Broiler Farming Management Guide

Broiler Farming
Management Guide

3
Using This Manual
Finding a Topic
Red markers appear on the right-hand side of the manual. These allow readers immediate
access to those sections and topics in which they are particularly interested.
The Contents List gives the title of each section and subsection.
An alphabetical Keyword Index is given at the end of the manual.
Key Points
Where appropriate, Key Points have been included to emphasize important aspects of hus-
bandry and management. They are highlighted in red.
Performance Objectives
Supplements to this manual contain performance objectives that can be achieved with good
management, environmental and health control.

4
Arbor Acres Broiler Management Guide
Contents
Forward.................................................................................6
Introduction...................................................................................7
Section 1: Chick Management..............................................9
Objective ......................................................................................9
Principles..................................................................................... 10
Chick Quality and Broiler Performance......................................... 10
Chick Arrival ................................................................................ 11
Environmental Control ................................................................. 12
Brooder Management .................................................................. 13
Section 2: Provision of Feed and Water ...........................17
Objective ..................................................................................... 17
Principles..................................................................................... 18
Supply of Nutrients...................................................................... 18
Feeding Program.......................................................................... 18
Feed Form and Physical Feed Quality........................................... 19
Whole-wheat Feeding................................................................... 19
Feed and Heat Stress...................................................................20
Environment ................................................................................20
Litter Quality................................................................................20
Water Quality...............................................................................20
Drinking Systems......................................................................... 21
Feeding Systems..........................................................................23
Section 3: Health and Biosecurity.....................................25
Objective ....................................................................................25
Principles.....................................................................................26
Biosecurity...................................................................................26
Vaccination..................................................................................27
Disease Investigation...................................................................27
Disease Recognition.....................................................................29
Section 4: Housing and Environment.................................31
Objective ..................................................................................... 31
Principles.....................................................................................32

5
Housing and Ventilation Systems.................................................33
Minimum Ventilation Systems .....................................................34
Transitional Ventilation Systems ..................................................35
Tunnel Ventilation Systems..........................................................35
Evaporative Cooling Systems........................................................36
Lighting for Broilers .....................................................................36
Litter Management.......................................................................38
Stocking Density ..........................................................................39
Section 5: Monitoring Live Weight
and Uniformity of Performance.........................................41
Objective .................................................................................... 41
Principles.....................................................................................42
Predictability of Live Weight.........................................................42
Flock Uniformity (CV%) ................................................................42
Separate-Sex Growing ..................................................................43
Section 6: Pre-processing Management............................45
Objective ....................................................................................45
Principles.....................................................................................46
Preparation for Catching ..............................................................46
Catching ......................................................................................46
Processing ...................................................................................48
Appendices..........................................................................51
Appendix 1. Production Records ..................................................52
Appendix 2. Conversion Tables ....................................................53
Appendix 3. Efﬁciency Calculations..............................................54
Appendix 4. Feather Sexing..........................................................55
Appendix 5. Classiﬁcation of Months...........................................56
Appendix 6. Problem Solving ....................................................... 57
Appendix 7. Ventilation Rates and Calculations............................59
Keyword Index....................................................................61

6
Forward
The Manual
agement techniques that help growers achieve good overall bird performance from day one
through to processing while promoting bird health and welfare.
Management to provide birds with their required• environment.
A dietary regimen that offers nutrients in the appropriate profile.•
Effective• biosecurity and disease control programs.
These three sectors, environment, nutrition and health, are interdependent. A shortfall in any
one will bring negative consequences to the others and if any one of these elements is
sub-optimal, broiler performance will suffer.
Information presented in this manual combines data derived from internal research trials,
published scientific knowledge and the expertise, practical skills and experience of the
This manual is designed to help customers achieve optimum performance from their
birds. While not intended to provide definitive information on every aspect of manage-ment,
this manual does draw attention to important issues that if overlooked or inadequately
addressed may depress flock performance. The objective of this manual is to provide man-
We applies a balanced approach to genetic progress, concentrating on commercial traits
such as growth rate, feed conversion ratio, livability and meat yield, while improving bird
welfare in areas such as leg health, cardiovascular fitness and robustness. Achieving the
genetic potential of the birds depends on three key factors:
Technical Transfer and Service teams.
In reality, the guidance of a manual such as this cannot wholly protect against performance
variations that may occur for a wide variety of reasons. While every attempt has been made to
ensure the accuracy and relevance of the information presented, Growel Agrovet accepts no
liability for the consequences of using this information for the management of chickens.

8
There are several stages of development throughout the broiler process.
The hatchery deals with hatching eggs and chicks. The broiler farm deals
with chicks and growing broilers. The processing plant deals with broilers
and carcasses. Between each of these stages is a transition phase. Transi-
tions must be managed with minimum bird stress. The key transitions for
the broiler producer are:
Chick emergence.•
Take off, storage and transportation of the chick.•
Development of good appetite in the young chick.•
Change over from supplementary feeding and drinking systems to•
the main system.
Catching and• transport of the broiler at depletion.
Bird• welfare.
The production chain and transition phases.•
Quality of the end product throughout the entire process.•
The need for observation of changes in the birds and their• environ-
ment.
Appropriate management in response to the constantly changing•
requirements of the bird.
No two broiler houses are the same and every ﬂock of broilers will dif-
fer in its requirements. The broiler farm manager should understand the
birds’ requirements and, through application of responsive management
as described in this manual, supply the individual requirements to ensure
optimum performance in every ﬂock.
Technical Transfer Team has designed this manual with the fol-lowing
principles in mind:

9
Section 1 Chick Management
Section 1
Chick Management
Objective
To promote early development of feeding and drinking behavior,
allowing the target body-weight proﬁle to be achieved with maxi-
mum uniformity and good welfare.
Contents
Principles..................................................................................... 10
Chick Quality and Broiler Performance......................................... 10
Chick Arrival ................................................................................ 11
Environmental Control ................................................................. 12
Brooder Management .................................................................. 13

10
Principles
For best broiler performance, it is important to deliver the chicks to the
broiler farm as quickly as possible and feed them immediately. Provide
chicks with the proper environment and correctly manage them to meet
all of their requirements.
During the first 10 days of life, the chicks’ environment changes from the
hatchery to the broiler house. Both current and final flock performance
will suffer from deficiencies in the early environment. Chicks must estab-
lish healthy feeding and drinking behaviors if they are to achieve their
genetic potential for growth.
A series of critical transitions in the first 7 to 10 days of the chick’s life
affect how and from where it receives its nutrients. This is why the man-
agement in this period is so essential for optimum flock performance.
In the final stages of incubation and as a very new hatchling, the chick
receives all of its nutrients from the egg yolk. Once on the farm, the chick
is offered a Starter feed in a sieved crumb or mini-pellet form in the auto-
mated feeding system and on the paper on the house floor. As soon as
feed enters the gut, the residual yolk within the chick is mobilized. If the
chick is fed promptly after hatch, it will receive a useful boost to growth
from these nutrients.
For the first 3 days, residual egg yolk provides the chick with a protective
store of antibodies and nutrients. Absorption of the yolk sac precedes the
initiation of growth and therefore growth will be minimal until the chick
starts to eat feed. Normally, residual yolk sac absorption is rapid during
the first 48 hours but by 3 days of age it should be less than 1 gram
(0.035 ounces). If some of the chicks have not started to eat for 1 or 2 or
even 3 days, the growth will be uneven and the average flock weight at
slaughter will be significantly reduced.
The chick, having found feed at floor level in the first days of its life,
must find it again in the automated feeding system, whether pan or track,
between 4 and 6 days of age. The chick must then cope with another
change from a crumbled feed or mini-pellet to a pelleted feed at 10 days
of age. It is important that both these transitions are made as easy as
possible if performance is not to be adversely affected. Feed should be
easily accessible from the automated feeding system. For example, flood-
ing pan feeders will encourage feeding. At 10 days of age, the provision
of a good quality pellet will limit the impact of the change in feed texture
at this time.
The 7-day weight should be 4.5 to 5 times greater than that of the day-old
chick provided the entire flock has coped well with all of these transitions
and presuming that no environmental or nutritional factors are impeding
growth.
Chick Quality and Broiler Performance
Attention to detail throughout the entire production process can deter-
mine final broiler performance and profitability. This involves good man-
agement of healthy parent stock, careful hatchery practice and efficient
delivery of chicks that are of good quality and uniformity. Chick quality
may be influenced at every stage of the process.
Planning
Chick quality results from the interaction between parent stock manage-
ment, parental health and nutrition as well as incubation management.
If a good quality chick is provided with proper brooding management and
nutrition, it should have less than 0.7% mortality and be able to achieve
target live weight uniformly over the course of the first 7 days.
Plan• placements of broiler flocks to ensure that differences in age
and/or immune status of donor parent flocks are minimized. One
donor flock per broiler flock is the ideal. If mixed flocks are unavoid-
able, keep similar parent flock ages together.
• Vaccination of donor parents maximizes maternal antibody protec-
tion in the offspring and is successful in protecting broilers against
diseases which compromise performance (such as infectious bursal
disease, chicken anemia virus and reovirus).
A good quality chick should be clean after hatch. It should stand•
firmly and walk well, be alert and active, and vocalize contentedly.
It should be free of deformities, with a fully retracted yolk sac and
a healed navel.
The grower can provide timely, accurate, detailed and measurable•
feedback to the hatchery if chick quality is lower than desired.
Incorrect• brooding management will make a chick quality problem
worse.
The hatchery and transport system should ensure that:
The correct vaccines are administered to all chicks at the correct•
dosage and in the correct form.
After being sexed and vaccinated, the chicks are allowed to settle•
before transport. Hold chicks in a darkened area where the environ-
ment is controlled correctly.
Chicks are loaded through controlled-• environment loading bays into
preconditioned lorries for transport to the broiler farm (see Table
1.1).
The expected delivery time of the chicks is established beforehand•
so that they may be unloaded and correctly placed as quickly as
possible.
Chicks are fed and have access to water as soon as possible after•
hatch.
Seven-day live weight should be routinely monitored.

11
Table 1.1: Summary of optimum conditions - chick holding and transport
Chick holding
conditions
22–24°C (72–75°F)* Ambient Temperature
Minimum 50% Relative Humidity (RH)
0.71 m3
/min (25 cfm**) per 1,000 chicks
Air Exchange
Transport conditions
22–24°C (72–75°F)* Ambient Temperature
Minimum 50% Relative Humidity (RH) for
long haul***
0.71 m3
/min (25 cfm**) per 1,000 chicks
Air Exchange
Note: The conditions in the holding area or transport vehicle should give temperatures of
30–35°C (86–95°F) and a RH of 70–80% among the chicks. It is more important to obtain
these temperatures than to follow the advised temperature setting for the transport truck
as settings may vary depending on the manufacturers recommendations.
* Temperatures should be adjusted according to actual chick temperature. Vent tempera-
tures should be between 39–40°C (102–104°F).
** (cfm) cubic feet per minute.
*** Humidity should be provided during long haul transport in cold weather when the
heaters are operational for long periods or where the air is dry.
Key Points
Plan placements to minimize physiological and immune differences•
between chicks. Use single donor flocks if possible.
Hold and• transport chicks in conditions that prevent dehydration
and other types of stress in chicks.
Provide feed and• water to the chicks as soon as possible after they
leave the hatcher.
Maintain high standards of• hygiene and biosecurity in the hatchery
and during transport.
Chick Arrival
Farm Preparation
Individual sites should be single-age (i.e. all-in/all-out). On multi-age
sites, vaccination and cleaning programs are more difficult and less effec-
tive. It is also far more likely that health problems will occur and sub-
optimal performance will be achieved on multi-age sites.
Houses, the surrounding areas, and all equipment must be thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected before the arrival of the bedding material and
chicks (see Section 3: Health and Biosecurity). Management systems
should be in place to prevent pathogens entering the building. Vehicles,
equipment and people should be disinfected before entry.
Spread litter material evenly to a depth of 8–10 cm (3–4 in). Uneven
bedding material can restrict access to feed and water and may lead
to a loss in flock uniformity. Where floor temperatures are adequate
(28–30°C/82–86°F) the litter depth can be reduced where litter disposal
costs are an issue.
Key Points
Provide chicks with biosecure, clean housing.•
Control spread of• disease by using single-age, (i.e. all-in/all-out)
housing.
Spread• litter evenly.
Chick Placement
Chicks cannot regulate their own body temperature until they are around
12–14 days of age. Ideal body temperature must be attained by provid-
ing optimal environmental temperature. Preheating the house is vital as
floor temperature at chick placement is as important as air temperature.
Stabilize temperature and relative humidity for at least 24 hours prior to
chick arrival.
Recommended values are:
Air• temperature of 30°C/86°F (measured at chick height in the area
where feed and water are positioned).
• Litter temperature of 28–30°C/82–86°F.
Relative• humidity of 60-70%.
Monitor these values regularly to ensure a uniform environment through-
out the whole brooding area, but by far the best indicator of temperature
is chick behavior.
Make a final check of feed and water availability and distribution within
the house prior to delivery of chicks. All chicks must be able to eat and
drink immediately upon placement in the house.
The longer the chicks remain in the boxes, the greater the degree of
potential dehydration. This may result in early mortality and reduced
growth as indicated by 7-day and final live weight.
Place chicks quickly, gently and evenly onto paper within the brooding
area. Feed and water should be freely and immediately available. The
empty boxes should be removed from the house without delay.
Leave chicks to settle for 1 to 2 hours to become accustomed to their
new environment. After this time, make a check to see that all chicks
have easy access to feed and water. Make adjustments to equipment and
temperatures where necessary.
For the first 7 days, provide 23 hours of light with 30-40 lux intensity
(3-4 foot candles) to help the chick adapt to the new environment and
encourage feed and water intake.
Adequate fresh, clean water must be available at all times to all birds
with access points at an appropriate height (see Section 2: Provision of
Feed and Water). Nipple lines should be installed at 12 birds per nipple
and bell drinkers at a minimum of 6 drinkers per 1,000 chicks. In addi-
tion, 6 supplementary mini-drinkers or trays per 1,000 chicks should also
be provided.
Initially, provide textured feed as a dust-free crumble or mini-pellet on
feeder trays (1/100 chicks) and on paper to give a feeding area occupy-
ing at least 25% of the brooding area. Place chicks directly onto paper so
that feed is immediately found. Automated feeding and drinking systems
should be placed in the vicinity of the paper.

12
If the mixing of chicks from different parent flocks is unavoidable, chicks
should be grouped by breeder age as much as possible. Chicks from
a young donor flock of less than 30 weeks will require a warmer start
temperature (+1°C or +2°F warmer than the given temperature profile)
compared to an older flock of more than 50 weeks.
Key Points
Pre-heat the house and stabilize• temperature and humidity prior to
chick arrival.
Unload and place chicks quickly.•
Make• feed and water available to the chicks immediately.
Arrange equipment so that chicks can reach• feed and water easily.
Position supplementary feeders and drinkers near the main feeding•
and drinking systems.
Leave chicks to settle for• 1 to 2 hours with access to feed and
water.
Check• feed, water, temperature and humidity after 1 to 2 hours and
adjust where necessary.
Chick Start Assessment
Chicks are hungry in the period immediately after they are introduced to
feed for the first time so they should eat well and fill their crops. Check
a sample of birds at 8 and 24 hours after arrival on the farm to make sure
that all the chicks have found feed and water. To do this, collect samples
of 30–40 chicks at 3 or 4 different places in the house. Gently feel each
chick’s crop. In chicks that have found food and water, the crop will be
full, soft and rounded (see Figure 1.1). If the crop is full but the original
texture of the crumb is still apparent, the bird has not yet consumed
enough water. Target crop fill at 8 hours after delivery is 80% and at 24
hours after delivery 95–100%.
Figure 1.1: Crop fill after 24 hours.
The chick on the left has a full, rounded crop, while the chick on the right
has an empty crop.
Environmental Control
Introduction
Optimal temperature and humidity are essential for health and appetite
development. Monitor temperature and relative humidity frequently and
regularly; at least twice daily in the first 5 days and daily thereafter.
Temperature and humidity measurements and sensors for automatic
systems should be sited at chick level. Use conventional thermometers
to cross-check the accuracy of electronic sensors controlling automatic
systems.
Ventilation without drafts is required during the brooding period to:
Maintain temperatures and relative• humidity (RH) at the correct
level.
Allow sufficient• air exchange to prevent the accumulation of harmful
gases such as carbon monoxide (from oil/gas heaters placed inside
the poultry house), carbon dioxide and ammonia.
It is good practice to establish a minimum ventilation rate from day one.
This will ensure that fresh air is supplied to the chicks at frequent, regular
intervals (see Section 4: Housing and Environment). Internal circulation
fans can be used to maintain evenness of air quality and temperature
at chick level.
If a choice has to be made, maintenance of brooding temperatures should
take priority over ventilation and air exchange. Young chicks are prone
to wind-chill effects, therefore actual floor/air speed should be less than
0.15 m/sec (30 ft/min) or as low as possible.
Key Points
Monitor• temperature and relative humidity regularly.
Ventilate to provide fresh air and remove waste• gases.
Avoid• drafts.
Humidity
Relative humidity (RH) in the hatcher at the end of the incubation process
will be high (approx. 80%). Houses with whole-house heating, especially
where nipple drinkers are used, can have RH levels lower than 25%.
Houses with more conventional equipment (such as spot brooders that
produce moisture as a by-product of combustion, and bell drinkers that
have open water surfaces) have a much higher RH, usually over 50%. To
limit the shock to the chicks when transferring from the incubator, RH
levels in the first 3 days should be 60–70%.
Monitor RH within the broiler house daily. If it falls below 50% in the first
week, the environment will be dry and dusty. The chicks will begin to
dehydrate and be predisposed to respiratory problems and performance
will be adversely affected. Take action to increase RH.
If the house is fitted with high-pressure spray nozzles (foggers or misters)
for cooling in high temperatures, then these can be used to increase RH
during brooding. Alternatively, RH can be increased by using a backpack
portable sprayer to spray the walls with a fine mist.

