BTHM Module 1 basics of food production theory
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The document provides an overview of food production theory, focusing on the cooking process, methods, and effects on food constituents. It outlines the aims and objectives of cooking, advantages of various cooking methods, and the impact of heat on carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals. Additionally, it details specific cooking techniques such as boiling, steaming, frying, and baking, emphasizing their effects on the nutritional value of different ingredients.
BTHM Module 1 basics of food production theory
- 1. BTH2B04 - BASICS OF FOOD PRODUCTION THEORY(Module-1) BY ARSHAK K* ASSISTANT PROFESSOR DEPT. OF TOURISM AND HOTEL MANAGEMENT GOVT. ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE KONDOTTY *BTHM, MBATourism, MSc Hotel Management, MPhil in Hotel Management &Tourism, UGC NET-JRF & PhD (Pursuing)
- 2. Module I Cooking- introduction, definition, and importance-Aims & objectives of cooking food - - food constituents - effect of cooking - effect of cooking on different ingredients - Methods of cooking food- Preparation of food - Methods of mixing food
- 3. Cooking Cooking is the application of heat to food for the purpose of making it more digestible, safer to eat, more palatable and to change its appearance. To cook food, heat must be introduced. In the cooking process the heat breaks down the cellulose in the plant, softens some of the connective tissues in the meat, changes and blends flavours within the food and destroys bacteria, makes food more acceptable to human beings and their digestive system.
- 4. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF COOKING FOOD Cooking increases palatability. Cooking helps to provide a balanced meal. Cooking sterilizes the food partially. Cooking retains, as far as possible, the nutritive and flavouring ingredients. Cooking gives a variety to the menu, (Different methods of cooking when used make the menu interesting and enhance variety. It is, therefore, easier to plan a balanced diet). Cooking preserves food for a longer time. (The high temperature destroys bacteria and limits spoilage. It is economical as the cooked leftovers could be utilized and new dishes could be prepared).
- 5. ADVANTAGES OF COOKING A wide variety of dishes can be made by different methods of cooking viz. boiling, frying, roasting, microwaving, baking, smoking, etc. Cooking makes the dish more colorful. It develops new flavors in food. Cooking makes the food to appreciable texture. Cooking makes food more appetizing Cooking provides balanced meal. Cooking adds more nutritive value to food
- 6. FOOD CONSTITUENTS Food is composed of the following five constituents: Carbohydrates Fats Proteins Minerals Vitamins
- 7. Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates used in cooking include simple sugars such as glucose (from table sugar) and fructose (from fruit) and starches from sources such as cereal flour, rice, arrowroot and potato
- 8. Fats Fats and oils come from both animal and plant sources. In cooking, fats provide tastes and textures. When used as the principal cooking medium (rather than water), they also allow the cook access to a wide range of cooking temperatures. Common oil-cooking techniques include sauteing, stir-frying, and deep-frying. Commonly used fats and oils include butter, olive oil, sunflower oil, lard, beef fat (both dripping and tallow), rapeseed oil or canola, and peanut oil. The inclusion of fats tends to add flavour to cooked food.
- 9. Proteins: Edible animal material, including muscle, offal, milk and egg white, contains substantial amounts of protein. Almost all vegetable matter (in particular legumes and seeds) also includes proteins, although generally in smaller amounts. These may also be a source of essential amino acids.
- 10. Minerals Minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen which are present in common organic molecules. Sometimes these "minerals" come from natural sources such as ground oyster shells. Sometimes minerals are added to the diet separately from food, such as mineral supplements, the most famous being iodine in "iodized salt." Other minerals are calcium, chloride, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium and sulphur. These minerals are obtained from milk, other dairy products, cereals, legumes, bone meal, meat, fish, all fruits, vegetables, table & sea salt etc.
- 11. Vitamins Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development. It is a key nutrient that the body needs in small amounts to grow and stay strong. Examples are vitamins A, C, and E. Vitamins are found in many fruits and vegetables; especially green peppers, citrus, strawberries, tomatoes, broccoli, leafy greens, potatoes, animal foods; such as liver, whole eggs and milk.
