Biodiversitty
- 1. 1 Biodiversity and its conservation. In situ conservation of biodiversity. Threats to biodiversity. Endangered and endemic species of India, germplasm conservation Definition: ‘Biological diversity’ or biodiversity is that part of nature which includes the differences in genes among the individuals of a species, the variety and richness of all the plant and animal species at different scales in space, locally, in a region, in the country and the world, and various types of ecosystems, both terrestrial and aquatic, within a defined area. The word BIODIVERSITY Originates from the Greek word BIOS = LIFE and Latin word DIVERSITAS = VARIETY or DIFFERENCE. The whole word BIO DIVERSITY generally therefore means: VARIETY OF LIFE. Why is biodiversity important? Everything that lives in an ecosystem is part of the web of life, including humans. Each species of vegetation and each creature have a place on the earth and play a vital role in the circle of life. Plant, animal, and insect species interact and depend upon one another for what each offers, such as food, shelter, oxygen, and soil enrichment. Maintaining a wide diversity of species in each ecosystem is necessary to preserve the web of life that sustains all living things. In his 1992 best-seller, "The Diversity of Life," famed Harvard University biologist Edward O. Wilson known as the "father of biodiversity," -- said, "It is reckless to suppose that biodiversity can be diminished indefinitely without threatening humanity itself."
- 2. 2 Ecosystem diversity refers to the diversity of a place at the level of ecosystems. The term differs from biodiversity, which refers to variation in species rather than ecosystems. Includes diversity above the species level. Biologists have viewed diversity above the species level in various ways. Some alternative ways to categorize it include: Community diversity, Habitat diversity, Landscape diversity Species diversity is the effective number of different species that are represented in a collection of individuals species = a particular type of organism; a population or group of populations whose members share certain characteristics and can freely breed with one another and produce fertile offspring › Species diversity = the number or variety of species in a particular region › Species richness = number of species › Evenness, or relative abundance = extent to which numbers of different species are equal or skewed Genetic diversity, the level of biodiversity refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. • Includes the differences in DNA composition among individuals within a given species. • Adaptation to particular environmental conditions may weed out genetic variants that are not successful. • But populations benefit from some genetic diversity, so as to avoid inbreeding or disease epidemics.
- 3. 3 Biodiversity in India • India is known for its rich heritage of biodiversity. • India is one of the 17 mega-diverse countries in the world. • With only 2.4 % of the world’s area, India accounts for 7–8 % of the world’s recorded plant and animal species. • India’s ten biogeographic zones possess an exemplary diversity of ecological habitats like alpine forests, grasslands, wetlands, coastal and marine ecosystems, and desert ecosystems. • Amongst the existing biota, 91,307 species of animals of which 2,557 Protista, 12,470 general invertebrates, 69,903 arthropods, 4,994 vertebrates, and 45,500 species of plants as well as 5,650 microbial species have been documented in its 10 bio-geographic regions. • India has four out of thirty-four global biodiversity hotspots, which is an indicator of high degree of endemism (of species) in India. • About 5,150 plant species and 1,837 animal species are endemic to India. • India’s biodiversity includes wild relatives of agricultural crops and domesticated animals. • India has 16 major types and 251 subtypes of forests. • Indigenous medicine systems utilize nearly 6,500 native plants for both human and animal healthcare. • India’s diverse preponderance of native tribal and ethnic groups has contributed significantly in the conservation and diversification of biodiversity. Its cultural and ethnic diversity includes over 550 tribal communities of 227 ethnic groups spread over 5,000 forested villages. India proudly upholds the tradition of nature conservation. • In 252 B.C., the Emperor Asoka established protected areas (PAs) for mammals, birds, fish and forests through a proclamation. Jim Corbett National Park covering an area of 325 sq km came into being as the India’s first and world’s third National Park in 1936. • India has currently 4.79 % of total geographic area under an elaborate network of PAs, which includes 99 National Parks, 513 wildlife sanctuaries, 43 conservation reserves, 4 community reserves and 3 biodiversity heritage sites. • India has a National Wildlife Action Plan, which envisages 10 % of the geographical area of the country under PA coverage. BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY Consumptive value: Food/Drink Fuel Medicine Batter crop varieties