13
As the chick grows, the ideal RH falls. High RH (above 70%) from 18 days
onwards can cause wet litter and its associated problems. As the broilers
increase in live weight, RH levels can be controlled using ventilation and
heating systems.
Interaction Between Temperature and Humidity
All animals lose heat to the environment by evaporation of moisture from
the respiratory tract and through the skin. At higher RH, less evaporative
loss occurs, increasing the animals’ apparent temperature. The tempera-
ture experienced by the animal is dependent on the dry bulb tempera-
ture and RH. High RH increases the apparent temperature at a particular
dry bulb temperature, whereas low RH decreases apparent temperature.
The target temperature profile in Table 1.2 assumes RH in the range of
60–70%. The right hand side of Table 1.2 shows the dry bulb temperature
required to achieve the target temperature profile in situations where RH
is not within the target range of 60–70%.
Table 1.2: Dry bulb temperatures required to achieve target apparent
equivalent temperatures at varying relative humidities
Dry Bulb Temperature at RH%
Target Ideal
Age
(days)
Temp RH%
range
40 50 60 70 80
Day Old
30.0°C
86.0°F
60–70
36.0°C
96.8°F
33.2°C
91.8°F
30.8°C
87.4°F
29.2°C
84.6°F
27.0°C
80.6°F
3
28.0°C
82.4°F
60–70
33.7°C
92.7°F
31.2°C
88.2°F
28.9°C
84.0°F
27.3°C
81.1°F
26.0°C
78.8°F
6
27.0°C
80.6°F
60–70
32.5°C
90.5°F
29.9°C
85.8°F
27.7°C
81.9°F
26.0°C
78.8°F
24.0°C
75.2°F
9
26.0°C
78.8°F
60–70
31.3°C
88.3°F
28.6°C
83.5°F
26.7°C
80.1°F
25.0°C
77.0°F
23.0°C
73.4°F
12
25.0°C
77.0°F
60–70
30.2°C
86.4°F
27.8°C
82.0°F
25.7°C
78.3°F
24.0°C
75.2°F
23.0°C
73.4°F
15
24.0°C
75.2°F
60–70
29.0°C
84.2°F
26.8°C
80.2°F
24.8°C
76.6°F
23.0°C
73.4°F
22.0°C
71.6°F
18
23.0°C
73.4°F
60–70
27.7°C
81.9°F
25.5°C
77.9°F
23.6°C
74.5°F
21.9°C
71.4°F
21.0°C
69.8°F
21
22.0°C
71.6°F
60–70
26.9°C
80.4°F
24.7°C
76.5°F
22.7°C
72.9°F
21.3°C
70.3°F
20.0°C
68.0°F
24
21.0°C
69.8°F
60–70
25.7°C
78.3°F
23.5°C
74.3°F
21.7°C
71.1°F
20.2°C
68.4°F
19.0°C
66.2°F
27
20.0°C
68.0°F
60–70
24.8°C
76.6°F
22.7°C
72.9°F
20.7°C
69.3°F
19.3°C
66.7°F
18.0°C
64.4°F
Source: Dr. Malcolm Mitchell (Scottish Agricultural College)
Table 1.2 illustrates the relationship between RH and effective tempera-
ture. If RH is outside the target range, the temperature of the house at
chick level should be adjusted to match that given in Table 1.2. For
example, if RH is lower than 60% the dry bulb temperature may need
to be increased. At all stages, monitor chick behavior to ensure that the
chick is experiencing an adequate temperature (see Brooder Management
below). If subsequent behavior indicates that the chicks are too cold or
too hot, the temperature of the house should be adjusted accordingly.
Key Points
Achieve target 7-day• live weight by correctly managing the brooding
environment.
Use chick• behavior to determine if temperature is correct.
Use• temperature to stimulate activity and appetite.
Maintain RH between 60 - 70% for the first 3 days and above 50% for•
the remainder of the brooding period.
Adjust• temperature settings if RH increases above 70% or falls below
60%, while responding to changes in chick behavior.
Brooder Management
Two basic systems of temperature control are used for brooding broiler
chicks:
Spot• brooding (canopy or radiant heaters). The heat source is local
so chicks can move away to cooler areas and thus select for them-
selves a preferred temperature.
Whole-house• brooding. The heat source is larger and more widely
spread so chicks are less able to move to select a preferred temper-
ature. Whole-house brooding refers to situations where the whole
house or a defined part of the house is heated by ‘forced air heat-
ers’ only and the aim is to achieve one temperature in the house
or air space.
In both spot and whole-house brooding systems, the objective is to
stimulate both appetite and activity as early as possible. Achieving the
optimum temperature is critical. Brooding temperatures for RH 60–70%
are given in Table 1.3.

14
Table 1.3: Brooding temperatures
Age (days)
Whole-house
Brooding
Spot Brooding
Temp
Temp
Brooder Edge
(A*)
2 m (6.6 ft) From
Brooder Edge (B*)
Day Old
30°C
86°F
32°C
90°F
29°C
84°F
3
28°C
82°F
30°C
86°F
27°C
81°F
6
27°C
81°F
28°C
82°F
25°C
77°F
9
26°C
79°F
27°C
81°F
25°C
77°F
12
25°C
77°F
26°C
79°F
25°C
77°F
15
24°C
75°F
25°C
77°F
24°C
75°F
18
23°C
73°F
24°C
75°F
24°C
75°F
21
22°C
72°F
23°C
73°F
23°C
73°F
24
21°C
70°F
22°C
72°F
22°C
72°F
27
20°C
68°F
20°C
68°F
20°C
68°F
*See Figure 1.3 for illustration showing areas A and B.
Spot Brooding
The layout for a spot brooding set up is shown in Figure 1.2, which would
be typical for 1,000 chicks on day one. Chicks are placed in a 5×5 meter
square (25 m2
) or a 16.5×16.5 foot square (272 ft2
), which gives an ini-
tial stocking density of 40 chicks/m2
(4 chicks/ft2
) If stocking density is
increased, the number of feeders and drinkers, and the heating capacity
of the brooder, should also be increased accordingly.
Figure 1.2: Typical spot brooding layout (1,000 chicks)
Within the context of the set up in Figure 1.2, Figure 1.3 shows the areas of
temperature gradients surrounding the spot brooder. These are marked
A (brooder edge) and B (2 m (6.6 ft) from the brooder edge). Respective
optimum temperatures are as shown in Table 1.3.
Figure 1.3: Spot brooding — areas of temperature gradients
Spot Brooding Behavior
Chick behavior is the best indicator of correct brooder temperature.
With spot brooding, correct temperature is indicated by chicks being
evenly spread throughout the brooding area as shown in Figure 1.4.
In the diagram, the brooder area is shown as the red center circle.
Figure 1.4: Bird distribution under brooders
Chicks make no noise
Chicks pant, head and wings droop
Chicks away from brooder
Chicks evenly spread
Noise level signifies contentment
Chicks crowd to brooder
Chicks noisy, distress-calling
TEMPERATURE TOO LOW DRAFT
TEMPERATURE TOO HIGH TEMPERATURE CORRECT
This distribution requires investigation
Influenced by draft — uneven light distribution —
external noises
BROODER
5 m (16.5 ft)
2 m (6.6 ft)
Pan Feeder
60% Paper Cover
Nipple Line
Mini Drinker
2 m (6.6 ft)
BROODER
2 m
6.6 ft
2 m
6.6 ft
A A BB
2 m (6.6 ft) 2 m (6.6 ft)
5 m (16.5 ft)

15
A picture of contented, spot-brooded birds at the right temperature is
shown in Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5: Chicks in correct spot brooding conditions
Whole-house Brooding
In whole-house brooding, there is no temperature gradient within the
house, although supplementary brooders might also be provided. The
main whole-house heat source can be direct or indirect (using hot air). A
layout for whole-house brooding is shown in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6: Typical layout of a whole-house brooding system
Within the context of the set up in Figure 1.6, optimum temperatures are
as shown in the left-hand side of Table 1.3.
Whole-house Brooding Behavior
Chick behavior is the best indicator of correct temperature. Figure 1.7
shows the different distribution of chicks in whole-house brooding at
different temperatures. With whole-house brooding, correct temperature
is indicated by chicks forming groups of 20–30, with movement occurring
between groups. There should be continuous feeding and drinking within
the ﬂock.
Figure 1.7: Typical behavior of chicks in whole-house brooding at differ-
ent temperatures
Too High Correct Too Low
Carefully monitor and control house temperature and humidity when
whole-house brooding is practiced (see ‘Interaction Between Tempera-
ture and Humidity’).
A picture of contented whole-house brooded birds is shown in Figure
1.8.
Figure 1.8: Chicks in correct whole-house brooder conditions
Key Points
Temperature is critical and should be maintained as recommended.•
Temperatures should be checked manually at chick level.•
Chick• behavior should be observed closely and frequently.

17
Section 2
Provision of Feed and Water
Objective
The objective of a defined feeding program is to supply a range
of balanced diets that satisfy the nutrient requirements of broil-
ers at all stages of their development and that optimize efficiency
and profitability without compromising bird welfare or the environ-
ment.
The drinking and feeding systems employed, together with the
management of those systems, will impact feed and water intake,
thereby affecting bird performance and efficiency.
Contents
Principles..................................................................................... 18
Supply of Nutrients...................................................................... 18
Feeding Program.......................................................................... 18
Feed Form and Physical Feed Quality........................................... 19
Whole-wheat Feeding................................................................... 19
Feed and Heat Stress ...................................................................20
Environment ................................................................................20
Litter Quality................................................................................20
Water Quality...............................................................................20
Drinking Systems ......................................................................... 21
Feeding Systems.......................................................................... 23
Section 2 Provision of Feed and Water

18
Principles
Feed is a major component of the total cost of broiler production. To
support optimum performance, formulate broiler rations to give the cor-
rect balance of energy, protein and amino acids, minerals, vitamins and
essential fatty acids. The choice of feeding program will depend on the
target of the business; for instance whether the focus is on maximizing
profitability of live birds or optimizing yield of carcass components.
The choice of feeding program for a range of production and market•
situations.
Optimum levels of dietary digestible amino acid levels for• growth,
efficiency, processing yield and profitability.
Supply of Nutrients
Energy
Broilers require energy for growth of tissue, maintenance and activity.
Carbohydrate sources, such as corn and wheat, and various fats or oils
are the major source of energy in poultry feeds. Energy levels in diets
are expressed in Mega joules (MJ/kg) or kilocalories (kcal/kg or kcal/lb)
of Metabolizable Energy (ME), as this represents the energy available to
the broiler.
Protein
Feed proteins, such as those in cereals and soybean meal, are complex
compounds that are broken down by digestion into amino acids. These
amino acids are absorbed and assembled into body proteins that are
used in the construction of body tissue, e.g. muscles, nerves, skin and
feathers.
Dietary crude protein levels do not indicate the quality of the proteins in
feed ingredients. Diet protein quality is based on the level, balance and
digestibility of essential amino acids in the final mixed feed.
Macro Minerals
The provision of the correct levels of the major minerals in the appropri-
ate balance is important for high-performing broilers. The macro minerals
involved are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and chloride.
Calcium and• phosphorus: Calcium in the diet of broilers influences
growth, feed efficiency, bone development, leg health, nerve func-
tion and the immune system. It is vital that calcium is supplied in
adequate quantities and on a consistent basis. Phosphorus, like
calcium, is required in the correct form and quantity to optimize
skeletal structure and growth.
Sodium,• potassium and chloride: These minerals are needed for gen-
eral metabolic functions. Shortages can affect feed intake, growth
and blood pH. Excess levels of these minerals result in increased
water intake and subsequent poor litter quality.
Trace Minerals and Vitamins
Trace minerals and vitamins are needed for all metabolic functions.
Appropriate vitamin and trace mineral supplementation depends on the
feed ingredients used, the feed manufacturer and local circumstances.
Due to differences in vitamin levels of various cereals, the level of sup-
plementation of some vitamins must be modified. Accordingly, separate
recommendations are usually proposed for some vitamins, depending on
the cereals (e.g. wheat versus maize) upon which the diets are based.
Enzymes
Enzymes are now being routinely used in poultry feeds to improve digest-
ibility of feed ingredients. In general, feed enzymes that act on carbohy-
drates, proteins and plant-bound minerals are available.
Key Points
Use recommended digestible amino acid levels for optimum broiler•
performance.
Ensure high-quality• protein sources are used.
Provide the correct levels of the major• minerals in the appropriate
balance.
Vitamin and mineral supplementation depends on• feed ingredients
used, feed manufacturing practices and local circumstances.
Feeding Program
Starter Feeds
The benefit of maximizing nutrient intake on early broiler growth and
subsequent performance is well established. Feeding broilers the recom-
mended nutrient density will ensure optimal growth is established during
this critical period of life.
The objective of the brooding period (0–10 days of age) is to establish
good appetite and maximum early growth in order to meet the 7-day
body-weight objective. It is recommended that a Broiler Starter feed be
fed for 10 days. The Starter represents a small proportion of the total
feed cost and decisions on Starter formulation should be based primarily
on performance and profitability rather than purely on diet cost.

19
Grower Feeds
Broiler Grower feed is generally fed for 14 to 16 days following the Starter.
Starter to Grower transition will involve a change of texture from crumbs/
mini-pellets to pellets. Depending on the pellet size produced, it may be
necessary to feed the first delivery of Grower as crumbs or mini-pellets.
During this time broiler growth continues to be dynamic. It therefore
needs to be supported by adequate nutrient intake. For optimum feed
intake, growth and FCR, provision of the correct diet nutrient density
(especially energy and amino acids) is critical.
Finisher Feeds
Broiler Finisher feeds account for the major volume and cost of feeding
a broiler. It is therefore important that feeds are designed to maximize
financial return for the type of products being produced.
Finisher feeds should be given from 25 days until processing. Birds
slaughtered later than 42–43 days of age should be given a second Fin-
isher feed specification from 42 days onward.
The use of either one or more broiler Finisher feeds will depend on:
Desired• slaughter weight.
Length of the production period.•
Design of the feeding program.•
Withdrawal periods for drugs will dictate the use of a special Withdrawal
Finisher feed. A Withdrawal feed should be fed for sufficient time prior
to slaughter to eliminate the risk of pharmaceutical product residues
in the meat. Statutory withdrawal periods for prescribed medicines that
are specified in product data sheets must be followed. It is not recom-
mended that extreme dietary nutrient reductions be made during the
withdrawal period.
Key Points
It is recommended to• feed the Starter diet for 10 days. Decisions
on Starter feed formulation should be based on performance and
profitability.
The Grower• feed must ensure that nutrient intake supports the
dynamic growth during this period.
Broiler Finisher feeds should be formulated to maximize financial•
return and be adjusted for bird age, but extreme nutrient withdrawal
is not recommended.
Feed Form and Physical Feed Quality
Broiler growth and efficiency of feed use will generally be better if the
Starter feed is crumbs or mini-pellets and the Grower and Finisher feeds
are pelleted (Table 2.1). Depending on pellet size fed, it may be necessary
to deliver the first delivery of Grower feed as crumbs or mini-pellets.
Poor quality crumbs and pellets will reduce feed intake and performance.
On the farm, pay attention during handling to reduce breakage of crumbs
and pellets.
Table 2.1: Form of feed by age in broilers
Age Feed Form and Size
0–10 days sieved crumbs or mini-pellets
11–24 days 2–3.5 mm (0.08–0.125 in)
diameter pellets or coarse
grinded mash
25 days to processing 3.5 mm (0.125 in) diameter
pellets or coarse grinded mash
Good quality crumbled and pelleted feeds are preferred to mash feed,
however if feeding a mash feed, feed particles should be sufficiently
coarse and uniform in size. Mash feeds may benefit from the inclusion
of some fat in the formulation to reduce dustiness and improve homoge-
nicity of feed components.
Key Points
Poor physical• feed quality will have a negative impact on broiler
performance.
Use good quality crumbled and pelleted• feed for optimum perfor-
mance.
When feeding mash, ensure a coarse uniform• particle size is
achieved. Minimize fine particle (<1 mm/<0.04 in) levels to less than
10%.
Whole-wheat Feeding
The feeding of compound feed with whole wheat may reduce feed costs
per ton. However, this must be offset against loss of eviscerated and
breast meat yield.
In formulating the compound or balancer feed, precisely account for the
level of inclusion of whole wheat. If an appropriate adjustment is not
made, live bird performance will be compromised, as the diet will now
have an inappropriate nutrient balance. Safe inclusion guides are given
in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Safe inclusion rates of whole wheat in broiler rations
Ration Inclusion rate of wheat
Starter 0%
Grower gradual increase to 10%*
Finisher gradual increase to 15%*
* Higher inclusions of wheat are possible if fed in combination with higher concentration
compound or balancer feeds.
Remove whole wheat from the feed 2 days before catching to avoid prob-
lems of contamination during evisceration at the processing plant.
Key Point
Dilution of diets with whole• wheat may reduce performance if the
compound feed is not properly adjusted.