- 13. EFFECTS OF COOKING Action of Heat on Carbohydrates The interaction of heat and carbohydrate is complex. Longchain sugars such as starch tend to break down into more simple sugars when cooked, while simple sugars can form syrups. If sugars are heated so that all water of crystallisation is driven off, then caramelisation starts, with the sugar undergoing thermal decomposition with the formation of carbon and other breakdown products producing caramel. An emulsion of starch with fat or water can, when gently heated, provide thickening to the dish being cooked. In European cooking, a mixture of butter and flour called a roux is used to thicken liquids to make stews or sauces. In Asian cooking, a similar effect is obtained from a mixture of rice or corn starch and water. These techniques rely on the properties of starches to create simpler mucilaginous saccharides during cooking, which causes the familiar thickening of sauces. This thickening will break down, however, under additional heat.
- 14. Action of Heat on Proteins When proteins are heated they become de-natured and change texture. In many cases, this causes the structure of the material to become softer or more friable - meat becomes cooked. Cooking at ordinary temperatures renders protein foods more digestible. At high temperatures the protein itself gets denatured thus making it of nutritive value. In some cases, proteins can form more rigid structures, such as the coagulation of albumen in egg whites.
- 15. Action of Heat on Fats Fat melts when it comes in contact with heat. If heated to a very high degree for a long time, fats undergo partial decomposition and fatty acids and glycerol are produced. Glycerol further decomposes into caroling which is an irritating compound to the digestive system. When fat heated for long time at too slow temperature it thickens, becoming gummy. This condition is known as polymerization, and fat that has reached this stage is no longer fit for use. Action of Heat on Minerals There is no appreciable loss of minerals due to cooking. Some minerals are made more readily available by cooking.
- 16. Action of Heat on Vitamins There is some unavoidable loss of vitamins during cooking. The loss is considerable in respect of thiamine and vitamin C. Vitamin A and D are not destroyed by the ordinary methods of cooking. Vitamin B may be destroyed during cooking if cooked at high temperature. The use of baking soda in cooking causes further destruction of vitamins.
- 17. Effect of cooking on different ingredients Cereals: Rice is washed before cooking. Excessive washing removes the water-soluble vitamins and mineral. The proactive of cooking rice in large quantities of water and draining away the excess of water at the end of cooking leads to further loss of B- group vitamins and minerals. Rice, therefore, must be cooked with just enough water so that all the water is absorbed at the end of cooking-this is usually 2 or 2 ½ times the volume of rice. All cereals (eg. water flour) absorb water and during cooking the starch granules swell up and burst. This renders the digestion of starch rapid and complete. Pulses: Pulses are rich in protein (20 to 25 per cent). They also contain small quantities of starch. It is very important to boil pulses very thoroughly. T his destroys the antitypic substance present in them.
- 18. Green Leafy Vegetables: Green leafy vegetables are prized for vitamins and minerals. The vitamin A which occurs in the form of thiamine and vitamin C are partially destroyed by cooking. If the cooking water is drained away, there will be loss of not only vitamins but also minerals. It is therefore recommended that green leafy vegetables should be cooked in a small amount of water and for the proper length of time. Baking soda should not be used to hasten cooking. Other Vegetables: Vegetables like potatoes should be cooked with their outer skin intact; this retains all the vitamins and minerals contained in them. As a rule, vegetables should be cooked in a small amount of water to prevent loss of vitamins and minerals. They can also be cooked by steaming. Cooking of Fruits: Most fruits are eaten fresh and raw. This makes the vitamins present in fruits easily available. Fruits can also be cooked by stewing; this will result in loss of some vitamins, particularly, vitamin C.
- 19. Cooking of Meat: Meat is cooked in a number of ways. While cooking, meat coagulation of protein is at 60°C. • There is reduction in water content; consequently there is shrinkage of meat, • Collagen which is a protein of the connective tissues is changed into gelatin, • Elastic, which is also component of connective tissue is not affected, • The fat of meat melts, • There is loss of mineral in cooking water but this water can be used as soup or gravy, • Loss of B-group vitamins especially thiamine. Cooking of Fish: Fish contains so little connective tissue, that the cooking time is very short. The proteins coagulate at 60°C.
