter with a very positive attitude because their self-esteem is enhanced. This creates a positive cycle of good performance building higher self-esteem which in turn leads to more interest in the subject and higher performance yet. Students share their success with their groups, thus enhancing the individual’s self-esteem.
- 5. Promoting language Learners’Autonomy in Cooperative Learning 5 Formerly shy language learners acquire the confidence to participate in small groups, where they can share ideas, receive feedback and rehearse potential contributions to the larger group. Students with more limited language proficiency also have been reported to speak more in cooperative contexts (Crandall, 1999, p. 236). An increase in self-confidence learning and self-esteem will lead to increased learner effort in language learning and a greater willingness to take risks or to continue attempting to make one’s views understood (Crandall, 1999, p. 234). These are the necessary characteristics of autonomous learner. 3.2.2 CL increases high motivation Motivation is one of the key factors that influence the rate and success of foreign language learning. Motivation provides the primary impetus to initiate learning the foreign language and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process. Peer support can be a powerful motivator for shy, insecure or even uninterested students. For most learners, being a member of a group of peers who are all striving towards similar ends, and who are struggling with similar difficulties and problems, can be a tremendous help in maintaining morale and in motivation. In cooperative groups, individuals know that they can get feedback and assistance in making their contributions as clear, relevant and appropriate as possible. This, in turn, can motivate them to continue to try, especially when peers encourage and support their contributions. Cooperative Learning involves task or reward structures which better ensure that all members of the group will participate and do so at their own level of proficiency. Resource, goal and reward interdependence contribute to motivation, and enjoyable activities encourage participation as well (Crandall, 1999, pp. 234-235). 3.2.3 CL encourages learner responsibility for learning CL means sharing, encouraging, and accepting responsibility for one’s own learning and that of others, not leaving all responsibility to the teacher and the others. By CL, learners will be provided with more opportunities to manipulate the process of their own learning, thus will take on more responsibility for their learning. In CL teams, learners assist each other and take different roles within their groups (such as reader, recorder, time keeper, etc.), mutual support and positive interdependence can be formed, therefore, learners will have more freedom to form discussions about their learning, to identify and solve problems in their shared learning tasks. Besides, they would learn to evaluate their learning process and outcomes, would develop more skills in organizing learning activities, and would raise their awareness of learning, thus gradually become autonomous learners. 3.2.4 CL enhances self-management skills CL inherently calls for self-management by students. In order to function within their groups they need to come prepared with assignments completed and they must understand the materials which they are going to contribute to their groups. Learners must know their responsibilities toward the group and how to be an effective group member. They also have to spend time to process group behaviors, such as checking with each other to make sure homework assignments are not only completed, but also understood by each group member. These promotive interactions help learners learn self-management techniques. From a psychological view, CL fosters self-efficacy among learners. Learner self-direction is generated in part by the high expectations by the group members and the high degree of responsibility placed upon the students for their learning. 3.2.5 CL increases support for language learners to move from interdependence to independence Cooperative Learning promotes self-determination among students, helping them to become more autonomous and self-controlled, and less dependent upon outside authority. Students learn greater autonomy gradually, relying first on each other for direction and assistance, and over time, through leadership experiences in
- 6. Promoting language Learners’Autonomy in Cooperative Learning 6 their groups, acquiring greater independence in their own learning, actively choosing to use the resources of the teacher and other group members, rather than merely relying on them to get things done. In carrying out various cooperative activities and tasks, learners engage in an increasing variety of procedures formerly limited to the teacher (for example, planning the task; monitoring its progress; identifying and obtaining needed resources). They also become much more responsible for the groups’ and their own learning. The step to independence is one which gradually unfolds, as learners become increasingly autonomous (Crandall, 1999, p. 240). 4. Conclusion There is no reason for teachers to ask the learner to work in isolation. Equally, there is no compulsion for them to work cooperatively. As a teacher, what we must do is to help the learners be more autonomous through kinds of working activities. References: Andres De Veronica. 2000. Self-esteem in the classroom or the metamorphosis of butterflies. In: Arnold Jane. (Ed.). Affect in language learning. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press. Benson Phil & Voller Peter. 1997. Autonomy and independence in language learning. New York: Addison Wesley Longman. Breen, M. P. & Mann, S. J.. 1997. Shooting arrows at the sun: Perspectives on a pedagogy for autonomy. In: Benson & Voller’s. (Eds.). Autonomy and independence in language learning. New York: Addison Wesley Longman. Brody M. Celeste & Albany Davidson Neil. 1998. Professional development for cooperative learning: Issues and approaches. Albany: State University of New York Press. Candy. 1991. Self-direction for lifelong learning. California: Jossey-Bass. Crandall JoAnn. 1999. Cooperative language learning and affective factors. In: Arnold Jane’s. (Ed.). Affect in language learning. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press. DAI Jun-rong. 2004. An investation of English autonomous learning ability of ordinary High School students. Foreign Language Pedagogy in Middle School, 8, 7-12. (in Chinese) Dam, L.. 1995. Learner autonomy 3: From theory to classroom practice. Dublin: Authentik. David Gardner & Lindsay Miller. 2002. Establishing self-access. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Dickinson, L.. 1987. Self-instruction in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dickinson, Leslie. & Wenden A.. (Eds.). 1995. Special issue on autonomy. System, 23(2). HE Ming-xia & WANG Guan. 2007. An analysis of English learners’ autonomous learning strategies and learning efficiency. English Teaching in China, 4,111-117. (in Chinese) HUA Wei-fang. 2001. Self-access center: A new language learning environment. Foreign Language World, 5, 41-45. (in Chinese) HUA Wei-fang. 2002. On strategies training of foreign language learner. Foreign Language World, 3, 2-7. (in Chinese) Little D.. 1991. Learning autonomous: Definitions, issues and problems. Dublin: Authentik. Little D.. 1996. Freedom to learn and compulsion to interact: Promoting learner autonomy through the use of information systems and information technologies. In: Pemberton, H, D., et al. (Eds.). Taking control: Autonomy in language learning. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Littlewood Williams. 1999. Defining and developing autonomy in East Asian contexts. Applied Linguistics, 20(1), 71-94. Pemberton, H, D., et al. 1996. Taking control: Autonomy in language learning. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Richards, Platt John & Heidi. 2000. Longman dictionary of language teaching & applied linguistics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press. Thomson, C. K.. 1996. Self-assessment in self-directed learning: Issues of learner diversity. In: Pemberton, et al. (Eds.). Taking control: Autonomy in language learning. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. WEI Yu-yan. 2002. Promote learner autonomy: A new concept of foreign language teaching. Foreign Language World, 3, 8-14. (in Chinese) Wenden, A.. 1998. Learner strategies for learner autonomy. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall. ZHANG Tian-xia. 2009. An empirical study on autonomy learning ability based on a new teaching Mode. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Languages Institute, 4, 75-80. (in Chinese) ZHENG Min. 2000. Origin and development of autonomy learning. Journal of Xi’an Foreign Languages Institute, 3, 100-105. (in Chinese) ZHOU Xin-qi. 1998. Training on foreign language learner’s independent ability. Shandong Foreign Languages Teaching, 1, 77-80. (in Chinese) (Edited by Cathy and Sunny)