20
Feed and Heat Stress
Correct nutrient levels and balance, together with the use of feed ingre-
dients with higher levels of digestibility, will help to minimize the effect
of heat stress.
Providing optimum crumb and pellet textures will minimize the energy
expended to eat the feed and thereby reduce the heat generated during
feeding. Optimum feed form will also improve feed acceptability and help
compensatory feed intake to occur during cooler periods.
Providing an increase in feed energy from feed fats (rather than carbo-
hydrates) during hot weather has been shown to be beneficial in some
situations due to reducing the heat increment of the diet.
Readily available cool, low-salt water is the most critical nutrient during
heat stress.
Strategic use of vitamins and electrolytes, either through the feed or
water, will help the bird deal with environmental stresses.
Key Points
Providing the correct nutrient levels and using more digestible• ingre-
dients will help to minimize the effects of heat stress.
Optimal• feed form will minimize heat stress and allow compensatory
feed intake to occur.
Provide cool, low-salt• water.
Ensure• feed is available to the birds during the coolest part of
the day.
Environment
Nitrogen and ammonia emissions can be reduced by minimizing excess
crude protein levels in the feed. This is achieved by formulating diets to
balanced recommended levels of digestible essential amino acids, rather
than to minimum crude protein levels.
Phosphorus excretion rates can be reduced by feeding closely to the
bird’s requirement and utilizing phytase enzymes.
Key Points
Formulating feeds to balanced levels of• digestible essential amino
acids will minimize nitrogen excretion.
Phosphorus excretion can be minimized by feeding closely to the•
bird’s requirements.
Litter Quality
Litter quality directly affects the health of the bird. Lower moisture levels
in the litter help to reduce respiratory stress by reducing the amount
of ammonia in the atmosphere. Good quality litter will also reduce the
incidence of foot pad dermatitis.
With suitable management, health and environmental practices, the
following nutritional strategies will help to maintain good litter quality:
Avoid excessive levels of• crude protein in diets.
Avoid high• salt/sodium levels, as this will increase bird water intake
and cause wet litter.
Avoid using poorly digestible or high• fiber feed ingredients in the
diets.
Provide good-quality• feed fats/oils in the diet, as this helps avoid
enteric disorders which produce wet litter.
Water Quality
Water supplied to broilers should not contain excessive amounts of min-
erals. Water should not be contaminated with bacteria. Although water
supplied as fit for human consumption will also be suitable for broilers,
water from bore holes, open water reservoirs or poor quality public sup-
plies can cause problems.
Test the water supply to check the level of calcium salts (water hard-
ness), salinity and nitrates.
After the house has been cleaned and before the chicks have arrived,
sample water for bacterial contamination at the source, at the storage
tanks and at the points for drinkers.
Table 2.3 shows the maximum acceptable concentration of minerals and
organic matter in the water supply.
Water is an essential ingredient for life. Any increases in water loss or
reductions in water intake can have a significant effect on the lifetime
performance of the chick.

21
Table 2.3: Maximum acceptable concentrations of minerals and organic
matter in the water supply
Material Acceptable
Concentration
(ppm or mg
per liter)
Comment
Total dissolved
solids (TDS)
0–1,000 Higher levels will cause wet
droppings and reduce performance
Fecal coliforms 0 Higher levels indicate
contaminated water
Chloride 250 If sodium is higher than 50,
acceptable chloride concentrations
are much lower (less than 20)
Sodium 50
Calcium salts
(hardness)
70
pH 6.5–8.5 Acid water will corrode equipment
and disrupt health interventions
Nitrates trace
Sulphates 200–250 Maximum desirable level. Higher
levels will increase wetness of
droppings
Potassium 300
Magnesium 50–125 Higher levels will exacerbate
influence of sulphates
Iron 0.3
Lead 0.05
Zinc 5
Manganese 0.05
Copper 0.05
The levels presented in Table 2.3 are unlikely to be exceeded if water is
taken from a main supply.
If water is taken from wells or bore holes it may have excessive nitrate
levels and high bacterial counts. Where bacterial counts are high, deter-
mine the cause and correct the problem. Bacterial contamination can
often reduce biological production performances both on the farm and at
the processing plant.
Water that is clean at the point of entry to the broiler house can become
contaminated by exposure to bacteria within the house environment (Fig-
ure 2.1). Chlorination between 3 and 5 ppm at drinker level will reduce
the bacterial count, especially where drinker systems with open water
surfaces are in use. Ultra Violet (UV) irradiation is also effective in con-
trolling bacterial contamination.
Drinker valves and pipes may become blocked if the water is hard and
contains high levels of calcium salts or a high level of iron. If sediment
blocks the pipes, filter the supply with a mesh of 40–50 microns.
Figure 2.1: Increase in bacterial count in drinkers where water is exposed
to the broiler house atmosphere
Key Points
Provide unrestricted access to fresh, clean• water.
Test the• water supply regularly for bacteriological and mineral con-
taminants and take any necessary corrective action.
Drinking Systems
Water must be available to broilers at all times. Inadequate water sup-
ply, either in volume or available drinker space, will reduce growth rate.
Monitor the ratio of water to feed consumption to ensure that the flock
is receiving sufficient water.
Measure water consumption to monitor:
Feed and• water system failures.
Health.•
Performance.•
At 21°C (70°F), the ratio of water to feed should be close to:
1.8:1 for bell drinkers.•
1.6:1 for• nipple drinkers without cups.
1.7:1 for• nipple drinkers with cups.
Water requirement will vary with feed consumption.
Birds will drink more water at higher ambient temperatures. Water
requirement increases by approximately 6.5% per degree Celsius (2
degrees Fahrenheit) over 21°C (70°F). In tropical areas prolonged high
temperatures will double daily water consumption.
Very cold or very warm water will reduce water intake. In hot weather, it
is good practice to flush the drinker lines at regular intervals to ensure
that the water is as cool as possible.
There should be adequate water storage on the farm, in case the main
supply fails. Ideally, there should be sufficient storage to provide 24 hours
of water at maximum consumption.
It is vital to measure water consumption daily by metering. See Table
2.4 for typical water consumption at 21°C (70°F). A reduction of water
consumption gives an advanced warning of possible health and produc-
tion issues.
after clean-out day old 5 days old
40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
Total Count
S.aureus
E.coli
BacterialCount
0 0 0 0 0 0
40,000
15,000
10,000

22
Water meters must match flow rates with pressure. At least 1 meter is
required per house, but preferably there should be more than one to
allow within-house zoning.
Table 2.4: Typical water consumption by broilers at 21°C (70°F) in liters
and imperial gallons per 1,000 birds per day. M = males, F = females,
AH = as hatched (mixed males and females).
Age of
birds
(days)
Nipple drinkers
without cups
Liters
(Imperial Gallons)
Nipple drinkers
with cups
Liters
(Imperial Gallons)
Bell drinkers
Liters
(Imperial Gallons)
M F AH M F AH M F AH
7
54
(12)
54
(12)
54
(12)
58
(13)
58
(13)
58
(13)
61
(13)
61
(13)
61
(13)
14
112
(25)
102
(23)
107
(24)
119
(26)
109
(24)
114
(25)
126
(28)
115
(25)
121
(27)
21
182
(40)
163
(36)
173
(38)
194
(43)
173
(38)
184
(40)
205
(45)
184
(40)
194
(43)
28
254
(56)
222
(49)
237
(52)
270
(59)
236
(52)
252
(55)
286
(63)
250
(55)
266
(59)
35
312
(69)
277
(61)
293
(64)
332
(73)
294
(65)
311
(68)
351
(77)
311
(68)
329
(72)
42
349
(77)
318
(70)
333
(73)
371
(82)
338
(74)
354
(78)
392
(86)
358
(79)
374
(82)
49
366
(81)
347
(76)
357
(78)
389
(86)
369
(81)
379
(83)
412
(91)
391
(86)
401
(88)
56
370
(81)
365
(80)
368
(81)
393
(86)
388
(85)
391
(86)
416
(91)
410
(90)
414
(91)
Nipple Drinkers
Install nipple drinkers at 12 birds per nipple; supply additional supple-
mentary drinkers (6 per 1,000 chicks) for the first 3–4 days.
The actual number of birds per nipple will depend on flow rates, deple-
tion age, climate and design. Manage water lines daily for optimum
performance.
High water pressure in the drinker line can result in water waste and wet
litter. A low drinker line water pressure can result in a reduced water
intake and a subsequent reduction in feed intake.
Drinker line height should be started low at the beginning of the flock
and increased as the birds get older. Drinker lines that are too high can
restrict bird water consumption while water lines that are too low can
result in wet litter.
During the initial stages of brooding, place nipple lines at a height where
birds are most able to drink. The back of the chick should form a 35–45°
angle with the floor while drinking is in progress. As the bird grows,
the nipples should be raised so that the back of the bird forms an angle
of approximately 75–85° with the floor so that the birds are stretching
slightly for the water (Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2: Nipple drinker height adjustment
35°– 45° 75°– 85°
Figure 2.3: Example of a nipple drinker
Bell Drinkers
At day-old, provide a minimum of 6 bell drinkers of 40 cm (16 in)
diameter per 1,000 chicks; 6 mini-drinkers or plastic trays per 1,000 chicks
should also be available as an additional source of water.
As the broilers become older and the area of the house in use is expanded,
provide a minimum of 8 bell drinkers of 40 cm (16 in) in diameter per
1,000 chicks. Place these evenly throughout the house so that no broiler
is more than 2 m (6.6 ft) from water. As a guide, the water level should
be 0.6 cm (0.25 in) below the top of the drinker until approximately 7–10
days. After 10 days there should be 0.6 cm (0.25 in) of water in the base
of the drinker.
Within 3–4 days, gradually remove any additional mini-drinkers and
trays that were used at day-old so that all chicks are drinking from the
automatic drinkers. Minimum drinker requirements per 1000 birds post
brooding are given in the table below.
Table 2.5: Minimum drinker requirements per 1,000 birds post-brooding
Drinker Type Drinker Requirements
Bell drinkers 8 drinkers of 40 cm (16 in) diameter per
1,000 birds
Nipples 83 nipples per 1,000 birds (12 birds per
nipple, or for broilers >3 kg (6.6 lb) 9–10
birds per nipple)

23
Drinkers should be checked for height daily and adjusted so that the
base of each drinker is level with the base of the broilers back from day
18 onwards (Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4: Bell drinker height adjustment
Key Points
Drinking• water should be available to the birds 24 hours a day.
Provide supplementary drinkers for the first 4 days of a flocks life.•
Monitor the• feed to water ratio daily to check that water intake is
sufficient.
Make allowances for increased• water consumption at high
temperatures.
Flush drinker lines in• hot weather to ensure that the water is as
cool as possible.
Adjust drinker heights daily.•
Provide adequate drinker space and ensure that drinkers are easily•
accessible to all birds.
Feeding Systems
Provide sieved crumbs or mini-pellets for the first 10 days of the chicks’
life. Place feed in flat trays or on paper sheeting so that it is readily
accessible to the chicks. Cover at least 25% of the floor with paper.
Gradually make the change to the main feeding system over the first 2–3
days as chicks begin to show interest in the main system. If photoperiod
duration and pattern are used to modify growth, pay particular attention
to feeding space to allow for the extra competition created.
The birds’ actual diet will depend on live weight, depletion age, climate
and type of house and equipment construction.
Insufficient feeding space will reduce growth rates and cause poor unifor-
mity. The number of birds per feeding system will ultimately depend on
the desired live weight at slaughter and design of system.
The main automated feeding systems available for broilers are:
Pan feeders: 45–80 birds per pan (the lower ratio for bigger birds).•
Flat chain/auger: 2.5 cm per bird (40 birds per meter of track),•
1 inch per bird (12 birds per feet of track).
Tube feeders: 38 cm (15 in) diameter (70 birds per tube).•
Adjust all types of feeders to ensure minimum spillage and optimum
access for the birds. The base of the trough or pans should be level with
the birds’ backs (Figure 2.5). The height of pan and tube feeders may
have to be adjusted individually. The height of chain feeders is adjust-
able by winch.
Figure 2.5: Height of feeders
Incorrect feeder adjustment can increase feed spillage. When this hap-
pens, feed conversion estimates will become inaccurate and the spilled
feed is likely to carry a higher risk of bacterial contamination.
With all feeding systems it is good practice to allow the birds to clear the
feeders by consuming all the feed available in the tracks or pans once
daily. This will reduce feed wastage and improve efficiency of feed use.
Adjustment of feed depth is easier with chain feeder systems because
only a single adjustment to the hopper is required. Careful maintenance
of chain feeders will minimize incidence of leg damage.
Make adjustments to each individual feeder when using pan and tube
feeder systems.
The advantage of pan and tube feeders is that, if filled automatically,
feed will be immediately available to the birds. Feed distribution takes
longer to accomplish and feed is not immediately available when chain
feeders are used.
Uneven distribution of feed can result in lowered performance and
increased scratching damage associated with competition at feeders.
Key Points
Supplement the main feeding system using• paper and/or trays over
the first 3 days.
Supply sufficient feeders for the number of birds in the house.•
Increase• feeder space per bird if photoperiod duration and pattern
are modified to allow for increased competition at the feeder.
Adjust• feeder height daily so that the birds’ backs are level with
the base of the feeder.

24

25
Section 3 Health and Biosecurity
Section 3
Health and Biosecurity
Objective
To maximize ﬂock performance by minimizing or preventing poultry
diseases and infections of public health concern through good hus-
bandry, biosecurity and welfare practices.
Contents
Principles.....................................................................................26
Biosecurity...................................................................................26
Vaccination ..................................................................................27
Disease Investigation...................................................................27
Disease Recognition.....................................................................30

26
Principles
Bird health is of extreme importance in broiler production. Poor chick
health will have a negative impact on all aspects of production and flock
management including growth rate, feed conversion efficiency, condem-
nations, livability, and processing traits.
The flock should start with day-old chicks of good quality and health.
Source the chicks from a minimal number of breeder flocks with similar
health status; ideally, 1 source flock per house.
On-farm disease control programs involve:
Disease prevention.•
Early detection of ill• health.
Treatment of identified• disease conditions.
Regularly monitor production parameters for early detection and
targeted intervention. Early intervention in 1 flock will help prevent
disease in surrounding and successive flocks.
Review the production parameters closely and compare them with
company targets. Production parameters include birds dead on arrival
(D.O.A.), 7-day body weight, daily and weekly mortality, water con-
sumption, average daily gain, feed conversion efficiency and processing
condemnations. When monitored production parameters fail to meet
their established goals, a proper investigation should be conducted by
trained veterinary personnel.
Biosecurity and vaccination are fundamental to successful health man-
agement. Biosecurity to prevent the introduction of disease in the
first place and appropriate vaccination programs to address endemic
disease.
Biosecurity
A strong biosecurity program is critical to maintain flock health. Under-
standing and following agreed biosecurity practices must be part of
everyone’s job. Regular education and staff training is essential.
Biosecurity will prevent flock exposure to disease-causing organisms.
When developing a biosecurity program, 3 components should be con-
sidered:
Location:• Isolate farms from other poultry and livestock. Single-age
sites are preferable to limit recycling of pathogens and live vaccine
strains.
Farm design:• A barrier (fence) is necessary to prevent unauthorized
access. Design housing to minimize traffic flow and to facilitate
cleaning and disinfection. Construct housing to be bird and rodent
proof.
Operational procedures:• Prevent the introduction and spread of dis-
ease with procedures that control the movement of people, feed,
equipment and animals on the farm. Routine procedures may have
to be modified in the event of a change in disease status.
Many of the potential routes of disease exposure are presented in Figure
3.1.
Figure 3.1: Elements of disease exposure
Chicks
Other poultry,
livestock & pets
People
Litter
Insects
HatcheryEquipment
& vehicles
Wild birds
Water
Rodents
Housing
Feed
Key Points
Restrict• visitors.
Establish visitation requirements for any visitor, including a risk•
assessment protocol for that individual which must be completed
prior to entry.
Stipulate farm entry protocols, including a change of clothing and•
footwear for staff and visitors.
Provide a change of footwear or disposable boots at the entrance•
to every house.
Clean and disinfect all equipment before it is brought onto the•
farm.
Clean all vehicles prior to farm entry.•
Establish clear and implemented procedures for house• cleaning
and disinfection.
Establish clear and implemented procedures for• litter management
and disposal.
Reduce• pathogen carryover by allowing adequate down-time for
farm cleaning.
Establish clear and implemented procedures for• feed hygiene,
transport and delivery.
Establish clear and implemented procedures for• water manage-
ment and sanitation.
Establish an integrated• pest control program.
Establish procedures for dead bird• disposal.