- 20. Cooking of Milk: When milk is heated, a scum consisting of fat, forms on the surface. This makes it difficult for steam to escape; hence milk boils over easily. Some of the lact-albumin sticks to the sides and bottom. Prolonged boiling alters the taste of milk. The cooked flavour is due to burning or caramelization of milk sugar. There is destruction of thiamine and vitamin C during boiling. Milk, which is already a poor source of vitamin C becomes poorer at the end of boiling. Boiling destroys enzymes and the useful lactic acid bacteria present in milk. Cooking of Eggs: The albumin of the egg begins to coagulate at 60°C; and solidifies at 64°C – 65°C. At boiling point (100°C), the albumin becomes tough. However there is little change in the nutrients present in the egg.
- 21. Methods of Cooking Food Moist Heat Methods Dry Heat Methods Dry Heat Method using Oil Using Dry Heat
- 22. Moist Heat Methods In this method, food is put into boiling water or cooked in the steam which comes out from the boiling water. Some common ways by which you cook food by moist heat are described here. 1. Blanching 2. Poaching 3. Steaming 4. Boiling 5. Braising 6. Stewing
- 23. Dry Heat Methods Using Oil Cooking of food in hot oil or ghee 1. Sauteing or stir frying 2. Pan Frying or deep frying 3. Poeling Using dry Heat Cooked by dry heat which is usually hot air. The temperature used is as high as 200-300°C. Dry heat cooking gives a crisp texture, brown colour and pleasant flavor to the foods. 1. Baking 2. Grilling 3. Roasting 4. Microwave Cooking
- 24. Moist Heat Method Boiling Boiling is a method of cooking foods by just immersing them in water at 100 degree Celsius and maintaining the water at that temperature till the food is tender. Rice, egg, dhal, meat, roots and tubers are cooked by boiling. This is the most common method of cooking and is also the simplest. With this method of cooking, enough water is added to food and it is then cooked over the fire. The action of the heated water makes the food to get cooked. The liquid is usually thrown away after the food is cooked. In the case of cooking rice, all the water is absorbed by the rice grains to make it get cooked. During the heating process, the nutrients can get lost or destroyed and the flavour can be reduced with this method of cooking. If you over cooked cabbage, all the nutrients can get lost.
- 25. Advantages of Boiling To reduce cooking time to minimum To remove strong flavor from certain vegetables Healthy method of cooking as little/no oil is used. Food becomes soft and digestible. Relatively a quick method of cooking.
- 26. Disadvantages of Boiling Most of the water-soluble vitamins such as vitamin C and B-group vitamins are destroyed by the high heat while some are lost to the cooking liquid. It is time consuming. It takes time and fuel may get wasted. Boiled foods are not considered tasty because flavor compounds are leached in to the water. Over boiling of food make the food mushy. Examples - Foods that are cooked by boiling are rice, eggs, dals, potatoes, meat, and sago and beetroot.
- 27. Equipments used in Boiling
- 28. 2. Poaching This requires cooking in minimum amount of liquid at temperature of 80-85 degree C that is below the boiling point. Foods generally poached are egg, fish and fruits. For poaching eggs, the addition of little salt or vinegar to cooking liquid lowers the temperature of coagulation. Eggs get cooked quickly by the process.
- 29. Advantages 1. Very quick method of cooking. 2. Easily digestible since no fat no used. Disadvantages 1.It is bland in taste 2. Water soluble nutrients may be leached into water Examples – Eggs, Chicken , Meat , Vegetables etc.