- 4. 4 Industrial Material Non-Consumptive Value: Recreation Education and Research Traditional value Ecological services: Balance of nature Biological productivity Regulation of climate Degradation of waste Cleaning of air and water Cycling of nutrients Control of potential pest and disease causing species Detoxification of soil and sediments Stabilization of land against erosion Carbon sequestration and global climate change Maintenance of Soil fertility Flora and fauna diversity depends on-Climate, Altitude, soils, Presence of other species. BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS: A region with high biodiversity with most of spices being Endemic. India has two Biodiversity Hotspots- East Himalayan Region and Western Ghat. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY Natural causes: Narrow geographical area Low population Low breeding rate Natural disasters Anthropogenic causes: Habitat modification Overexploitation of selected species Innovation by exotic species. Pollution Hunting Global warming and climate change Agriculture Domino effect Conservation approaches: International treaties
- 5. 5 The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), from the Rio Conference in 1992, aims to: •Conserve biodiversity •Use it sustainably •Ensure fair distribution of its benefits The CBD has been signed by 188 nations, but not by the United States. Biodiversity is the variety of life forms on earth and the essential interdependence of all living things. As defined in convention on Biological diversity singed at Rio De Jenerio (Brazil) in 1992 by 154 countries, the Biodiversity defined as “the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic eco-systems and the ecological complexes of which the area part- this include diversity within species, between species and of ecosystem.” According to IUCN in 1998, “the variety and variability of species of their population, the variety of species of their life forms, the diversity of the complex association with species with their interaction and their ecological process which influences perform.” The first convention on biodiversity organized at Rio De Janerio, capital of Brazil from June 5 to 16, 1992 named as United Nation Conference On Environment and Development (UNCED), better known as Rio Summit to maintain ecological balance and enrich biodiversity. The agreement on biodiversity signed by 150 countries including three programmes- To ensure conservation of biodiversity Sustainable use of biodiversity Rational and equitable share of profit to accrue from use of genetic resources. The second convention organized at Johannesburg in 2002 called World Summit On Sustainable Development (WSSD) where the Biodiversity and Sustainable Ecosystem Management was the issue. The International Conference held on Biodiversity in Relation to Food & Human Security in a warming planet 15-17 February, 2010 in Chennai. International Conference on Wildlife & Biodiversity Conservation held on 3 to 5 June, 2010 at Dal lake, Srinagar, Kashmir. Indian Biodiversity Congress (IBC) & Indian Biodiversity Expo(IBE) will be held on 27-31 December at Thriuvananthapuram, Kerala Endangered and endemic species of India
- 6. 6 The endangered species are those living organisms which are almost on the verge of extinction. Thousands of species of plants and animals are endangered and the number increases each year. Causes for species becoming endangered • Destruction of habitat • Wildlife trade • Overhunting Effects on Nature Disruption of food chains and food webs. Their absence hampers national wealth. Affects national biodiversity. Ecological Imbalance. Endangered medicinal plants of India 1. Aconitum heterophyllum- critically Endangered Family: Ranunculaceae Vernacular names: Atis, Aconite, Ativish Parts traded: Rhizomes Qty. traded: 200 – 300 MT/Yr. Threats: Loss of Habitat, Harvest for medicine, Traded for parts. In situ: Uttaranchal – Tungnatu, Kar Ki dun valley. Habitat: Alpine to Sub-alpine open slopes. Common on grassy Meadows, upper Oak/ Coniferous forest (2500 – 4500 mASL). 2. Embelia tsjeriam-cottam – vulnerable Family: Myrsinaceae Vernacular names: Vidanga (Sanskrit), Babrang, Wawrung (Hindi), Vidang Bhed, Vibidang (Trade) Parts traded: Fruits Qty. traded: 1000 – 2000 MT/Yr. Habitat: Subtropical forest edges, Foot hills. Threats: Harvest for medicine, Traded for parts. Remarks: Widely used in Ayurvedic Preparations 3. Ephedra gerardiana – Endangered Family: Ephedraceae Vernacular names: Chhi (Spiti), Somlata (Trade) Parts traded: Entire Plant Qty. traded: 200 – 500 MT/Yr. Habitat: North limit of vegetation; in open slopes amongst rocks. Dry riverine, loose sandy situations. Locations: Kumaon, Garhwal Threats: Harvest for medicine, Overexploitation, Traded for parts.