27
Vaccination
Table 3.1 lays out some essential factors for successful vaccination of
broilers.
Table 3.1: Factors for a successful vaccination program
Vaccination
Program(s) Design
Vaccine
Administration
Vaccine Effectiveness
Programs must be
based on veterinary
advice tailored to
specific local and
regional challenges
established by
health surveys and
laboratory analysis.
Follow manufacturer
recommendations
for product handling
and method of
administration.
Seek veterinary
advice prior to
vaccinating sick or
stressed birds.
Carefully select single
or combined vaccines
according to age
and health status of
flocks.
Properly train vaccine
administrators
to handle and
administer vaccines.
Periodic and
efficient house
cleaning followed by
placement of new
litter material reduces
the concentration
of pathogens in the
environment.
Vaccination must
result in the
development of
consistent levels
of immunity while
minimizing potential
adverse effects.
Maintain vaccination
records.
Adequate down-
time between flocks
helps to reduce the
build-up of normal
house pathogens
that can affect flock
performance when
re-using litter.
Breeder programs
should provide
adequate and
uniform levels of
maternal antibodies
to protect chicks
against several viral
diseases during the
first weeks of life.
When live vaccines
are given in
chlorinated water,
use a vaccine
stabilizer (such as
non-fat powdered or
liquid milk) added to
the water prior to the
vaccine to neutralize
the chlorine. Chlorine
can reduce vaccine
titer or cause
inactivation.
Regular audits of
vaccine handling,
administration
techniques and post-
vaccinal responses
are critical to control
challenges and
improve performance.
Maternal antibodies
may interfere
with the chick’s
response to some
vaccine strains.
Levels of maternal
antibodies in broilers
will decline as the
breeder source flock
ages.
Ventilation and
management should
be optimized
post-vaccination,
especially during
times of vaccine-
induced reaction.
Key Points
• Vaccination alone cannot protect flocks against overwhelming dis-
ease challenges and poor management practices.
Develop vaccination programs for broilers in consultation with•
trained poultry veterinarians.
• Vaccination is more effective when disease challenges are mini-
mized through well-designed and implemented biosecurity and
management programs.
Base vaccination programs on local• disease challenges and vaccine
availability.
Every bird must receive the intended dose of vaccine.•
Breeder flock vaccination programs must be factored into the•
design of an appropriate vaccination program for broiler progeny.
Disease Investigation
Disease investigation requires knowledge of what to expect at what age
and how to detect what is abnormal for the flock.
When health problems are seen or suspected in broiler flocks, seek
veterinary advice at the earliest possible opportunity.
When investigating the cause of disease, take care in associating a bacte-
rium or virus isolated from the infected flock as the cause of the disease.
Ill health arises from a wide variety of causes and interactions.
Many non-pathogenic bacteria or viruses may also be isolated from
healthy broilers.
Continuous improvement of broiler health within a broiler operation
requires good record keeping and sample collection throughout the lives
of the flocks and across the whole production process.
It is helpful to keep up-to-date with local and regional health concerns in
order to prepare for the unexpected.
A systematic approach is helpful when troubleshooting health issues on
the farm.
These are the things to look at:
Feed: availability, consumption, distribution, palatability, nutri-•
tional content, contaminants and toxins, and withdrawal.
Light: adequate for efficient• growth and development, uniform
exposure and intensity.
Litter: moisture level,• ammonia level, pathogen load, toxins and
contaminants, depth, material used, distribution.
Air: speed, contaminants and toxins,• humidity, temperature, avail-
ability, barriers.
Water: source, contaminants and toxins, additives, availability,•
pathogen load, consumption.
• Space: bird density, feed availability, water availability, limiting
obstacles, limiting equipment.
Sanitation:• hygiene of premises (inside and outside of house), pest
control, maintenance, cleaning and disinfection practices.
• Security: biosecurity risks.

28
Table 3.2: Troubleshooting common issues in the 0–7 day brooding phase
Observe Investigate Likely Causes
Poor chick quality
Increased dead on arrivals-
(D.O.A.’s)
Sluggish chick- behavior
General chick appearance:-
unhealed navels, red hocks/
beaks, dark wrinkled legs,
discolored or malodorous
yolks or navels
Feed, Sanitation, Air and Water
Source flock- health and hygiene status
Egg- handling, storage and transport
- Hatchery sanitation, incubation, and
management
Chick- processing, handling and transport
Inadequate diet of source flock-
Health and- hygiene status of source flock, hatchery and
equipment
Incorrect parameters for egg storage, relative- humidity,
temperatures and equipment management
Inadequate- moisture loss during incubation
Dehydration caused by excessive spread of hatch time or late-
removal of chicks from the hatchers
Small chicks days 1–4 Feed, Light, Air, Water and Space
- Crop fill at 24 hours post chick placement
Availability and accessibility to- feed and water
Bird comfort and- welfare
Less than 95% of chicks with adequate crop fill by 24 hours post-
placement
Weak chicks-
Inadequate feeders and drinkers-
Inadequate- feed and water levels
Equipment location and maintenance issues-
Inappropriate- brooding temperature and environment
Runted and Stunted Chicks
Small birds, as early as 4-7-
days
Feed, Light, Litter, Air, Water, Space, Sanitation
and Security
- Flock source
Hydration status of chicks-
Brooding conditions-
Feed quality and accessibility-
- Down-time between flocks
Disease challenge-
Flock source variation-
Dehydration of the chicks-
Poor quality- feed
Poor quality- brooding conditions
Short down-times between flocks-
Inadequate- cleaning and disinfection
Disease-
Poor- biosecurity and hygiene practices
Tables 3.2 and 3.3 highlight examples of mortality parameters possibly related to bird quality and bird health. The Tables also suggest potential investigative
actions using the systematic approach previously outlined.

29
Table 3.3: Troubleshooting common issues subsequent to 7 days of age
Observe Investigate Likely Causes
Disease
metabolic-
bacterial-
viral-
- fungal
- protozoal
- parasitic
- toxins
Stress
Feed, Light, Litter, Air, Water, Space, Sanitation and Security
Broiler farm- hygiene
Local- disease challenge
- Vaccination and disease prevention strategies
Feed quality and supply-
Lighting and- ventilation
Potential stressors
Temperature-
Management-
Immunosuppressive- disorders
Poor environmental conditions-
Poor- biosecurity
High- disease challenge
Low- disease protection
Inadequate or improper implementation of-
disease prevention
Poor feed quality-
Inadequate feed supply-
Excessive or insufficient ventilation-
Inadequate farm management-
Inadequate equipment-
Inadequate bird comfort and welfare-
High number of birds D.O.A. to
the processing plant
High plant condemnation rate
Feed, Light, Litter, Air, Water, Space, Sanitation and Security
Flock records and data-
Health status of flock-
History of flock during the grow-out period (such as- feed,
water or power outages)
Potential equipment hazards on the farm-
Bird- handling by the catchers, handlers and haulers
Experience and- training level of individuals handling and
hauling birds
Conditions during- catching and hauling (such as weather
and equipment)
Health issues during grow-out-
Management of relevant historical events-
affecting bird health and welfare
Improper bird- handling and hauling by crews
Harsh conditions (weather or equipment related)-
during handling, catching or transport to the
processing plant
Key Points
Know what to expect and be alert to deviations from the expected.•
Observe; Investigate; Identify; Act.•
Use a systematic approach.•

30
Disease Recognition
The recognition of health problems involves several steps.
In diagnosing a disease problem, and planning and implementing a con-
trol strategy, it is important to remember that the more thorough the
investigation, the more thorough the diagnosis and the more effective
the controlling actions.
Early disease recognition is critical.
Table 3.4 highlights some of the ways in which signs of disease can be
recognized.
Table 3.4: Recognizing signs of disease
Observations by Farm
Personnel
Farm and Laboratory
Monitoring
Data and Trend
Analysis
Daily assessment of
bird behavior
Regular farm
visitation
Daily and weekly
mortality
Bird appearance
(such as feathering,
size, uniformity,
coloring)
Routine post-mortem
examinations of
normal, as well as
diseased birds
Water and Feed
Consumption
Environmental
changes (such as
litter quality, heat
or cold stress,
ventilation issues)
Proper sample
collection size and
type
Proper choice of
subsequent analysis
and actions following
post-mortem
examination
Temperature trends
Clinical signs of
illness (such as
respiratory noise or
distress, depression,
fecal droppings,
vocalization)
Routine
microbiological
testing of farms,
feed, litter, birds and
other appropriate
material
D.O.A.’s after
placement on the
farm, or after arrival
at the processing
plant
Flock uniformity Appropriate
diagnostic testing
Appropriate serology
Condemnation at
slaughter
Key Points
Daily observation.•
Accurate recording.•
Systematic• disease monitoring.

31
Section 4 Housing and Environment
Section 4
Housing and Environment
Objective
To provide an environment that permits the bird to achieve optimum
performance in growth rate, uniformity, feed efﬁciency and yield
without compromising the health and welfare of the bird.
Contents
Principles.....................................................................................32
Housing and Ventilation Systems ................................................. 33
Minimum Ventilation Systems......................................................34
Transitional Ventilation Systems................................................... 35
Tunnel Ventilation Systems .......................................................... 35
Evaporative Cooling Systems........................................................36
Lighting for Broilers......................................................................36
Litter Management.......................................................................38
Stocking Density ..........................................................................39

32
Principles
Ventilation control is the principle means of controlling bird environment.
It is essential to deliver a constant and uniform supply of good quality air
at bird level. Fresh air is required at all stages of growth to allow the bird
to remain in good health and achieve full potential.
Ventilation helps to maintain in-house temperatures within the birds’
comfort zone. During the early part of the production period keeping
birds warm enough is the primary concern, but as they grow keeping
them cool enough becomes the main objective.
The housing and ventilation systems used will depend upon climate, but
in all cases effective ventilation should remove excess heat and moisture,
provide oxygen and improve air quality by removing harmful gases.
Sensors that monitor ammonia, carbon dioxide, relative humidity and
temperature are available commercially and can be used in conjunction
with automated ventilation systems.
As broilers grow they consume oxygen and produce waste gases and
water vapor. Combustion by brooders contributes further waste gases in
the broiler house. The ventilation system must remove these waste gases
from the house and deliver good air quality.
Air
The main contaminants of air within the house environment are dust,
ammonia, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and excess water vapor.
When in excess, they damage the respiratory tract, decreasing the efﬁ-
ciency of respiration and reducing bird performance.
Continued exposure to contaminated and moist air may trigger disease
(e.g. ascites or chronic respiratory disease), affect temperature regula-
tion, and contribute to poor litter quality, as shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Effects of common broiler house air contaminants
Ammonia Can be detected by smell at 20 ppm or above
>10 ppm will damage lung surface
>20 ppm will increase susceptibility to
respiratory diseases
>50 ppm will reduce growth rate
Carbon Dioxide >3500 ppm causes ascites and is fatal at high
levels
Carbon Monoxide 100 ppm reduces oxygen binding and is fatal at
high levels
Dust Damage to respiratory tract lining and increased
susceptibility to disease
Humidity Effects vary with temperature. At >29°C (84°F)
and >70% relative humidity, growth will be
affected
Water
Birds produce a substantial volume of water, which passes into the
environment and must be removed by ventilation (while maintaining
required air temperatures). A 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) bird will consume some
7.5 kg (16.5 lb) of water in its lifetime and emit into the house atmo-
sphere some 5.7 kg (12 lb) of water. This indicates that for 10,000 birds
some 57 metric tonnes (62 tons) of water is lost into the environment as
expired moisture into the air or excreted in droppings. This water load
must be removed by the house ventilation system during the life of the
ﬂock. If water consumption is elevated for any reason, the requirement
for moisture removal will be even greater than this.
Heat Stress
The normal body temperature of a broiler chicken is approximately 41°C
(106°F). When the environmental temperature exceeds 35°C (95°F), the
broiler is likely to experience heat stress.
The longer the broiler is exposed to high temperatures, the greater the
stress and its effects. Figure 4.1 refers to the relationship between envi-
ronmental temperature and exposure.
Figure 4.1: Relationship between environmental temperature, exposure
time and body temperature
Broilers regulate their body temperature by two methods; sensible and
insensible heat loss. Between 13–25°C (55–77°F), sensible heat loss
occurs as physical radiation and convection to the cooler environment.
When the temperature rises above 30°C (86°F) insensible heat loss occurs
through evaporative cooling and panting and increased respiration rate.
The relationship between the two types of heat loss and environmental
temperature is illustrated in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Heat loss in broilers
Heat Loss %
Environmental
Temperature
Sensible
(Radiation & Convection)
Insensible
(Evaporation)
25°C (77°F) 77 23
30°C (86°F) 74 26
35°C (95°F) 10 90
45.0°C (113.0°F)
44.4°C (111.9°F)
43.9°C (111.0°F)
43.3°C (109.9°F)
42.8°C (109.0°F)
42.2°C (107.9°F)
41.7°C (107.1°F)
41.1°C (106.0°F)
BodyTemperature
170
150
130
110
90
70
50
30
RespirationRateperMinute
0 1 2 3 4 5
Hours Exposure
Death
35.0°C (95.0°F)
37.8°C (100.0°F)
40.6°C (105.1°F)
43.3°C (109.9°F)
Temperature of
Environment
32.2°C (90.0°F)
29.7°C (85.5°F)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Hours Exposure

33
Panting allows the bird to control its body temperature by evaporation
of water from the respiratory surfaces and air sacs. This process uses
energy. In conditions of high humidity panting is less effective. Where
high temperatures are maintained for long periods or humidity is high,
panting may be insufficient to control body temperature and the bird
may then experience heat stress. As the bird passes into a condition of
heat stress, vent temperature increases, heart rate and metabolic rate
increases and oxygenation of the blood decreases. The physiological
stress induced by these reactions can be fatal.
If the birds appear to be panting then general house temperature may be
too high, or local house temperature may be elevated due to a problem
with uniformity of the air distribution.
To reduce heat stress:
Reduce• stocking density.
Ensure cool, fresh, low-salt drinking water• is available at all times.
Feed during the coolest part of the day.•
Increase• airflow over the bird to 2–3 m/sec (400–600 ft/min).
Minimize the effects of• radiant heat from the sun.
Reduce effects of excessive temperatures by placing sexes sepa-•
rately at lower stocking densities.
Housing and Ventilation Systems
There are 2 basic types of ventilation system; natural and power:
Natural (Open-sided Housing), which can be:
Non-mechanically assisted
Mechanically assisted
Power (Controlled Environment Housing), which can be:
Minimum
Transitional & Tunnel
Evaporative pad
Fogging/misting
Natural Ventilation: Open-sided Housing
Natural ventilation refers to an open-sided house with curtains, flaps or
doors (Figure 4.2). Natural ventilation involves opening up the side of
the house to allow convection currents to flow air into and through the
house. Sidewall curtains are the most common and therefore natural ven-
tilation is often referred to as curtain ventilation. When it gets warm, the
curtains are opened to let in outside air. When it gets cold, the curtains
are closed to restrict the flow of air.
Figure 4.2: Example of natural ventilation
Curtain ventilation requires continuous, 24-hour management if house
environment is to be satisfactorily controlled. The constant monitoring
of conditions and adjustment of curtains is required to compensate for
changes in temperature, humidity, wind velocity and wind direction.
Open-sided, naturally-ventilated housing is now less popular because
of its high management demand and controlled environment housing is
seen as delivering better livability, growth rate, feed conversion efficiency
and bird comfort.
When open, house curtains allow a large volume of outside air through
the house, equalizing inside and outside conditions. Curtain ventilation
is ideal only when outside temperature is close to the target house tem-
perature.
The air exchange rate depends on outside winds, and fan assistance
improves the efficacy of air circulation. On warm to hot days with little
wind, fans provide a wind chill cooling effect. Foggers or misters should
be used with circulation fans to add a second level of cooling.
In cold weather, when curtain openings are small, heavy outside air
enters at low speed and drops immediately to the floor which can chill
the birds and create wet litter. At the same time, warmer air escapes from
the house which results in large temperature swings. In cold weather,
circulation fans help to mix incoming cold air with in-house warm air. In
cool climates, automatic curtain operation is recommended with sidewall
fans also operated by timers with thermostat overrides.
Power Ventilation Systems: Controlled Environment Housing
Power or negative pressure ventilation is the most popular ventilation
method used to control house environment. Better control over air
exchange rates and airflow patterns provide more uniform conditions
throughout the house.
Power ventilated systems use electric exhaust fans to draw air out of the
house and so create a lower pressure within the house than that outside
the house (Figure 4.3). This creates a partial vacuum (negative or static
pressure) inside the house so that outside air can pass in through con-
trolled openings in the sidewalls. The speed at which air enters a house
is determined by the amount of vacuum within the house. This, in turn,
is a function of fan capacity and air inlet area.