- 30. Equipments used in Poaching Sauteuse Fish slice Salmon kettle Perforated spoon
- 31. Steaming This method requires the food to be cooked in steam. This is generated from vigorously boiling water or liquid in a pan so that the food is completely surrounded by steam and not in contact with water or liquid. The water should be boiled before the food is placed in steamer. Here the food gets cooked at 100 degree C. Advantages of Steaming 1. It does not require constant attention 2. Nutritive value is maintains because there is no leaching 3. Easily digestible since no much fat is added 4. There is less chances of burning 5. Texture of food is better and become light and fluffy
- 32. Equipments used in Steaming Pressure cooker Perforated tray Atmospheric steamer High compression steamer Dim sum basket Convection steamer Disadvantages of Steaming 1. Special equipment are required 2. Many food can not be prepared by this method
- 33. Stewing Stewing is a long, slow method of cooking where food is cut into small pieces and cooked in the large amount of liquid, water, stock or sauce. The food and the cooking liquid are served together. 1. The food items are normally cut into small cubes. Tougher cuts of meat and harder vegetables are cooked by this method. 2. The liquid is normally at simmering point and is enough to just cover the entire foodstuff. 3. In stewing, a lot of the nutrients, flavor and taste of the food item is transferred to the liquid. Stewing is almost the same as simmering and the principles are the same. Simmering refers to a preliminary method of cooking whereas stewing refers to the making of a dish.
- 35. Braising To braise means to cook covered in a small amount of liquid, usually after preliminary browning. Braising is usually applied to larger, tougher joints of meat, game, poultry and occasionally fish, which requires extended periods of cooking time in order to become tender, palatable, and more easily digestible. Braising is a combination of three methods of cooking: 1. Stewing 2. Steaming 3. Roasting
- 36. Difference between Braising and Stewing Braising 1. Liquid partially covers the food 2. Large cuts of meat and vegetables 3. Cuts can be browned before adding the liquid 4. Less Gravy Stewing 1. Food is immersed in the liquid 2. Small and even cuts of meat and vegetables 3. Cuts are not browned before adding the liquid 4. More gravy
- 37. Blanching Blanching is not a direct method of cooking , as usually this is the preliminary process followed to prepare the food which would eventually undergo another method of cooking. It is derived from French word “blanc” which means to whiten. Whiten here means brightening the color of the vegetables 1. Hot water blanching 2. Cold water blanching 3. Oil blanching
- 38. Poeling The method of cooking utilize only prime quality foods. It is usually used to prepare first quality of meat, poultry, and some game and the process involves cooking of meat in a closed container in melted butter. This is a combination of three methods of cooking 1. Stewing 2. Steaming 3. Roasting
- 39. Frying This is a method of cooking in which the food is cooked by the heat of hot fat. Fat or oil can be heated to a much higher temperature, as compared to water and thus, as the food comes in contact with this heated fat, it gets cooked quickly. Fried food are very tasty and hence popular in our meals. 1. Shallow Frying 2. Deep Frying
- 40. Sautéing This means to toss the foodstuff in a little amount of heated fat, till it is partially cooked and absorbs the fat. The food is tossed occasionally or turned over with a spatula to enable all the pieces to come in contact with the oil and get cooked evenly. Sometimes the pan is covered till tender in its own steam. The product obtained in cooked by this method is slightly moist, tender but without any liquid or gravy. It is usually done as a pre-preparation step in many dishes e.g., Sautéing of vegetable in the preparation of vegetable pulao, or Sautéing of noodles, thin pieces of meat etc.
- 41. Baking: It is cooking of food in hot air in a closed oven. The food to be cooked is kept in a preheated oven, where it is surrounded by hot air in the closed oven, thus getting cook by the dry heat. Usually the oven is heated to a particularly temperature according to the food which is to be baked and this temperature is maintained throughout the cooking procedure. The foods generally prepared by this method are cakes, biscuits, pies, pastries, pudding, vegetables, and potatoes etc.
- 42. Grilling It is cooking of food by direct heat over a hot fire or under a grill; this is also method of cooking of direct heat. Usually the food is put on grill bars and is cooked over direct heat with the help of little fat. The grill bars are first brushed with oil to prevent food from sticking and can be heated by charcoal, coke gas or, electricity. Since the heat is high, the foods get cooked quickly. Only first class cut of poultry, certain fish and vegetables like tomato, and mushroom, can be prepared this way, For example , the most common preparations is seekh kababs.