- 7. 7 Remarks: Entire plant is uprooted for fuel in large quantities. Traded as SOMA. E. intermedia is an adulterant. Used as hedge plant in Mana & Niti villages. 4. Swertia chirayita- Endangered Family: Gentianaceae Vernacular names: Chirayita, Kirata-tikta, Bhunimba, Chirata. Parts traded: Whole plants Qty. traded: 500 – 1000 MT/Yr. Habitat: Temperate Himalaya Locations: Chakrata hills, Dayara bugiyal, Didtal, Valley of flowers, Kedar valley, Nainital. Threats: Harvest for medicine, Traded for parts, Loss of habitat due to weeds & fragmentation. Remarks: All species of Swertia except Swertia speciosa are sold in the market as ‘Chirayita’. Sometimes Andrographis paniculata is also used as Chirayita. 5. Taxus wallichiana - Endangered Family: Taxaceae Vernacular names: Thuna / Brahmi / Rakhal, Yew, Birmi tallish, Birmi telwali. Parts traded: Leaf, Bark Qty. traded: 100 – 200 MT/Yr. Habitat: Under storey tree in Fir / Spruce & Kharsu forests. Locations: Kumaon, Garhwal. Threats: Heavy destructive exploitation, Habitat loss, Insect & pathogens. Remarks: Very slow growing. 6. Commiphora wightii - critically endangered Family: Burseraceae Vernacular name: Guggul Trade name: Dhoop, Guggal, Guggalwati Parts traded: Oleo gum resin Qty. traded: 500-1000 MT/Yr. Uses: Arthritis, indigestion, skin disease, piles, paralysis, constipation, heart diseases, cough and urinary calculi. Equivalents: Boswellia serrata (Salai guggul), C. myrrha, C. roxburghii. Threats: Loss of Habitat, Harvest for medicine, Traded for parts. Habitat: Saharo-Arabian region to deserts of Rajasthan. 7. Rauvolfia serpentina - Critically Endangered Family: Apocynaceae Vernacular names: Sarpagandha, Chotachand, Chandrika. Qty. traded: Roots. 200 – 500 MT/Yr. Uses: Mental disorders, poisoning and cholera. Habitat: Indo-Malaysia & Sri Lanka. Tropical and subtropical areas. 400-1600 m.
- 8. 8 Threats: Harvest for medicine, Loss of habitat, Trade. Remarks: Included in Negative List of Exports (1998). Trade: During 2004-2005, India exported 1.3 MT of Serpentina roots, valued at Rs 99, 361 and 28 MT were imported for a value of Rs. 8.7 Lakhs. Adulterants: R. densiflora, R. micrantha, R. tetraphylla & Tabernaemontana divaricata. 8. Oroxylum indicum Family: Bignoniaceae Vernacular names: Fari, Tentu, Falla Trade name: Tetumool Parts traded: Roots, Bark Qty. traded: 1200 MT/Yr. Uses: Diarrhoea, abdominal diseases and diseases of nose and ear. An ingredient of Dasamoola arishtam. Equivalents: Ailanthes excelsa (Arluka / Arlu) - as substitute in parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Threats: Loss of Habitat, Harvest for medicine, Traded for parts. Habitat: Indo-Malesia. Foot hills & hill slopes (up to 500 m). 9. Stereospermum chelonoides - Near Threatened (in CHH) Family: Bignoniaceae Vernacular names: Padal Trade name: Patala Parts traded: Roots Qty. traded: 1000-2000 MT/Yr. Uses: Roots: “Dashamoola”. Wounds, loss of taste, thirst, diarrhoea, piles, cough, respiratory disorders etc. Equivalents: S. colais Threats: Harvest for medicine, Loss of Habitat, Traded for parts. Habitat: Indo-Malesia to Indo-China. Endemic Species When a species is found only in a particular geographical region because of its isolation, soil and climatic conditions, it is said to be endemic. Causes for Endemism • Narrow ecological amplitude. • Poor adaptability. • Geographical barriers. • Changing climatic conditions. Endemic species 1. Hydnocarpus pentandra family: flacourtiaceae
- 9. 9 Vernacular names: Tamil: Maravetti, Maravattai, Marotti Malayalam: Kodi, Maravatty, Marotti, Nirvatta, Nirvetti Chaulmoogra oil, extracted from H. wightiana was an early treatment for leprosy. Ecology: Common understorey trees in wet evergreen forests and along streams, generally up to 1000 m sometimes extends up to 1700 m. Distribution : Endemic to the Western_Ghats- very common in South and Central Sahyadris. 2. Cinnamomum wightii- lauraceae Regional name: vellakodala, kattukaruva Use: for the extraction volatile oil Ecology: Under storey trees in high elevation to montane evergreen forests between 1400 and 2400 m. Distribution :Endemic to the Western_Ghats- Anamalai, Palani and Nilgiris. 3. Artocarpus hirsutus- moraceae Regional name : Anjili, aini maram, wild jack tree. The fruit, leaves and bark are used for diarrhoea, pimples and indigestion. Canopy trees in disturbed evergreen forests up to 900 m. Distribution: Endemic to the Western_Ghats- South, Central and Maharashtra Sahyadris 4. Garcinia indica- Clusiaceae Regional names: Kokum Medicinal use: anti oxidant, anxiolytic properties Garcinia indica is indigenous to the Western Ghats region of India located along the western coast of the country. Of the 35 species found in India, 17 are endemic. 5. Trichopus zeylanicus subsp. Travancoricus- dioscoreaceae Regional name: arogya pacha Isolated of 12 active compounds and developed a drug "Jevaani". an immune- enhancing, restoractive_ anti-fatigue and anti-stres agent. ln 1996 the Indian Tropical Botanical Garden Research lnstitute (TBGRI) filed a patent application for a process of manufacturing a herbal sport medicine, which was based on the compounds isolated from arogyapacha. Endemic to the north Western Ghats.