34
Figure 4.3: Example of power ventilation
Matching the amount of sidewall openings to the number of exhaust fans
in operation is the key to achieving correct negative (or static) pressure.
Mechanical controls will automatically adjust inlet openings to the num-
ber of fans running. The amount of negative pressure generated can be
monitored by a hand-held or wall-mounted static pressure gauge.
As broilers grow, ventilation rates must be increased. Set additional auto-
matically-controlled fans to begin operating as needed. This is achieved by
equipping the house with temperature sensors or thermostats placed in
the center of the house or (preferably) at multiple points at bird level.
Negative pressure ventilation can be operated in 3 different modes
according to the ventilation needs of the birds:
Minimum• ventilation.
Transitional• ventilation.
Tunnel• ventilation.
With any powered system, a standby emergency generator is required.
Minimum Ventilation Systems
Minimum ventilation is used for cooler weather and for small birds such
as chicks. The aim of minimum ventilation is to maintain required air
temperature while bringing in fresh air and exhausting in-house stale
air so that there is a sufficient removal of excess moisture and harmful
gases.
Temperature
Temperature requirements for chicks up to 21 days are given in Section
1 of this manual (Chick Management). Guideline temperatures at chick
level fall from a recommendation of around 30°C (86°F) at day-old, to 20°C
(68°F) at 27 days. Subsequently, the recommendation is for 20°C (68°F)
through to slaughter. Actual and effective temperatures will, of course,
vary from these guidelines according to circumstance and chick behavior
as detailed here and in Section 1.
Ventilation
It is essential to ventilate the house for at least some minimum amount
of time no matter what the outside temperature. Table 4.3 gives typical
minimum ventilation rates for a 20,000 bird house.
Table 4.3: Minimum ventilation rates (20,000 bird house)
Bird age
(days)
Cubic meters/hour/bird
(Cubic feet/minute/bird)
Total cubic meters/hour
(Total cubic feet/minute)
1–7
0.16
(0.10)
3,200
(2,000)
8–14
0.42
(0.25)
8,400
(5,000)
15–21
0.59
(0.35)
11,800
(7,000)
22–28
0.84
(0.50)
16,800
(10,000)
29–35
0.93
(0.55)
18,600
(13,000)
36–42
1.18
(0.70)
23,600
(14,000)
43–49
1.35
(0.80)
27,000
(16,000)
50–56
1.52
(0.90)
30,400
(18,000)
The key to successful minimum ventilation is creating a partial vacuum
(negative pressure) so air comes through all inlets at sufficient speed.
This will ensure that incoming air is mixed with warm in-house air above
the birds rather than dropping directly onto the birds and chilling them.
The speed of incoming air should be the same through all inlets to ensure
uniform airflow.
This type of ventilation is preferably timer-driven, calculated as shown
below. As birds grow or as outside air temperatures increase, the timer
should be overridden to provide adequate ventilation according to bird
needs. The override should be activated by thermostats set to operate for
each 1°C (2°F) rise in temperature.
Calculation for Minimum Ventilation Fan Timer Settings
To determine the interval fan timer settings for achieving minimum venti-
lation the following steps are employed. All these steps are laid out with
example calculations in Appendix 7:
• Obtain the appropriate minimum ventilation rate as
recommended in Appendix 7. The exact rates will vary with
breed, sex and for each individual poultry house. The rates given
in Appendix 7 are for
temperatures between -1 and 16°C (30–61°F); for lower tempera-
tures a slightly lower rate may be required and for higher tempera-
tures a slightly higher rate.

35
Calculate the total• ventilation rate required for the house (total
cubic meters per hour (cmh), or total cubic feet per minute (cfm))
as:
Total minimum = Minimum ventilation x Number of birds
ventilation rate per bird in the house
Calculate the percentage time for running the• fans as:
Percentage of time = Total ventilation needed
Total capacity of the fans used
Multiply the percentage of time needed by the total• fan timer cycle
to give the time that the fans require to be on in each cycle (for
example, 105 seconds in every 5 minutes).
Key Points
Minimum• ventilation is used for young chicks, night time or winter
ventilation.
It is essential to provide some• ventilation to the house no matter
what the outside temperature is, to provide fresh air and remove
waste gases and excess moisture.
Minimum• ventilation should be timer-driven.
Transitional Ventilation Systems
Transitional ventilation operates using 2 ventilation principles based on
the outside temperature and the age of the birds. It is used where both
hot and cold periods are experienced.
Whereas minimum ventilation is timer-driven, transitional ventilation is
temperature-driven.
Transitional ventilation begins when a higher than minimum air exchange
rate is required. That is, whenever temperature sensors or thermostats
override the minimum ventilation timer to keep fans running.
Transitional ventilation works in the same way as minimum ventilation,
but a larger fan capacity gives a larger volume of air exchange. Successful
transitional ventilation requires sidewall inlets linked to a static pressure
controller so heat can be removed without switching to tunnel ventila-
tion. Usually, transitional ventilation may be used when outside tempera-
ture is not greater than 6°C (10°F) above the target house temperature, or
if the outside temperature is not greater than 6°C (10°F) below the target
house temperature. If outside temperature is more than 6°C (10°F) above
the target house temperature, then the fans used for transitional ventila-
tion will not provide adequate cooling and tunnel ventilation will need to
be employed. If outside temperature is more than 6°C (10°F) below the
target house temperature, then the fans used for transitional ventilation
will risk chilling the birds.
Key Points
Transitional• ventilation is temperature-driven based on the outside
temperature and the age of the birds.
Transitional• ventilation is used when a higher than minimum air
exchange is required.
In general, transitional• ventilation may be used when outside tem-
perature is not greater than +/- 6°C (10°F) of target house tempera-
ture.
Tunnel Ventilation Systems
Tunnel ventilation keeps birds comfortable in warm to hot weather and
where large birds are being grown by using the cooling effect of high-
velocity airflow.
Tunnel ventilation provides maximum air exchange and creates a wind
chill cooling effect. Each 122 cm (48 in) fan for birds under 4 weeks of
age will generate a wind chill of 1.4°C (2.5°F). For birds over 4 weeks, this
figure drops to 0.7°C (1.3°F).
The effective temperature felt by the birds falls as air velocity increases.
The rate of fall is twice as great for younger birds as compared to older
birds. Thus, with outside air at 32°C (90°F), an air velocity of 1 m/sec
(200 ft/min) will cause a younger (4 week old) bird to feel an effective
temperature of about 29°C (84°F). If air velocity increases to 2.5 m/sec
(500 ft/min), the same bird will feel an effective temperature of about
22°C (72°F), a fall of 7°C (12°F). In the case of an older bird (7 weeks),
the fall is about half of that (around 4°C or 7°F).
Bird behavior is the best way to assess bird comfort. If the house design
only permits tunnel ventilation, then considerable caution should be
practiced with young chicks which are prone to wind chill effects. For
young chicks, actual floor air speed should be less than 0.15 m/sec
(30 ft/min), or as low as possible.
In tunnel houses, birds will tend to migrate toward the air inlet end in hot
conditions. Where airflow is correct, temperature differences between
inlets and exits should not be large. Installing migration fences at 30 m
(100 ft) intervals prior to 21 days of age will prevent bird migration prob-
lems. Avoid solid migration fences as they will restrict airflow.
Key Points
Tunnel• ventilation is used in warm to hot weather or where large
birds are grown.
Cooling is achieved through high-velocity airflow.•
Use bird• behavior to assess if environmental conditions are correct.
Care should be taken with young chicks which are prone to• wind
chill.
Consider installation of• migration fences.

36
Evaporative Cooling Systems
Tunnel ventilation is well-suited to the addition of an evaporative cooling
system because of the high-velocity airflow of tunnel ventilation. Evapo-
rative cooling is used to improve environmental conditions in hot weather
and enhances the efficiency of tunnel ventilation. Evaporative cooling
systems use the principle of water evaporation to reduce the temperature
in the house.
Evaporative cooling is best implemented to maintain a required tempera-
ture in the house, rather than to reduce temperatures that have already
become stressfully high.
The 3 factors which directly affect evaporative cooling are:
Outside• air temperature.
Relative• humidity (RH) of outside air.
Evaporation efficiency.•
There are 2 primary types of evaporative cooling systems; pad cooling
with tunnel ventilation and Fogging or Misting.
Pad Cooling with Tunnel Ventilation
Pad cooling systems cool air by drawing it through wetted cellulose pads
(see Figure 4.4). The dual effect of pad cooling and air speed allows
control of environment when house temperatures are above 29°C (84°F).
Excessively high house humidity can be minimized by making sure that
evaporative cooling pads/fogging systems do not operate at temperatures
below 27°C (81°F) in areas where the ambient humidity is high (greater
than 80%).
Figure 4.4: Pad cooling with tunnel ventilation
Fogging/Misting
Fogging systems cool incoming air by evaporation of water created by
pumping water through fogger nozzles. Place fogging lines near the air
inlets to maximize the speed of evaporation and add additional lines
throughout the house.
There are 3 types of fogging systems:
Low pressure; 100–200 psi (7–14 bar); droplet size up to 30•
microns.
High pressure; 400–600 psi (28–41 bar); droplet size 10–15•
microns.
Ultra high pressure (misting); 700–1,000 psi (48-69 bar); droplet•
size 5 microns.
With low pressure systems, larger particle sizes can cause wet litter if
house humidity is high. High pressure systems minimize residual mois-
ture giving an extended humidity range. Fine droplet size will help avoid
wet litter which is especially important during the brooding period.
Key Points
Keep• fans, foggers, evaporators and inlets clean.
Evaporative• cooling is used to enhance tunnel ventilation in hot
weather.
There are• 2 types of systems: pad cooling and fogging/misting.
Pad• cooling draws air through wetted cellulose pads and allows
control of the environment when house temperatures are above
29°C (84°F).
Fogging systems cool incoming air by evaporation of water pumped•
through foggers. High pressure systems minimize residual mois-
ture.
Lighting for Broilers
A lighting program should be simple in design. Complicated lighting pro-
grams can be difficult to implement successfully. Lighting recommen-
dations are subject to local legislation and these should be taken into
account before starting a program.
Light is an important management technique in broiler production. There
are at least 4 important aspects:
• Wavelength (color).
Intensity.•
Photoperiod length.•
Photoperiod distribution (intermittent programs).•
Photoperiod length and distribution have interactive effects.
Many broiler growers use a lighting program that provides what is essen-
tially continuous lighting. This system consists of a long continuous light
period followed by a short dark period of 30–60 minutes. This short period
of dark is to allow birds to become accustomed to darkness should a
power failure occur.
Continuous lighting has, in the past, been assumed to help maximize
daily live-weight gain; but this assumption is not correct.
Exposure to darkness influences bird productivity, health, hormonal
profiles, metabolic rate, heat production, metabolism, physiology and
behavior.
Recent information indicates that darkness exposure:
Reduces• early growth (but there may be later compensatory growth
that can enable birds to catch up to equal target market weights;
but only if the duration of darkness is not excessive. For broilers
processed at low body weights [e.g. <1.6 kg/3.5 lb] compensatory
growth may not be achieved due to insufficient grow-out time).
Airflow
Hot Air
Evaporative
Cooling PadWater for Recirculation
Cooled Air
Entering House
Water

37
Improves feed• efficiency due to reduced metabolism during dark-
ness and/or a change in the growth curve (i.e. a more concave
growth curve).
Improves bird• health by reducing sudden death syndrome (SDS),
ascites and skeletal disorders.
Affects• carcass yield with
A decrease in the proportion of breast meat.-
An increase in the proportion of leg portions.-
An unpredictable change (more, or less, or none) in abdominal-
fat.
All lighting programs should provide for a long day length such as 23
hours light and 1 hour dark in the early stages of growth to 7 days of age.
This ensures chicks have good feed intake. Reducing day length too soon
will reduce feeding activity and depress 7-day body weight.
When comparing various wavelengths of monochromatic light at the same
light intensity, broiler growth rate appears to be better when exposed to
wavelengths of 415-560 nm (violet to green) than in those exposed to >635
nm (red) or broad spectrum (white) light.
A light intensity of 30–40 lux (3–4 foot candles) from 0–7 days of life and
5–10 lux (0.5–1.0 foot candles) thereafter will improve feeding activity and
growth. The intensity of light should be uniformly distributed throughout
the house (reflectors placed on top of lights can improve the distribution
of light).
The European Union lighting requirements are based on Council Directive
2007/43/EC. These stipulate that a light intensity of at least 20 lux (2 foot
candles) during the light period must be provided at all ages.
To attain a state of darkness, a light intensity of less than 0.4 lux (0.04
foot candles) should be achieved during the dark period. During darkness
exposure, take care to avoid light seepage through air inlets, fan hous-
ings and door frames. Conduct regular tests to check the effectiveness
of light proofing.
All birds should have equal, free and ad libitum access to nutritionally
adequate feed and water as soon as the lights are switched on (see
Section 2: Provision of Feed and Water).
Broilers will adapt their feeding behavior in response to reduced day
length. For example, a change in day length from 24 to 12 hours of light
will initially cause chicks to reduce feed intake by 30–40% during the first
3 days. However, as soon as 8 days later, the reduction in feed intake
can be less than 10%. Broilers change their pattern of feeding in the light
period by filling their crops in anticipation of the dark period. When the
lights come back on they will do the same again. Birds sent for slaugh-
ter at younger ages have less time to adapt their eating and drinking
behaviors in response to darkness exposure than do those slaughtered
at correspondingly older ages. Thus the effects of darkness exposure on
live performance are more pronounced in broilers slaughtered at younger
ages.
Lighting program guidance based on slaughter weight target is provided
in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Basic light intensity and photoperiod recommendations to
optimize live performance
Live weight at
slaughter
Age (days) Intensity (lux)
(foot candles)
Day length
(hours)
Less than 2.5 kg
(5.5 lb)
0–7
8–3 days before
slaughter*
30–40 (3–4)
5–10 (0.5–1.0)
23 light/1 dark
20 light/4 dark**
More than 2.5 kg
(5.5 lb)
0-7
8-3 days before
slaughter*
30–40 (3–4)
5–10 (0.5–1.0)
23 light/1 dark
18 light/6 dark
* For at least the last 3 days before slaughter, 23 hours light and 1 hour dark should be
provided.
** EU Broiler Welfare Directive requires a total of 6 hours darkness, with at least 1 uninter-
rupted period of darkness of at least 4 hours.
Abnormal feeding and drinking behaviors due to sleep deprivation.•
Sub-optimal biological performance.•
Reduced bird• welfare.
In hot weather conditions, and where environmental control capability
is not available, time the period without artificial light to maximize bird
comfort. For example, when birds are reared in open-sided housing with
no environmental control capability, feed is often removed for a time
period during the heat of the day and continuous lighting is provided at
night to allow birds to feed during this cooler period.
Broilers benefit from a defined pattern of light and dark (day and night)
by having distinct time periods for rest and for activity. A number of
important physiological processes, such as bone mineralization and
digestion, normally exhibit diurnal rhythms. Therefore, defined cycles of
light and dark allow broilers to experience natural patterns of growth and
development.
Subsequent to feeding, normal gut passage time in the broiler is approxi-
mately 4 hours. Thus, exposure to darkness for more than 6 consecu-
tive hours may encourage overly-aggressive feeding behavior when the
lights come back on. This may result in an increase in skin scratches, an
increase in condemnations and a reduction in carcass grade at the meat
processing plant.
Additionally, darkness exposure beyond 4 hours will:
Reduce breast• meat yield.
Increase leg• meat yield.
This phenomenon is important to farmers who produce broilers for
deboning.
Growel Agrovet does not recommend continuous lighting for the life of
the broiler flock. Provide a minimum 4 hours of darkness after 7 days of
age. Failure to provide at least 4 hour of darkness will result in:

38
Photoperiod distribution can also be modified and this is referred to as
an intermittent program. An intermittent program consists of blocks of
time containing both light and dark periods, which are repeated through-
out the 24 hours. The benefit of such a program is that in giving broil-
ers discrete meals (i.e. short feeding periods) followed by periods for
digestion (i.e. dark periods), the efficiency of feed utilization (i.e. FCR)
is improved. The extra activity caused by the regular pattern of light and
dark is thought to be beneficial in improving leg health and carcass qual-
ity (e.g. lower incidence of hockburn and breast blisters). If intermittent
lighting programs are used, the protocol should be designed as simply as
possible to allow for practical implementation.
The extent of the effect of the lighting program upon broiler production
is influenced by:
The time of program application (early application being most•
effective in benefiting bird health).
Age at marketing (older birds being likely to benefit more from•
darkness exposure).
Environment (the effects of increased• stocking density will be
exacerbated by longer darkness exposure).
Nutrition (the effects of limited• feeder space will be made worse by
longer darkness exposure).
Rate of bird• growth (the impact of lighting on health will be greater
in rapidly growing birds than in birds fed nutritionally limiting
diets).
Several types of light sources can be used for broilers and the most com-
mon types are:
Incandescent lights:• these provide a good spectral range, but are
not energy efficient. However, incandescent lights with higher
lumen output per watt will help reduce operating costs.
Fluorescent lights:• these produce 3 to 5 times the amount of light
per watt compared to incandescent lights, but fluorescent lights
lose intensity over time and must be replaced before actually fail-
ing. Fluorescent lighting provides significant savings in electricity
costs after the additional installation costs have been recovered.
There are no differences between these light sources as far as broiler
performance is concerned. Bulbs and reflectors must be cleaned regu-
larly for maximum effectiveness.
Key Points
Keep it simple.•
Continuous, or near continuous, lighting is not optimal.•
Chicks up to 7 days of age should have 23 hours• light (30–40 lux,
3–4 foot candles) and 1 hour dark.
After 7 days of age a period of darkness of 4 hours or more (but•
never more than 6 hours) is likely to be beneficial.
The hours of darkness chosen will depend upon circumstances and•
market requirement.
Many aspects of production management interact with the light-•
ing program and modify the effects of lighting pattern on bird
performance.
Litter Management
Local economics and raw material availability will dictate the choice of
litter material used. Litter should provide:
Good moisture absorption.•
Biodegradability.•
Bird comfort.•
Low• dust level.
Freedom from contaminants.•
Consistent availability from a biosecure source.•
Evenly distribute soft wood shaving material to a depth of 8–10 cm
(3–4 in). Where floor temperatures are adequate (28–30°C/82–86°F) the
litter depth can be reduced where litter disposal is an issue. Concrete
floors are preferable to earth floors since they are washable and allow
more effective litter management. The characteristics of some common
litter materials are given in Table 4.5.

39
Table 4.5: Characteristics of common litter materials
Material Characteristics
New white wood shavings Good absorption and breakdown
Possible contamination by toxic
insecticides and other chemical
compounds (giving a musty
taint)
Chopped straw Wheat straw is preferred
Possible contamination by
agrochemicals, fungi and
mycotoxins
Slow to break down
Best used 50/50 with white wood
shavings
Shredded paper Can be difficult to manage in
humid conditions
Glossy paper is not suitable
Chaff and hulls Not very absorbent
Best mixed with other materials
May be ingested
Sawdust Not suitable
Dusty, and may be ingested
Chemically treated straw pellets Use as recommended by supplier
Sand Can be used in arid areas on
concrete floors
If too deep bird movement may
be impeded
Needs good management
Peat moss Can be successfully used
It is important that the litter is kept loose and dry throughout the life of
the flock. If the litter becomes caked or too wet, the incidence of carcass
downgrades can increase substantially.
The main causes of poor litter quality are given below.
Figure 4.5: Reasons for poor quality litter
Key Points
Protect broilers from damage and provide a dry warm covering to•
the floor by using adequate quantities of a good quality litter mate-
rial.
Avoid nutritional causes of• wet litter.
Ensure adequate• ventilation and avoid excess moisture.
Choose a• litter material that is absorbent, non-dusty and clean.
Litter should be readily available at a low cost from a reliable•
source.
Use fresh• litter for each crop to prevent re-infection by pathogens.
Protect• litter storage facilities from the weather and secure from
access by vermin and wild birds.
Stocking Density
Stocking density is ultimately a decision based on economics and local
welfare legislation.
Stocking density influences bird welfare, broiler performance, uniformity
and product quality.
Overstocking increases the environmental pressures on the broiler, com-
promises bird welfare and will ultimately reduce profitability.
Quality of housing and the environmental control system determine the
best stocking density. If stocking density is increased, ventilation, feed-
ing space and drinker availability must be adjusted.
The floor area needed for each broiler will depend on:
Target• live weight and age at slaughter.
Climate and season.•
Type and system of housing and equipment; particularly•
ventilation.
Local legislation.•
Quality assurance certification requirements.•
In certain regions of the world the legislation of stocking density is
based simply on kg/m (lb/ft). An example of this would be based on EU
recommendations.
Within the European Union, stocking densities are based on the EU Broiler
Welfare Directive:
33 kg/m• 2
(6.7 lb/ft2
) or
39 kg/m• 2
(8 lb/ft2
) if stricter welfare standards are met or
42 kg/m• 2
(8.6 lb/ft2
) if exceptionally high welfare standards are
met over a prolonged period.
Welfare standards refer to adequate provision of feed and water, sustain-
able good indoor climatic conditions and minimal incidence of foot pad
dermatitis.
POOR LITTER QUALITY
Poor quality litter material
or insufficient depth
Drinker design
and adjustment
Poor ventilation
High salt,
protein diets
High stocking density
High humidity
Enteritis due
to disease
Poor quality fats

40
An alternative best practice recommendation, based on bird husbandry,
takes into account bird number and bird mass in the ﬂoor area. An
example of this would be based on USA recommendations. This recom-
mendation is shown in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6: Guide to stocking densities according to bird numbers and live
weight (USA recommendations)
Bird live weight
kg (lb)
Square feet per
bird
Birds/m2
(Birds/ft2
)
Bird weight
kg/m2
(lb/ft2
)
1.36 (3.0) 0.50 21.5 (2.0) 29.2 (5.99)
1.82 (4.0) 0.70 15.4 (1.4) 28.0 (5.73)
2.27 (5.0) 0.85 12.7 (1.2) 28.8 (5.91)
2.73 (6.0) 0.90 12.0 (1.1) 32.7 (6.70)
3.18 (7.0) 1.00 10.8 (1.0) 34.3 (7.04)
3.63 (8.0) 1.15 9.4 (0.9) 34.1 (6.99)
Stocking Density in Hot Climates
In hot conditions, the stocking density used will depend on ambient tem-
perature and humidity. Make appropriate changes in accordance with
house type and equipment capabilities.
Example stocking densities used in hot conditions are as follows:
In houses with controlled• environment:
A maximum of 30 kg/m- 2
(6 lb/ft2
) at slaughter.
In open-sided houses, with poor• environmental control:
A maximum of 20–25 kg/m- 2
(4–5 lb/ft2
) at slaughter.
At the hottest times of the year a maximum of 16–18 kg/m- 2
(3.2–3.7 lb/ft2
).
In open-sided houses, with no• environmental control:
It is not recommended to grow birds to live weights above 3 kg-
(6.6 lb).
Key Points
Adjust• stocking density to allow for age and weight at which the
ﬂock is to be slaughtered.
Match• stocking density to climate and housing system.
Reduce• stocking density if target house temperatures cannot be
achieved due to hot climate or season.
Adjust• ventilation and feeder and drinker space if stocking density
is increased.
Follow local legislation and requirements of quality assurance stan-•
dards set by product purchasers.

41
Section 5
Monitoring Live Weight and
Uniformity of Performance
Objective
To assess live flock performance against targets and to ensure that
defined end product specifications are met as closely as possible.
Contents
Principles.....................................................................................42
Predictability of Live Weight.........................................................42
Flock Uniformity (CV%) ................................................................42
Separate-Sex Growing................................................................... 43
Section 5 Monitoring Live Weight and Uniformity of Performance

42
Principles
Profitability depends upon maximizing the proportion of birds that closely
meet target specifications. This requires predictable and uniform growth.
Growth management depends upon the knowledge of past, present
and likely future growth performance. This knowledge, and safe subse-
quent actions, can only be achieved if the measurement of the growth is
accurate.
Predictability of Live Weight
Accurate information on live weight and coefficient of variation (CV%) for
each flock is essential in planning the appropriate age for slaughter and
to ensure that the maximum number of birds fall into the desired weight
bands at slaughter.
As growth rate increases and as slaughter age becomes earlier, prediction
of live-weight gain over more than 2–3 days is less accurate. Accurate
estimation and prediction of flock live weight at slaughter requires large
numbers of birds (greater than 100) to be repeatedly sampled close to
slaughter age (within 2–3 days).
Table 5.1 shows the number of sample birds required to give a live weight
estimate of defined reliability and accuracy within flocks of differing
variability.
Table 5.1: Number of birds in a sample to give accurate estimates of live
weight according to flock uniformity
Uniformity of flock* Number of birds to be weighed**
Uniform
(CV% = 8)
61
Moderately uniform
(CV% = 10)
96
Poorly uniform
(CV% = 12)
138
* As measured by coefficient of variation (CV%; i.e. standard deviation/average body
weight x 100); the higher the number the more variable the flock body weight is.
** Estimate of live weight will be within ±2% of the actual live weight and will be correct
95% of the time.
Birds can be weighed using manual or automatic weighing scales.
Unexpected changes in live weight may be indicative of scale error
or malfunction. Scales should be regularly checked for accuracy and
repeatability.
When using manual scales the birds should be weighed at least 3 times
per week. On each occasion, equal sized samples of birds should be
taken from at least 2 locations in each house.
Place automatic weighing systems where large numbers of birds congre-
gate and where individual birds will remain long enough for weights to
be recorded.
Older, heavier males tend to use auto-weighers less frequently, which
biases the flock mean downwards. Regularly check readings from any
auto-weigher for usage rate (number of completed weights per day).
At least once per week, cross-check the mean live weights achieved by
manual weighing. Inaccurate live weight estimation will result from small
sample sizes.
Key Points
Weigh a sufficiently large number of birds.•
Weigh birds that are representative of the whole flock.•
Use accurate scales.•
Weigh birds frequently and accurately to ensure effective prediction•
of live weight at slaughter.
Flock Uniformity (CV%)
Broiler live weight will follow a normal distribution. The variability of a
population (the flock) is described by the coefficient of variation (CV%)
which is the standard deviation of the population expressed as a percent-
age of the mean.
Variable flocks will have a high CV%, uniform flocks a lower one.
Each sex will have a normal distribution of live weight. The As-Hatched
(mixed sex) flock will have a wider CV% than single-sex flocks. (See Figure
5.1 which refers to a flock at the end of grow-out).
Figure 5.1: Distribution of live weights in a flock of as-hatched broilers
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 kg
2.6 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.4 4.9 5.3 5.7 6.2 lb
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
As-Hatched
Female
Male
Live Weight
%ofFlockatParticularLiveWeight
Figure 5.2 shows weight distributions at different levels of uniformity
(CV%) for 3 single-sexed flocks, all achieving target live weight of 1.9 kg
(4.2 lb). It can be seen that the weight distributions within each flock
are quite different.
The lower the CV%, and therefore the less variable the flock, the more
birds achieve the target.

44

45
Section 6
Pre-processing Management
Objective
To manage the ﬁnal phase of the production process so that broilers
are transferred to the processor in optimum condition, ensuring that
the processing requirements are met and high standards of welfare
are maintained.
Contents
Principles.....................................................................................46
Preparation for Catching ..............................................................46
Catching ......................................................................................46
Processing ...................................................................................48
Section 6 Pre-processing Management

46
Principles
The quality of the bird at the point of sale can be substantially influenced
by management procedures at the end of the growth period, at catching
and through handling and transportation.
Attention to aspects of bird welfare at this time will deliver benefits not
only to the birds themselves, but also to their subsequent eating quality.
Growing conditions influence carcass yield and the incidence of down-
grading, while inadequately managed feed removal will affect fecal and
microbial contamination of the carcasses at the processing plant. Improp-
erly supervised harvesting can inflict damage by bruising, wing breakage
and internal bleeding of the thighs.
There are benefits in maintaining the high quality of broiler achieved thus
far through detailed attention to management of the environment. There
are also advantages in maintaining the welfare of the birds during catch-
ing, handling between the broiler house and the transport system, during
transportation and at the processing plant.
It is inevitable that some weight loss will occur during the time the bird
is without feed prior to processing due to loss of gut contents. The effect
of these losses on carcass weight can be minimized by ensuring that the
period without feed does not become excessive.
Birds without feed for more than 10 hours will dehydrate, have compro-
mised welfare and reduced carcass yield. Birds will usually lose up to
0.5% of their body weight per hour when off feed for up to 12 hours (with
water removed only when absolutely necessary). If they are allowed to
go over 12 hours without feed, weight loss increases to 0.75–1.0% of body
weight per hour. This weight loss cannot be recovered.
Preparation for Catching
Light
When growth has been modified through the application of restricted
lighting programs, it is essential to return to 23 hours of light (5–10 lux
or 0.5-1.0 foot candles). This will ensure that the birds are calm during
collection. The EU Broiler Directive requires 20 lux (2 foot candles) at least
3 days prior to depletion.
Feed
A Withdrawal feed should be fed for sufficient time prior to slaughter
to eliminate the risk of pharmaceutical product residues in the meat.
Statutory withdrawal periods for coccidiostats and other prescribed medi-
cines that are specified in product data sheets must be followed. Where
thinning (i.e. partial depletion) programs are used, it may be necessary
to keep the birds on the Withdrawal feed for longer than the mandatory
period prior to slaughter.
Remove feed from the birds 8–10 hours before the expected slaughter
time to reduce fecal contamination at the processing plant. This period
should include catching, transport and holding time. If the time that the
birds are without feed is prolonged, water absorbed from body tissue
accumulates in the digestive tract resulting in reduced yield. Fecal con-
tamination may also be increased.
The presence of watery droppings from broilers waiting to be processed
is an indication that the birds have been without feed for too long. Other
indicators include watery yellow fluid in the small intestine and litter in
the crop and gizzard.
Remove whole wheat (if included in the diet) 2 days before slaughter to
avoid the presence of whole grain in the gut.
Water
Provide unlimited access to water for as long as possible and remove
water only when absolutely necessary.
Access to water will be prolonged by:
Use of multiple drinker lines.•
Separation of birds into pens.•
Progressive removal of individual drinkers.•
Key Points
Use a• Withdrawal feed (i.e. without coccidiostat) to avoid residues
in meat.
Allow 3 days on full• light (23 hours light and 1 hour dark) to avoid
problems during catching.
Appropriate• feed removal from the birds will ensure that the diges-
tive systems are empty before processing commences, limiting
fecal contamination during transport.
Remove whole• wheat from the ration 2 days before slaughter.
Delay the removal of drinkers for as long as possible.•
Catching
Catching and handling will cause stress to broilers. Most causes of down-
grading observed at slaughter will have occurred during the period when
the birds were being caught and handled. Carefully plan catching in
advance and closely supervise all stages. The handling of birds and
operation of machinery, such as harvesters and forklifts, must be carried
out by appropriately trained, competent personnel. Minimize bird activ-
ity to avoid bruising, scratching and other injuries.
Mortality during the catching and transport process should not be more
than 0.1%.
Pre-catch
Calculate the time it will take to catch and to transport. Start the catch
according to when the birds are scheduled to be slaughtered.
Calculate the number of crates and trailers needed to transport the birds
before the process commences.