- 44. Roasting It is cooking the food uncovered in hot air i.e. by dry heat. This can be done in a tan door, in an oven or in a thick heavy pan. Certain foods like chicken, joints of good quality meats, are roasted with occasional basting .i.e. addition of a little fat, so as to prevent the surface from drying add to a flavor, whereas vegetable likes potatoes, sweet potatoes, and bringers are roasted on a direct flame or in a oven without addition of any fat. Similarly, cereals like suji, broken wheat, and vermicelli etc. are roasted in a heavy bottomed pan with or without the addition of a little fat depending on the preparations to be made from them.
- 46. Broiling Cooking by exposing food to direct radiant heat, either on a grill over live coals or below a gas burner or electric coil. Broiling differs from roasting and baking in that the food is turned during the process so as to cook one side at a time.
- 47. Preparation of food The processes of food preparation might be divided according to their primary science, whether physical (such as extracting nuts from their shells), chemical (adding salt or sugar), or biological (brewing beer). Perhaps more logically, they might be categorized according to their intended purpose. Some foods are toxic unless prepared properly. Others are scarcely edible until softened. Preparation can bring together nutritional variety. It can add intriguing (Complexity) flavors. Food preparation can also have negative impacts, especially on nutrients. Therefore care has to be taken throughout the process of cooking right from the preparation of ingredients to final serving.
- 48. Many techniques are used for food preparation before cooking and they are done according to the requirements of the various dishes. This helps to improve, appearance texture, palatability and flavor and foods combine readily. The techniques are divided into two:- 1) Preparation of ingredients 2) Combining and mixing in the preparation of foods
- 49. 1. Preparation of ingredients Preparation of ingredients is popularly termed as Mise-enplace. Mise-en-place (pronounced mizãplas, is literally "set in place"), it is a French phrase defined by the Culinary Institute of America as "everything in place". It is used in kitchens to refer to the ingredients, such as cuts of meat, relishes, sauces, par-cooked items, spices, freshly chopped vegetables and other components that a cook requires for the menu items that they expect to prepare. Recipes are reviewed, to check for necessary ingredients and equipment. Ingredients are measured out, washed, chopped and placed in individual bowls. Preparing the mise en place ahead of time allows the chef to cook without having to stop and assemble items, which is desirable in recipes with time constraints. Solid foods which are to be mixed have to be reduced into sizes which will allow them to combine readily. A certain amount of preparation is thus mandatory.
- 50. Washing Washing is a form of cleansing food before preperation or eating. Washing is done to remove superficial dirt. Meat, fish, vegetables and fruits are washed in cold water before any preparation, i.e. peeling or cutting. If cut and soaked for a long period or washed after cutting, there is a great loss of water soluble vitamins and minerals. The more cut surfaces exposed the more nutrition is lost. The following are the points to be noted while washing fruits or vegetables: § Remove and discard outer leaves. § Rinse under clean, running water just before preparing or eating. § Rub briskly by scrubbing with a clean brush or hands, to remove dirt and surface microorganisms. § Don’t use soap or detergent. § After washing, dry with a clean cloth or paper towel. Moisture left on produce may promote survival and growth of microorganisms. Drying is critical if food won’t be eaten or cooked right away § Cut away bruised and damaged areas § Bacteria on the outside of fruits can be transferred to the inside when the fruit is peeled or cut. Wash fruits; such as cantaloupe and other melons; under running water.
- 51. Cutting: Cutting or chopping is reducing to small parts using a knife or scissors or chopping knife or a food chopper. Cutting into even sized pieces or cubes is called dicing. Cutting into very fine pieces with a knife is called shredding e.g. finger chips. Slicing is also cutting in thin long pieces by it is not as fine as shredding, e.g. bread slices. Peeling and Scraping: Peeling is removing the outermost skin of fruits or vegetables manually or using a peeler, e.g. sweet limes, bananas, boiled potatoes. Spoilt, soiled and edible portions, skins of vegetables like potatoes, carrots etc. and fruits are removed by scraping. Paring: Paring is removing the surface layer in circular motion by pressure of a knife-edge all round the object, e.g. paring an apple.