- 10. 10 In situ conservation of biodiversity, germplasm conservation Introduction Ever since primitive man learned the art of learning and realised the economic utility of plants, he started saving selected seeds or vegetative propagules from one season to next. Conservation of forest resources was taught and decreed in part of India and China as far back as (700 B.C). The concept of physical basis of heredity expressed by the 19th-century Biologist August Weismann. According to his theory, germplasm, which is independent from all other cells of the body (somatoplasm), is the essential element of germ cells (eggs and sperm) and is the hereditary material that is passed from generation to generation. Weismann first proposed this theory in 1883, it was later published in (1892; The Germplasm: A Theory of Heredity ). Bajaj 1995 and Staristky 1997 reported that some of the valuable gene pools might be lost unless co-ordinated efforts are made towards the conservation of genetic stock all over the world. Realising the danger of genetic resources the U.N Conference on Human Environment held in Stockholm in 1972, recommended conservation of the habitat that are rich in genetic diversity. What is Germplasm? Germplasm broadly refer to the hereditary material (total content of gene) transmitted to the offspring through germ cell. It is also used to describe a collection of genetic resources for an organism. For plants, the germplasm may be stored as a seed collection or, for trees, in a nursery. Plant germplasm is the genetic source material used by the plant breeders to develop new cultivars. They may include :- • Seeds Other plant propagules such as • Leaf • Stem • Pollen • Cultured cells Which can be grown into mature plant. Germplasm provide the raw material (genes) which the breeder used to develop commercial crop varieties. Need for Conservation of plant Germplasm • Loss of genetic diversity among crop plant species. • Human dependence on plant species for food and many different uses. E.g. : Basic food crops, building materials, oils, lubricants, rubber and other latexes, resins, waxes, perfumes, dyes fibres and medicines.
- 11. 11 • Species extinction and many others are threatened and endangered – deforestation. • Great diversity of plants is needed to keep the various natural ecosystems functioning stably – interactions between species. • Aesthetic value of natural ecosystems and the diversity of plant species. Mode of conservation In situ conservation:- is on-site conservation or conservation of genetic resources in a natural population of plants, such as forests genetic resources in natural population of tree species. It is the process of protecting an endangered plant in its natural habitat either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species from predators. It is applied to conservation of agriculture biodiversity in agro ecosystem by farmers, especially those using unconventional farming practice. Ex-situ conservation :- means literally, "off-site conservation". It is the process of protecting an endangered species of plant or animal outside of its natural habitat; for example, by removing part of the population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, which may be a wild area or within the care of humans. Ex situ conservation can be carried out by using several methods:-. Seed gene bank In vitro storage DNA storage Pollen storage Field gene bank
- 12. 12 Botanical gardens In vitro method for germplasm conservation In vitro method employing shoots, meristems and embryos are ideally suited for the conservation of germplasm. The plant with recalcitrant seeds and genetically engineered can also be preserved by this in vitro approach. There are several advantages associated with in vitro germplasm conservation Large quantities of material can be preserved in small space The germplasm preserved can be maintained in an environment free from pathogens. It can be protected against the nature’s hazards From the germplasm stock large number of plants can be obtained whenever needed. There are three main approaches for the In vitro conservation of germplasm 1. Cryopreservation 2. Cold storage 3. Low – pressure and low oxygen - storage Cryopreservation Cryopreservation (Greek, krayos-frost) literally mean in the frozen state. The principal involved in cryopreservation to bring the plant cells and tissue cultures to a zero metabolism or non-dividing state by reducing the temperature in the presence of caryoprotectants. Cryopreservation broadly means the storage of germplam at very low temperature. • Over solid carbon dioxide (at 79⁰C) • Low temperature deep freezers (at -80⁰C) • In liquid nitrogen (at -196⁰C) • Among these the most commonly used cryopreservation is by employing liquid nitrogen. At the temperature of liquid nitrogen (-196⁰C), the cell stay in a completely inactive state and thus can be conserved for longer period. Infact cryopreservation has been successfully applied for germplasm conservation . Plant species e.g. rice, wheat, peanut, sugarcane ,coconut. The technique of freeze preservation is based on the transfer of water present in the cells from a liquid to solid state. Due to the presence of salts and organic molecules in the cells, the cell water requires much more lower temperature to freeze (even up to - 68°C) compared to the freezing point of pure water (around 0°C) . When stored at low temperature , the metabolic processes and biological deteriorations in the cells/tissues almost come to standstill.