47
Ensure all equipment used (including vehicles, crates, fencing and nets),
are clean, disinfected and in good condition. Broken or damaged crates
may injure birds.
Repair, compact and level the ground at the entrance to the poultry house
(and any secondary roads leading to the house) to ensure a smooth exit
for the loaded trucks. This will prevent bruising and wing damage.
Remove any wet litter from the broiler house that may hinder the efforts
of the catching crew and replace with dry litter.
Raise all feeding equipment above head height of 2 m (6.6 ft), remove
it from the house or re-position it to avoid obstruction to the birds or
personnel.
Separate birds into pens within larger houses to avoid unnecessary
crowding and allow access to water for birds not immediately due for
catching.
Whenever possible, decrease the light intensity during catching to reduce
stress. For night-time catching, which is preferred, reduce light intensity
within the house to a minimum. For day-time catching, reduce light
intensity as much as possible. In all cases light intensity must be suf-
ficient to allow safe and careful catching. Blue light has been found to be
satisfactory for this purpose. The best results are achieved when birds
are allowed to settle after lights have been dimmed and when there is
minimum disturbance.
The use of curtains over the main doors of the house is helpful when
catching during daylight hours.
The opening of doors and removal of birds will affect the ventilation of
thermostatically controlled environments. Carefully monitor and adjust
the ventilation system throughout the catching procedure to reduce stress
on the broilers and to prevent heat build-up within the house.
Catch
Broilers should be caught and held by both shanks (never the thighs) to
minimize the distress, damage and injury that might otherwise result if
they were able to struggle and flap.
Carefully place the birds into the crates or modules, loading from the top
down. Modules have been shown to result in less distress and damage
than conventional crates.
Crates or modules should never be overfilled as this can result in over-
heating, stress and increased mortality. Reduce the number of broilers
per crate or module in high temperatures.
Improperly operated catching equipment can cause stress and damage to
the broiler. Operate mechanical equipment used to catch birds (see Fig-
ure 6.1) at moderate speeds to prevent damage and stress to broilers.
Never crowd or force the birds into the catching equipment. Properly
align the opening chute of the catching equipment with the opening of
the crate or module to prevent damage to the broiler.
Figure 6.1: Example of a mechanical harvester
Transport
Transport time should be within the local current guidelines or legislation.
At all times up to the arrival at the slaughter house, adequate protec-
tion from the elements is essential. Use ventilation, extra heating and/or
cooling when necessary. Design vehicles to protect the bird from the ele-
ments. Stress on the birds will be minimized in trailers designed to provide
adequate ventilation.
In hot weather, consider using fans while loading the birds to keep the
air circulating through the crates or modules on the truck. Allow at
least 10 cm (4 in) between every 2 tiers of crates. While waiting to be
processed, use fans and foggers to help keep birds cool.
Heat stress will develop rapidly when the transport vehicle is stationary,
particularly in hot weather or if on-board ventilation is not available.
Vehicles should leave the farm as soon as loading is completed and driver
breaks should be short.
Unloading at the holding area of the slaughter house must be completed
without delay. Supplementary ventilation will be required if delay is
unavoidable.
In cold weather, cover the load to minimize wind chill during transport.
Check bird comfort frequently.
Delivery
At the slaughter house, park the trucks under a cover and remove any
canvas that may restrict ventilation.
Good holding facilities at the slaughter house that provide the required
ventilation and temperature control are essential for good bird welfare.
Equip holding areas with lights, fans and foggers. Use foggers during
periods of high temperatures if relative humidity is below 70%. In very
hot weather, water can be sprayed into the fans to assist evaporation. In
summer conditions make sure all fans and foggers are functional in the
holding areas.
Section 6 Pre-processing Management

48
Key Points
Operate• harvesting equipment properly.
Maintain adequate• ventilation during mechanical catching to
reduce stress.
Supervise• catching and handling methods carefully to minimize
trauma injuries to the birds.
Remove or raise obstructions such as feeders or drinkers before•
beginning the catching operation and use partitions in large houses
to avoid injuries caused by crowding.
Reduce• light intensity prior to catching to keep the birds calm and
minimize damage and subsequent stress.
Adjust bird numbers in• crates and modules to allow for bird weight
and ambient temperature.
Plan journey and bird reception.•
Monitor• welfare continuously.
Processing
Successful production of the maximum number of high quality carcasses
with good yield depends on effective integration of the growing, catching
and processing operations.
Careful planning and communication between the farm and processing
plant will allow processing to proceed effectively. Management on the
farm can inﬂuence the efﬁcient operation of the killing, plucking and
evisceration processes.
To minimize fecal contamination, carcass damage and downgrading, close
attention should be given to:
Litter quality.•
Stocking density.•
Feed removal times.•
Catching methods.•
Transport time.•
Holding time.•
Key Points
Present clean birds to the processor.•
Maintain good• litter quality, depth and condition to minimize
hockburn and other carcass quality problems.
Scratching damage may be increased under high stocking densities,•
or when feeder or drinker spaces are inadequate, especially when
lighting or feed control is used.
Process under conditions that maintain best• welfare of the birds.
Minimize• transport and holding times to reduce stress and dehy-
dration.

50
Notes

51
Appendices
Appendices
Contents
Appendix 1. Production Records................................................... 52
Appendix 2. Conversion Tables .................................................... 53
Appendix 3. Efﬁciency Calculations.............................................. 54
Appendix 4. Feather Sexing.......................................................... 55
Appendix 5. Classiﬁcation of Months ........................................... 56
Appendix 6. Problem Solving........................................................ 57
Appendix 7. Ventilation Rates (per bird) and Calculations ............ 59

52
Arbor Acres Broiler Management GuideArbor Acres Broiler Management Guide
Appendix 1. Production Records
Record keeping and analysis are essential to determine the effects of
changes to nutrition, management, environment and health status.
Accurate production records are essential for the effective management,
assessment of risk, control of the system and active response to develop-
ing problems.
Analysis and interpretation of production data (e.g. live weight, feed
conversion efficiency and mortality) are essential to the upgrading and
improvement of performance.
Hygiene and disease status should be monitored.
It is good practice for all processes in a broiler operation to have standard
operating protocols (SOP). These should include documentation of estab-
lished procedures, records, record analysis and monitoring systems.
Records Required in Broiler Production
Event Records Comment
Chick
placement
Number of day-olds
Flock of origin and
flock age
Date and time of
arrival
Chick quality
Live weight, uniformity,
number of dead on arrival
Mortality Daily Record by sex if possible
Weekly
Cumulative
Record culls and reason for
culling separately
Post mortem records of
excessive mortality
Scoring of coccidial lesions
will indicate level of coccidial
challenge
Medication Date
Amount
Batch number
As per veterinary instruction
Vaccination Date of vaccination
Vaccine type
Batch number
Expiry date
Any unexpected vaccine
reaction should be recorded
Live weight Weekly average live
weight
Weekly uniformity
(CV%)
More frequent measurement
is required when predicting
slaughter weight or where
growth is modified through
lighting
Event Records Comment
Feed Date of delivery
Quantity
Date of starting feed
withdrawal
Feed type
Accurate measurement of
feed consumed is essential
to measure FCR and to
determine cost effectiveness
of broiler operation
Water Daily consumption
Water to feed ratio
Water quality
Level of chlorination
Plot daily consumption in
graph form, preferably per
house
Sudden fluctuation in water
consumption is an early
indicator of problems
Mineral and/or bacteriological
– especially where bore holes
or open water reservoirs are
used
Environment Temperature:
daily minimum
daily maximum
during brooding, 4 to
5 times per day
litter during brooding
external temperature
— daily
Relative humidity
— daily
Air quality
Litter quality
Multiple locations should be
monitored especially in chick
litter area
Automatic systems should
be cross-checked manually
each day
Ideally record dust, CO2
, NH3
or as a minimum observe
levels of dust and NH3
Depletion Number of birds
removed
Time and date of
removal
Information
from
slaughter
house
Carcass quality
Health inspection
Carcass composition
Type and %
condemnations
Cleaning
out
Total bacterial counts After disinfection, salmonella,
staphylococcus or E. coli may
be monitored if required
House
inspection
Record time of daily
checks

53
Appendix 2. Conversion Tables
Length
1 meter (m) 3.281 feet (ft)
1 foot (ft) 0.305 meter (m)
1 centimeter (cm) 0.394 inch (in)
1 inch (in) 2.54 centimeters (cm)
Area
1 square meter (m2
) 10.76 square feet (ft2
)
1 square foot (ft2
) 0.093 square meters (m2
)
Volume
1 liter (l) 0.22 imperial gallons (gal)
or 0.264 US gallons (gal US)
1 imperial gallon (gal) 4.54 liters (l)
1 US gallon (gal US) 3.79 liters (l)
1 imperial gallon (gal) 1.2 US gallons (gal US)
1 cubic meter (m3
) 35.31 cubic feet (ft3
)
1 cubic foot (ft3
) 0.028 cubic meters (m3
)
Weight
1 kilogram (kg) 2.205 pounds (lb)
1 pound (lb) 0.454 kilograms (kg)
1 gram (g) 0.035 ounces (oz)
1 ounce (oz) 28.35 grams (g)
Energy
1 calorie (cal) 4.184 Joules (J)
1 Joule (J) 0.239 calories (cal)
1 kilocalorie per kilogram
(kcal/kg)
4.184 Megajoules per kilogram
(MJ/kg)
1 Megajoule per kilogram (MJ/kg) 108 calories per pound (cal/lb)
1 Joule (J) 0.735 foot pound (ft lb)
1 foot pound (ft lb) 1.36 Joules (J)
1 Joule (J) 0.00095 British Thermal Unit (BTU)
1 British Thermal Unit (BTU) 1055 Joules (J)
1 kilowatt hour (kW-h) 3412.1 British Thermal Units (BTU)
1 British Thermal Unit (BTU) 0.00029 kilowatt hour (kW-h)
Pressure
1 pound per square inch (psi) 6895 Newtons per square meter
(N/m2
) or Pascals (Pa)
1 pound per square inch (psi) 0.06895 bar
1 bar 14.504 pounds per square inch
(psi)
1 bar 105
Newtons per square meter
(N/m2
) or Pascals (Pa)
100 kilopascals (kPa)
1 Newton per square meter
(N/m2
) or Pascals (Pa)
0.000145 pound per square inch
(lb/in2
)
Stocking Density
1 square foot per bird (ft2
/bird) 10.76 birds per square meter
(bird/m2
)
10 birds per square meter
(bird/m2
)
1.08 square feet per bird (ft2
/bird)
(bird/m2
)
0.72 square feet per bird (ft2
/bird)
(bird/m2
)
0.54 square feet per bird
(ft2
/bird)
1 kilogram per square meter
(kg/m2
)
0.205 pound per square foot
(lb/ft2
)
15 kilograms per square meter
(kg/m2
)
3.08 pounds per square foot
(lb/ft2
)
34.2 kilograms per square meter
(kg/m2
)
(lb/ft2
)
40 kilograms per square meter
(kg/m2
)
(lb/ft2
)
Temperature
Temperature (°C) 5/9 (Temperature °F – 32)
Temperature (°F) 32 + 9/5 (Temperature °C)
Operating Temperature
Operating temperature is defined as the minimum house temperature
plus 2/3 of the difference between minimum and maximum house tem-
peratures. It is important where there are significant diurnal temperature
fluctuations. For example:
Minimum house• temperature 16°C (61°F).
Maximum house• temperature 28°C (82°F).
Operating Temperature = [(28 - 16)• × 2/3] + 16 = 24°C (Celsius).
Operating Temperature = [(82 - 61)• × 2/3] + 61 = 75°F (Fahrenheit).
Appendices

54
Ventilation
1 cubic foot per minute (ft3
/min) 1.699 cubic meters per hour
(m3
/hour)
1 cubic meter per hour (m3
/hour) 0.589 cubic foot per minute
(ft3
/min)
Insulation
U value describes how well a building material conducts heat and is
measured in Watts per square kilometer per degree Celsius (W/km2
/°C).
R value rates the isolative properties of building materials, the higher the
R value the better the insulation. It is measured in km2
/W (or ft2
/°F/BTU).
Insulation
1 ft2
/°F/BTU 0.1761 square kilometer per Watt
(km2
/W)
1 km2
/W 5.67446 square feet per degree
Fahrenheit per British Thermal Unit
(ft2
/°F/BTU)
Light
1 foot candle 10.76 lux
1 lux 0.093 foot candles
A simple formula to calculate the number of lamps required for a broiler
house is as follows:
Floor area × Maximum lux
*Number of (m2
or ft2
) (foot candles )
lamps = required
Wattage of × K factor
lamp
*This formula is for tungsten bulbs at a height of 2 meters (6.6 feet) above
bird level. Fluorescent lights provide 3 to 5 times the number of lux (or
foot candles) per Watt as tungsten bulbs.
K factor depends on lamp wattage as shown below
Power of Lamp (Watts) K Factor
15 3.8
25 4.2
40 4.6
60 5.0
100 6.0
Appendix 3. Efficiency Calculations
Production Efficiency Factor (PEF)*
Livability × Live Weight in kg
× 100
Age in Days × FCR
e.g. Age: 42 days
Live weight: 2.652 kg
Livability: 97.20%
FCR: 1.75
e.g. Age: 46 days
Live weight: 3.006 kg
Livability: 96.90%
FCR: 1.83
*Also referred to as European Efficiency Factor (EEF).
Note: The higher the value the better the technical performance.
It is important to note that this calculation is heavily biased by daily gain.
When comparing across different environments, comparisons should be
made at similar ages at slaughter.
97.20 × 2.652
× 100 = 351
42 × 1.75
96.90 × 3.006
× 100 = 346
46 × 1.83

55
Appendix 4. Feather Sexing
Identiﬁcation of males and females at day-old may be accomplished
In the slow-feathering male chick the primaries are the same length or
shorter than the coverts.
Same length primaries
Shorter primaries
In the fast-feathering female chick the primaries are longer than the
coverts.
Longer primaries
Appendices
easily at the hatchery as most strains of the Broiler are feather
sexable. In feather sexable broilers, fast-feathering chicks are female,
slow-feathering chicks are male. The type of feathering is iden-tiﬁed
by observing the relationship between coverts (upper layer) and the
primaries (lower layer) which are found on the outer half of the
wing.
Male Broiler Chick Wing Feathers
Female Broiler Chick Wing

56
Appendix 5. Classiﬁcation of Months
Classiﬁcation of Months with Regard to Northern and Southern Hemispheres
Northern Hemisphere
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
December March June September
January April July October
February May August November
Southern Hemisphere
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
June September December March
July October January April
August November February May

57
Appendix 6. Problem Solving
Problem Possible causes Action
High Early Mortality
(>1% in first week)
Poor chick quality Check hatchery practice and egg hygiene
Check chick transport
Incorrect brooding Re-adjust brooders
Disease Post mortems on dead chicks, take veterinary advice
Appetite Measure and achieve target crop fill levels
High Mortality
(post 7 days)
Metabolic diseases (ascites,
sudden death syndrome)
Check ventilation rates
Check feed formulation
Avoid excessive early growth rates
Check hatchery ventilation
Infectious diseases Establish cause (post mortem)
Take veterinary advice on medication and vaccination
Check water consumption
Leg problems Check calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D3
levels in diet
Use lighting programs to increase bird activity
Poor Early Growth
and Uniformity
Nutrition Check starter ration: availability and nutritional and physical quality
Check water supply: availability and quality
Chick quality Check hatchery procedures: egg hygiene, storage, incubation conditions,
hatch time, transport time and conditions
Environmental conditions Check temperature and humidity profiles
Check daylength
Check air quality: CO2
, dust, minimum ventilation rate
Appetite Check poor stimulation of appetite - low proportion of birds with full crops
Poor Late Growth and
Uniformity
Low nutrient intake Check feed nutritional and physical quality and formulation
Check feed intake and accessibility
Excessive early restriction
Lighting program too restrictive
Infectious disease See High Mortality
Environmental conditions Check ventilation rates
Check stocking density
Check house temperatures
Check water and feed availability
Appendices
(table continued on next page)

58
Problem Possible causes Action
Poor Litter Quality Nutrition Poor quality fats in diet
Excess salts in diet
Excess protein in diet
Environment Insufﬁcient litter depth at start
Inappropriate litter material
Drinker design and adjustment (spillage problems)
Humidity too high
Stocking density too high
Insufﬁcient ventilation
Infectious disease Causing enteritis, take veterinary advice
Poor Feed Conversion Poor growth See Poor Early Growth, Poor Late Growth
High mortality (esp. late
mortality)
See High Mortality
Feed wastage Check settings/adjustments of feeders
Allow birds to clear feeders twice daily
Environment Check house temperature is not too low
Infectious disease See High Mortality
Nutrition Check feed formulation and quality
Poor Feather Cover Environment Check house temperature is not too high
Nutrition Check ration for methionine and cystine content and balance
Factory Downgrading Ascites See High Mortality
Blisters and burns (e.g. Hock-
burn)
Check stocking density
Check litter quality
Increase bird activity (e.g. feeding or lighting programs)
Bruises and breaks Check handling procedures at weighing and catching
Scratching Excessive light stimulation
Check handling procedures at weighing and catching
Check access to feed and water
Oregon disease (deep muscu-
lar myopathy or green muscle
disease)
Birds excessively disturbed during growth, e.g. at partial depletion
(thinning), weighing etc.
Poor feed distribution
Excessive fatness Check nutritional balance of diet
Check house temperature not too high