- 52. Grating: Grating is reducing a large piece of food to small particles or thin shreds by rubbing it against a coarse, serrated surface called a grater usually on a kitchen utensil. The food to be grated should be firm, which in the case of cheese can usually be accomplished by refrigeration. Grating food makes it easier to incorporate with other foods. Mincing: Mincing is a method in which food ingredients are finely ground. The effect is to create a closely bonded mixture of ingredients and a soft or pasty texture. Flavoring ingredients with spices or condiments such as garlic, ginger, and fresh herbs may be minced to distribute flavor more evenly in a mixture. Additionally bruising of the tissue can release juices and essential oils to deliver flavors uniformly in a sauce. Meat is also minced to make meat balls, stuffings in meat puffs, etc.
- 53. Slicing: Slicing is cutting into thin pieces, but not as fine as shredding. Shredding: Shredding is cutting into long narrow pieces by means of a shredder or knife, e.g. cabbage. Slitting: Making a slit in the middle lengthwise, e.g. lady's fingers, green chillies, etc. Grinding: Grinding is reducing to small fragments or powder by crushing, as in grinding spices, or coffee in a flour mill or on a grinding stone. Mashing: Mashing is a method of breaking up of soft food usually after cooking or boiling with pressure, with a potato masher or with a fork. Pressing: Pressing is separating liquid portions from solids by weights or mechanical pressure, as in making cider from apples, paneer, screw pressing, etc.
- 55. Puréeing: Puréeing is grounding, pressing, and/or straining vegetables or legumes to the consistency of a soft paste or thick liquid. Purées of specific foods are often known by specific names, e.g. mashed potatoes or apple sauce. Fruit juice concentrates are also made in the form of semi-solid puree, e.g. guava, tomato puree, etc. Sieving: Sieving separates wanted/desired elements from unwanted material using a tool such as a mesh or net. It also helps in enclosing air between powder particles and mixing ingredients evenly, like sieving of flour for cakes. It also ensures uniformity of particle size. Refining: Refining is freeing desired material from impurities, as in refining cane-sugar. Skimming: Skimming is removing a floating layer by passing a utensil under it (ladle) as in skimming cream from milk. Rendering: Rendering is separating fat from connective tissues by heat as in rendering lard (dripping). Filtration: Separating solids or sediments from liquids, through fine meshed materials, as in filtering fruit juices for jelly through a cloth bag or fine wire mesh strainer or filter press.
- 57. Flavouring: A bundle of herbs and vegetables bouquet garni to impart flavour to stock and sauces. Julienning: Julienning is a method of food preparation in which the food item is cut into long thin strips. Common items to be julienned are carrots for carrots Julienne, potatoes for French fries, or celery for Céléris Remoulade. Julienne can also be applied to the preparation of meat or fish, Japanese saseme especially in stir fry techniques. Sprouting: Sprouting is the practice of soaking, draining and then moistening seeds at regular intervals until they germinate, or sprout. Flotation: Separating on the basis of difference in specific gravity as in the elimination of the over immature peas in a batch by use of brine of appropriate strength.
- 59. Evaporation or Reduction: Evaporation or reduction is removal of water, commonly accelerated by heating without lid. Homogenization: Sub-dividing large drops into smaller ones by forcing them through a small apperture under great pressure as in homogenizing the fat in cream, homogenized milk etc. Emuisification: Dispersing one liquid in another in which it is insoluble or unmiscible such as water and oil with the addition of an emulsifier; e.g. vegetable gums. If the dispersion is to be temporary, a stabilizer, which coats the droplets of the dispersed phase, must be incorporated, e.g. in mayonnaise.
- 60. 2. Combining and mixing in the preparation of foods Food preparation often involves the combining and mixing of different food or food materials. Important effects of the methods of combining food or ingredients are those related to palatability. Texture and flavour are often controlled to an important degree by the skill and method employed in combining component materials. Beating: Beating is mixing materials briskly, lifting and dropping them with an appropriate tool. Whether done using an electric mixer or by hand with a fork, spoon, or whisk, to 'beat' is to vigorously mix, blend, or stir a mixture in a circular motion. This technique changes the consistency of the ingredient(s), from the smoothing, mixing and aerating the ingredients to incorporating air into egg whites or sweet cream. Rule of Thumb - 100 strokes by hand will equal about one minute with an electric mixer
- 61. Blending: Blending is a technique where two or more ingredients are combined so they are smooth and equally distributed throughout the mixture. A spoon, fork, rubber spatula, whisk, electric mixer with paddle attachment, food processor, blender or even bare hands can be used for this technique. Blending differs from beating in that its sole purpose is to combine the ingredients, not to incorporate air into the mixture. Cutting-in: Cutting-in is a technique used in pastry making (scones, biscuits) involving the mixing of a cold solid fat (butter, margarine, shortening) into dry ingredients (flour mixture) until the mixture is blended but still contains small flour-coated pieces of cold fat. This combining of the cold fat and dry ingredients must be done quickly and with a light hand so that the fat does not melt. For light and fluffy scones or biscuits, the fat should not become too soft or cut too fine. A pastry blender, two knives, fingers, food processor or an electric mixer with the paddle attachment can be used.