- 13. 13 Technique of cryopreservation The cryopreservation of plant cell culture followed the regeneration of plants broadly involves the following stages 1. Development of sterile tissue culture. 2. Addition of cryoprotectant and pretreatment 3. Freezing 4. Storage 5. Thawing 6. Reculture 7. Measurement of survival/viability 8. Plant regeneration 1. Development of sterile tissue culture. The selection of plant species and the tissue with particular reference to the morphological and physiological characters largely influence the ability of the explants to survive in cryopreservation . Any tissue from a plant can be used for cryopreservation e.g. meristems, embryos, endosperm, ovules, seeds, culture plants cells, protoplast, callus. 2. Addition of cryoprotectant.
- 14. 14 Cryoprotectant are the compound that can be prevent the damage caused to cells by freezing or thawing. There are several cryoprotectant which include (DMSO), glycerol, ethylene, propylene , sucrose, mannose, glucose , proline and acetamide. Among these DMSO, sucrose and glycerol are most widely used. 3. Freezing The sensitivity of the cell to low temperature is variable and largely depends on the plant species. Four different types of freezing method are used: Slow freezing method : The tissue is slowly frozen at 0.5-5°C/min from 0°C to - 100°C,and then transferred to liquid nitrogen. Rapid freezing method : Decrease in temperature up to -300 to -1000°C. Stepwise freezing method: Intermediate temperature for 30 min. and rapidly cool. Dry freezing method :Reported that non- germinated dry seeds can survive freezing at low temperature in contrast to water imbibing seeds which are susceptible to cryogenic injuries. 4. Storage Maintenance of the frozen cultures at the specific temperature is as important as freezing . In general the frozen cells/tissues are kept for storage at temperatures in the range of -72 to -196°C. Storage is ideally done in liquid nitrogen refrigerator – at 150°C in the vapour phase, or at -196°C in the liquid phase. The ultimate objective of storage is to stop all the cellular metabolic activities and maintain their viability. For long term storage temperature at -196°C in liquid nitrogen is ideal. 5. Thawing Thawing is usually carried out by plunging the frozen samples in ampoules into a warm water (temp 37 – 45°C) bath with vigorous swirling. By this approach, rapid thawing (at the rate of 500-750°C min¯ ¹) occurs, and this protects the cells from the damaging effects ice crystal formation. As the thawing occurs (ice completely melts ) the ampoules are quickly transferred to a water bath at temperature 20-25°C. This transfer is necessary since the cells get damaged if left for long in warm (37-45°C) water bath. 6. Reculture
- 15. 15 In general thawned germplasm is washed several times to remove cryoprotectant. The material is then recultured in a fresh media. 7. Plant regeneration The ultimate purpose of cryopreservation of germplasm is to regenerate the desired plant. For appropriate plant growth and regeneration, the cryopreserved cell/tissues have to be carefully nursed, grown. Addition of certain growth promoting substances, besides maintenance of appropriate environmental conditions is often necessary for successful plant regeneration Applications of germplasam conservation Plant materials (cell/tissue) of several species can be cryopreserved and maintained for several years, and used as and when needed. Cryopreservation is an ideal method for long term conservation of cell culture which produce secondary metabolites e.g. medicines Disease (pathogen) free plant material can be frozen and propagated whenever required. Recalcitrant seeds can be maintained for long .
- 16. 16 Conservation of somaclonal and gametoclonal variation in culture. Plant material from endangered species can be conserved. Cryopreservation is a good method for the selection of cold resistant mutant cell lines which could develop into frost resistant plant . Limitations of germplasm conservation The expensive equipment needed to provide controlled and variable rates of cooling/warming temperatures can however be a limitation in the application of in vitro technology for large scale germplasm conservation. Formation of ice crystal inside the cell should be prevented as they cause injury to the cell. Sometimes certain solutes from the cell leak out during freezing. Cryoprotectants also affect the viability of cells. Saju Thomas Assistant professor Cps, Medical College Alappuzha