59
Appendix 7. Ventilation Rates (per bird) and Calcu-
lations
Live Weight
kg (lbs)
Minimum Ventilation
Rate
m3
/hour (ft3
/min)
Maximum Ventilation
Rate
m3
/hour (ft3
/min)
0.050 (0.110) 0.074 (0.044) 0.761 (0.448)
0.100 (0.220) 0.125 (0.074) 1.280 (0.754)
0.200 (0.441) 0.210 (0.124) 2.153 (1.268)
0.300 (0.661) 0.285 (0.168) 2.919 (1.719)
0.400 (0.882) 0.353 (0.208) 3.621 (2.133)
0.500 (1.102) 0.417 (0.246) 4.281 (2.522)
0.600 (1.323) 0.479 (0.282) 4.908 (2.891)
0.700 (1.543) 0.537 (0.316) 5.510 (3.245)
0.800 (1.764) 0.594 (0.350) 6.090 (3.587)
0.900 (1.984) 0.649 (0.382) 6.653 (3.919)
1.000 (2.205) 0.702 (0.413) 7.200 (4.241)
1.200 (2.646) 0.805 (0.474) 8.255 (4.862)
1.400 (3.086) 0.904 (0.532) 9.267 (5.458)
1.600 (3.527) 0.999 (0.588) 10.243 (6.033)
1.800 (3.968) 1.091 (0.643) 11.189 (6.590)
2.000 (4.409) 1.181 (0.696) 12.109 (7.132)
2.200 (4.850) 1.268 (0.747) 13.006 (7.661)
2.400 (5.291) 1.354 (0.798) 13.883 (8.177)
2.600 (5.732) 1.437 (0.846) 14.42 (8.683)
2.800 (6.173) 1.520 (0.895) 15.585 (9.180)
3.000 (6.614) 1.600 (0.942) 16.412 (9.667)
3.200 (7.055) 1.680 (0.990) 17.226 (10.146)
3.400 (7.496) 1.758 (1.035) 18.028 (10.618)
3.600 (7.937) 1.835 (1.081) 18.817 (11.083)
3.800 (8.377) 1.911 (1.126) 19.596 (11.542)
4.000 (8.818) 1.986 (1.170) 20.365 (11.995)
4.200 (9.259) 2.060 (1.213) 21.124 (12.442)
4.400 (9.700) 2.133 (1.256) 21.874 (12.884)
Notes:
For further explanation see Section 4: Housing and Environment.
Minimum ventilation rate is the quantity of air required per hour to supply
sufﬁcient oxygen to the birds and maintain air quality.
Maximum ventilation rate in controlled environment houses in temperate
climates is the quantity of air required per hour to remove heat produced
by the birds such that the temperature within the building is maintained
at not greater than 3°C (5.4°F) above external temperature.
Maximum ventilation rates will be exceeded when cooling birds using
convective heat loss, eg. tunnel ventilation.
Source: UK Agricultural Development and Advisory Service
Calculation for Minimum Ventilation Fan Timer Settings
To determine the interval fan timer settings for achieving minimum ven-
tilation the following steps are employed:
Calculate the total• ventilation rate required for the house (total
cubic meters per hour (cmh), or total cubic feet per minute (cfm)) as:
Total minimum = Minimum ventilation x Number of birds
Calculate the percentage time for running the• fans as:
Multiply the percentage of time needed by the total• fan timer cycle
to give the time that the fans require to be on in each cycle.
Appendices
• Obtain the appropriate minimum ventilation rate as
recommended in Appendix 7. The exact rates will vary with
breed, sex and for each individual poultry house. The rates given
in the Table opposite are for temperatures between -1 and 16°C
(30–61°F); for lower temperatures a slightly lower rate may be
required and for higher temperatures a slightly higher rate.

60
Fan Timer Setting Calculation — Metric
Step 1: Calculate the total ventilation rate required for the house (total cubic
meters per hour (cmh).
Total minimum = Minimum ventilation × Number of birds
Example: One house of 30,000 broilers weighing 800 g at 20 days of age.
Minimum ventilation rate is 0.594 cmh per bird (see Table on previous page).
Total ventilation required is 0.594 cmh × 30,000 birds = 17,820 cmh.
Step 2: Calculate the percentage time for running the fans.
Assuming fan combinations commonly used for minimum ventilation, e.g.
three 91 cm fans each with a capacity of 16,978 cmh, the percentage of time
fans need to run in order to achieve the total ventilation rate required needs
to be calculated.
Example: Assuming the use of three 91 cm fans each with a capacity of
16,978 cmh;
Total fan capacity = 16,978 cmh × 3 = 50,934 cmh
Percentage time = 17,820 cmh ÷ 50,934 cmh = 0.35 = 35%
Therefore, the three 91 cm fans will have to be run for 35% of the time.
Step 3: Assuming that a 5 minute timer is used, the run time setting is
calculated by multiplying the percentage of time needed by the total fan
timer cycle of 5 minutes (300 seconds).
Example: Using three 91 cm fans,
35% of 5 minutes (300 seconds) = 1.75 minutes or 105 seconds
The fans will be on for 105 seconds in every 5 minutes.
Fan Timer Setting Calculation — Imperial
Step 1: Calculate the total ventilation rate required for the house (total cubic
feet per minute (cfm)).
Total minimum = Minimum ventilation × Number of birds
Example: One house of 30,000 broilers weighing 1.764 lb at 20 days of age.
Minimum ventilation rate is 0.350 cfm per bird (see Table on previous page).
Total ventilation required is 0.350 cfm × 30,000 birds = 10,500 cfm.
Step 2: Calculate the percentage time for running the fans.
Assuming fan combinations commonly used for minimum ventilation, e.g.
three 36 inch fans each with a capacity of 10,000 cfm, the percentage of time
fans need to run in order to achieve the total ventilation rate required needs
to be calculated.
Example: Assuming the use of three 36 inch fans each with a capacity of
10,000 cfm;
Total fan capacity = 10,000 cfm × 3 = 30,000 cfm
Percentage time = 10,500 cfm ÷ 30,000 cfm = 0.35 = 35%
Therefore, the three 36 inches fans will have to be run for 35% of the time.
Step 3: Assuming that a 5 minute timer is used, the run time setting is
calculated by multiplying the percentage of time needed by the total fan
timer cycle of 5 minutes (300 seconds).
Example: Using three 36 inch fans,
35% of 5 minutes (300 seconds) = 1.75 minutes or 105 seconds.
The fans will be on for 105 seconds in every 5 minutes.

61
Keyword Index
Keyword Index
A
air 7, 11, 12, 13, 15, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 47,
57, 59
air exchange 12, 33, 35
airflow 33
air quality 7, 12, 32, 57, 59
all-in/all-out 11
amino acids 18, 19, 20
ammonia 12, 20, 27, 32
antibodies 10, 27
appetite 57 See also feed intake
ascites 7, 32, 36, 57
automatic 12, 22, 33, 42
drinkers 22
feeders 23
ventilation 12, 33, 52
weighing 42
B
bacterial contamination 20, 21, 23, 27
barrier fence 26
behavior 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 28, 29, 34, 35, 36, 37
biosecurity 6, 11, 25, 26, 27, 28
body temperature 11, 32, 33
bore holes 20, 21, 52
breeder flocks 12, 26, 27
brooding 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 22, 28,
36, 52, 57
system 13, 15
C
calcium 18, 20, 21, 57
carbon dioxide 12, 32
carbon monoxide 12, 32
carcass 18, 36, 37, 38, 43, 46, 48
damage 48
quality 37, 48
yield 36, 46
catching 19, 29, 46, 47, 48, 58
chaff. See hulls, chaff
chick placement 11, 28
chick quality 10, 28, 57
chilling, environmental 34, 35
chloride, chlorine 18, 20, 27
cleaning 11, 26, 27, 28, 52
coccidiostats 46
coefficient of variation (CV%) 41, 42, 43, 52
cold. See cooling
comfort zone 32
competition, feeding 23
condemnation at slaughter 29
contamination 19, 20, 21, 23, 38, 46, 48
feed 19, 23, 46
litter 38
controlled environment housing 33
convection heat loss 32
cooling 11, 13, 21, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 47, 59
copper 21
coverts 55
crates 46, 47
crop 12, 28
crude protein 18, 20
D
dark period. See day length
day length 36, 37
dead on arrival (DOA) 26, 28, 29, 52
de-boning 18, 37
dehydration 11, 48
density. See stocking density
depletion 8, 22, 23, 46, 58
diagnosis of disease 29
digestible essential amino acids 20
disease 6, 10, 11, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 52, 57,
58
disease investigation 25, 27
disinfection. See cleaning
disposal 11, 26, 38
donor flock 10, 12
downgrades 38, 58
down time 28
drafts 12
drinkers 11, 12, 14, 20, 21, 22, 28, 38, 39, 46, 48
dust 12, 32, 38, 52, 57
E
eating quality 46
effective temperature 35
energy 18, 19, 20, 33, 38
enteric disorders 20
environment 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 17, 21, 27,
28, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 39, 43, 46, 52, 59
environmental
changes 29
chilling. See chilling, environmental
conditions 35
control 31, 37, 39
enzymes 18
European Efficiency Factor (EEF) 54
evaporation 13, 33, 35, 36, 47. See also cooling;
See also water vapor
evisceration 19, 48
F
fans, fan use 12, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 47, 60
fatness at slaughter 58
fats/oils 20
feather cover 58
feathers
coverts. See coverts
primaries. See primaries
feather sexing 51, 55
fecal contamination 46, 48
feeder height 23
feeder space 11, 23, 29, 37, 39, 48
feeder systems 10, 11, 14, 15, 23, 28, 29, 47
feed, food 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21,
22, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 36, 37, 39,
43, 46, 48, 52, 57, 58
feed conversion 6, 7, 23, 26, 33, 52
feed cost 18
feed distribution 23
feed form, type 17, 19, 52
feed formulation 19
feed hygiene 26
feed intake 18, 19, 20, 22, 36, 37, 57
feed quality 17, 19
feed removal, withdrawal 19, 46
feed spillage, waste 23, 58
feed use 19, 23
particle size 19
trays, trough 12, 23
feeding activity 36
feed ingredients 7, 18, 20. See also digestible
essential amino acids
feed to water ratio 23
females 22, 43, 55
fences
See barrier fence migration or migration fences
fencing 46

62
fiber 20
flaps, ventilation 33
flock source 10, 12, 28
flock uniformity, variability 11, 42, 43
floor, floor area 10, 11, 12, 22, 23, 33, 35, 38, 39
flow rate of water 22
fluorescent lights 38
foggers, misters 36
foot pad dermatitis 20, 39
fungal disease 28
G
gases 12, 32, 34
genetic potential 6, 7, 10
growth 6, 7, 10, 11, 18, 19, 21, 23, 26, 27, 31,
32, 33, 36, 37, 42, 43, 46, 52, 57, 58
early 7, 18, 36, 57
growth rate 6, 7, 21, 26, 31, 32, 33, 36, 42
management 7, 43
H
handling 7, 19, 27, 28, 29, 46, 47, 58
harvesting equipment 47
hatchery 28
hauling 29
health 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 18, 20, 21, 25, 26, 27,
28, 29, 31, 32, 36, 37, 52
heat increment 20
heating 12, 13, 14, 47
heat loss 32, 59
heat stress 20, 32, 33, 47
hocks, hockburn 28, 37, 48
holding 11, 46, 47, 48
area 11, 47
time 46
hot weather 20, 21, 23, 35, 36, 37, 47
house inspection 52
housing system 39
hulls, chaff 38
humidity 11, 12, 15, 27, 28, 32, 33, 35, 36, 39,
47, 52, 57
hygiene 11, 26, 27, 28, 57
I
immune status 10
incandescent light 38
incubation 10, 12, 28, 57
injuries 46, 47
inlets 34, 35, 36, 37
insulation 54
iron 21
isolate 26
J
K
L
lead 21
leg damage 23
light 11, 36, 37, 38, 46, 47, 58
catching 46
reflector. See reflector
lighting pattern 38
litter 11, 13, 18, 20, 22, 26, 27, 29, 32, 33, 36,
38, 39, 46, 47, 48, 52, 58
chaff and hulls. See hulls, chaff
chemically treated straw pellets. See straw
chopped straw. See straw
in crop, gizzard 46
litter material 11, 27, 38, 39, 58
litter quality 18, 20, 29, 32, 38, 48, 58
paper. See paper
peat moss. See peat moss
sand. See sand
sawdust. See sawdust
wood shavings. See wood shavings
live weight 7, 10, 11, 13, 23, 39, 42, 43, 52
lumen output 38
lux 11, 36, 37, 38, 46, 54
M
magnesium 21
manganese 21
meat yield 6, 7, 19, 37
medication 52
micron size. See foggers, misters
migration fences 35
minerals 18, 20
mini drinker 11, 14, 22
minimum ventilation 12, 34, 35, 57, 60
misters. See foggers, misters
mixing of chicks 12
modules 47
moisture, environmental 12, 13, 32, 34, 36, 39
moisture loss during incubation 28
mortality 10, 11, 26, 28, 29, 47, 52, 58
multi-age sites 11
muscular myopathy 58
musty taint 38
N
natural ventilation 33
nipple drinkers 12, 21, 22
nipple lines 22
nitrogen, nitrates 20, 21
normal distribution, weight uniformity 42
nutrient density 18, 19
nutrient intake 18, 19, 57
nutrition 6, 10, 52
O
open-sided housing 33
Oregon disease 58
organic matter in water 20
overheating 47
oxygen 32, 59
P
pads, cooling 35, 36
pan feeders 15
panting 32, 33
paper 10, 11, 12, 23, 38
parasitic disease 28
parent flocks, donor flock 10
particle size. See feed, food
pathogens 26, 27
peat moss 38
pest control 26, 27
pH of water 20
phosphorus 18, 57
photoperiod 23, 37
phytase 20
placement of chicks 10, 11, 28
plucking 48
post-mortem 29
potassium 18
pre-catch 46
pressure gauge 33
primaries 55
problem solving 51, 57

63
processing 6, 7, 18, 19, 21, 26, 28, 29, 37, 43,
45, 46, 47, 48
production data, records 52
Production Efficiency Factor (PEF) 54
protein 18, 20, 58
protozoal disease 28
Q
R
radiant heat 33
ratio of water to feed 23, 52
records 27, 29, 52
reflector 37, 38
reservoirs 20
residues in feed 19, 46
respiration 32
rodent, vermin 26, 39
runted chicks. See stunted chicks
R value 54
S
salt, sodium 18, 20
sampling, for weight estimation 42
sand 38
sanitation of environment 26, 28
sawdust 38
scratching 23, 46
security 27, 28, 29
sediment 21
sensible heat loss 32
sex management, separate-sex 41, 43
side-wall curtains 33
single-age sites 26
skeletal disorders 36
slaughter 10, 19, 23, 29, 34, 37, 39, 42, 46, 47,
52, 54
sodium. See salt, sodium
space, bird allowances 7, 27, 28
spillage. See feed, food
spot brooders 14
standard deviation 42
stocking density 14, 31, 33, 37, 39, 43, 53, 57,
58
storage tank 20
straw 38
stress 7, 11, 20, 29, 32, 33, 46, 47, 48
stunted chicks 28
sudden death syndrome (SDS) 36
sulphates 21
T
temperature 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 27, 28, 32,
33, 34, 35, 39, 47, 52, 53, 57, 58, 59
brooding 28
litter 11
regulation 32
thermostatically controlled environments 47
thermostats 33
thinning 46, 58
toxins disease 27, 28
trace minerals 18
trailers 46, 47
training of catchers 29
transitional ventilation systems 31, 34
transport 7, 8, 10, 11, 26, 28, 29, 46, 47, 48, 57
trays 11, 22
tunnel ventilation systems 35, 36
U
Ultra Violet (UV) irradiation 21
uniformity (CV%) 41, 42
V
vaccination 10, 25, 26, 27, 28, 52
vacuum 33, 34
variability in body weight 7, 42, 43
vehicles. See transport
ventilation 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 39, 47, 57, 58,
59, 60
control 32
rate 34, 57, 59, 60
ventilation flaps. See flaps, ventilation
vermin 39
viral disease 27, 29
visitors 26
vitamins 18, 20
vocalization of birds 29
W
wastage. See feed, food
water 7, 11, 12, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27,
28, 29, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 39, 46, 47, 52,
57, 58
contamination 20, 21
hardness 20
in excreta, droppings 46
level 22
loss 20
meters 21, 22
pressure 22
quality 17, 20
removal 32, 34, 46
system 21
vapor 32
wells 21
water to feed ratio. See ratio of water to feed
water vapor 32
wavelength 36
weak chicks 28
weighing
frequency 42
manual, auto 42
weight bands, distributions 43
weight loss 46
welfare 6, 7, 8, 9, 17, 25, 28, 29, 31, 37, 39, 45,
46, 47, 48
wet litter 13, 20, 22, 33, 36, 39, 47
wheat 17, 18, 19, 46
wind chill, velocity 33, 35, 47
wing damage 47
withdrawal period 19
wood shavings 38
See also musty taint
X
Y
yolk 10
Z
zinc 21

Broiler Farming Management Guide

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