- 63. Creaming: Creaming is mixing or beating technique that combines ingredients to make a uniform mixture and also incorporates air into this mixture. Softening fat by friction with a spoon, usually followed by gradual incorporation of sugar as in cake- making. The butter should be at room temperature so it incorporates the sugar sufficiently to produce a smooth and creamy batter that is light and fluffy. A whisk, wooden spoon, or electric mixer with paddle attachment can be used. Kneading (pronounced (NEEDing): Kneading technique used in both bread making and pastries to combine and work a dough or mixture into a smooth and pliable mass. In bread making, kneading the dough also develops the gluten strands in the flour so it adequately holds in the gases released by the leavener (yeast) to produce a bread with good volume and texture. This technique can be done by hand, using the press-foldturn action or using a food processor or electric mixer with the dough hook.
- 65. Whipping: Whipping is a mixing technique used to incorporate air into an ingredient or mixture (i.e. egg whites, heavy cream) to increase its volume and make it light and fluffy. This is done by vigorously beating in a circular motion using a wire whisk or electric mixer. Egg whites are often whipped and then added to cake batters to make them less dense so they have more volume when baked. Whipped heavy cream can be added to custards or sauces to make them lighter. Whisking: Whisking is a technique to rapidly beat or whip as much air (volume) as possible into a mixture or one ingredient (usually heavy cream or egg whites). This is accomplished by using a wire whisk or electric mixer. A whisk is made of several wires that are looped together into a teardrop shape and attached to a wooden or stainless steel handle. They come in many different sizes and shapes with the wires of various amounts, thicknesses and flexibilities. Whisks can be used to whip, blend or stir ingredient(s).
- 67. Folding: Folding is a simple but crucial technique used when combining a light and airy ingredient into a heavier ingredient or mixture in such a way as each ingredient maintains its original volume. This technique must be done quickly but gently and stop 'folding' as soon as the ingredients are blended. Start by placing one quarter of the lighter mixture on top of the heavier mixture. With a rubber spatula cut down vertically through the two mixtures, sweep across the bottom, up the nearest side of the bowl, and over the top of the mixtures (go in clockwise direction). Rotate the bowl a quarter turn counter-clockwise and repeat the down-across-up-over motion. This technique is commonly used to incorporate flour into a sponge cake base and adding egg whites to a cake batter
- 68. Marinating: Marinating is the process of soaking foods in a seasoned, often acidic and / or liquid before cooking. The 'marinade' can be acidic with ingredients such as vinegar, lemon juice, or wine, or savory with soy sauce, brine or other prepared sauces. Along with these liquids, a marinade often contains oils, herbs, and spices to further flavor the food items. It is commonly used to flavor foods and to tenderize tougher cuts of meat or harder vegetables such as beetroot, eggplant and courgette. The process may last seconds or days. Different marinades are used in different cuisines. In Indian cuisine the marinade is usually prepared with yoghurt and spices.
- 69. Searing: Searing is the sauteing or pre-cooking roast, to develop colour and flavour. Stirring: Stirring is mixing materials with an appropriate tool, such as a spoon by a circular motion in contact with the pan (as in stirring white sauce). Generally this is a gentle movement but changed to suit different dishes, as when used to prevent sticking or burning in halwas and toffees. If used too vigorously, it is likely to drive out any air or other gas previously enclosed as a raising agent.
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