Budgeting: Allocation & Public Policy, A Summary, Analysis, & Recommendations
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The document provides an overview of the federal budget process in the United States, including: 1) It describes the key stages and actors in the process, from the president setting parameters, to agency requests, executive review, congressional action, budget execution, and control. 2) It discusses some common problems with the budget process, such as the deficit, uncontrollable expenditures, supplemental appropriations, and earmarks. 3) It analyzes resources, working with the deficit, the top five elements of the budgeting process, and concludes with recommendations around performance measurement.
Budgeting: Allocation & Public Policy, A Summary, Analysis, & Recommendations
- 1. E. Rey Garcia, MPA Candidate Public Policy Formulation August 10, 2015 Budgeting: Allocation & Public Policy Final Assignment #7 A Summary, Analysis, & Recommendations,the Federal Budget Process and Public Policy
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- 3. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 2 Final Assignment Budgeting: Allocation & Public Policy A Summary, Analysis, & Recommendations, the Federal Budget Process and Public Policy By: E. Rey Garcia, MPA Candidate Monday, August 10, 2015 ************** The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley (UTRGV) The Graduate College Public Affairs-Administration ************* PUBA 6311: Public Policy Formulation Summer 2015, Module 2 Dr. Atisa
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- 5. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 4 Table of Contents Objective 6 Introduction 6 Summary 6 The Characteristics of the Federal Budget 6 Executive Budget 7 The Line Item 7 Annual Budget 7 The Budget Cycle 8 Setting the Parameters: The President and His Friends 9 The Agency Requests 9 Executive Review 9 Congressional Action 10 Budget Execution 11 Budget Control 11 Problems in the Budget Process 12 The Deficit 12 Uncontrollable Expenditures 12 Supplemental Appropriations 13 Earmarks 13 The Rebirth of Program Budgeting 16 Analysis 17 Resources/Money 17 Working with and around the Deficit and the National Debt 18 The Top-Five Elements of the Budgeting Process 18 Concluding Recommendations – Performance Measurement 23 References 25
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- 7. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 6 Objective To brief, educate, and mentor the candidate on the Characteristics of the Federal Budget, the Executive Budget, Line Items, the Annual Budget, the Federal Budget Cycle and the allocation of funds and any obstacles, issues or problems associated with the process. Introduction This case study defines the processes and steps that a recent MPA graduate, who was hired as a campaign manager for a Congresswoman from a conservative Republican and Democratic district with two large cities and a large rural population with a vast majority of senior citizens. The primary task of the campaign manager is to brief, educate, and mentor the Congresswoman on the Federal Budget Process and the allocation of funds, as it applies to Public Policy. Summary I. The Characteristics of the Federal Budget: The Federal Budget has several fundamental features that are in some ways not only beneficial to decision makers but also serve to constrain them and at times help create undesirable outcomes. The Federal Budget is not politically neutral, however, it directly affects the outcomes of the process. The frequent attempts to adjust and reform comes with budgetary resistance from the stakeholders, thus, causing political debating that ends up in compromising and negotiating before it is approved.
- 8. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 7 a. Executive Budget - The federal budget is an executive budget, prepared by the president and his staff, approved by Congress, and then executed by the president and the executive branch. That has not always been the case. Before 1921, the federal budget was a legislative budget, prepared almost entirely by Congress and then executed. The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 – Prior to 1921, the Federal Budget was a Legislative Budget and was prepare by Congress. The Budgeting and Accounting Act of 1921 added to the existing conflict between the executive and legislative branches over budgeting powers. Budgetary power has accumulated in the executive branch and in the Executive Office of the President, in large part because of the analytical dominance of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB; it was called the Bureau of the Budget until 1971). b. The Line Item - The Federal Budget remains a line-item budget. That is, the final budget document allocates funds into categories such as wages and salaries, supplies, travel, equipment, and so forth for specific purposes within an agency. Input controls are now considered inefficient means of control over public organizations and their managers. Critics have argued that it would be better to give a manager a relatively unrestricted budget and judge him afterwards. c. Annual Budget - The Federal Budget is primarily an annual budget. Agencies now must submit five-year forecasts for each of their expenditures and they are used primarily for OMB’s management purposes. The budget presented to Congress and the appropriations bills that Congress eventually adopts together constitute only a one-year expenditure plan.
- 9. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 8 II. The Budget Cycle: Fiscal Year 2014 U.S. Federal Spending – Cash or Budget Basis. The Budget of the United States Government often begins as the President's proposal to the U.S. Congress which recommends funding levels for the next fiscal year, beginning October 1. Fig 01, shows the step-by-step cycle and process for adopting the Annual Federal Budget. Fig. 01: The Annual Federal Budget Process
- 10. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 9 a. Setting the Parameters: The President and His Friends – The spring review is the first official act of the budget cycle is the development of estimates of the total size of the federal budget to be prepared for the fiscal year. Agencies and OMB have already have begun to discuss and prepare expenditure plans and a letter from the president to OMB (Circular A-11, usually issued in June) is an important first step in the formal process, providing a statement of overall presidential budgetary strategy and of the financial limits within which agencies should begin to prepare their budgets. Setting overall parameters in the letter present details on individual agencies. b. The Agency Requests – When it comes to U.S. policymaking, government agencies are central actors in the budget process. Whether independent or within a cabinet-level department, the agency is responsible for the initial preparation of estimates and requests for. c. Executive Review– Once agencies decide on the requests, it is passed to the presidential agency, the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) for review. OMB’s task is to gather all agency requests and conform them to presidential policy priorities for overall expenditure-levels desired.
- 11. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 10 d. Congressional Action - The Constitution grants it the powers of the purse, by the 1960s and 1970s, Congress has ceased to be dominating budgetary decision- maker. The Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 – According to Congress.gov, the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974, sets forth the definitions of terms used in the Act: Title I: Establishment of House and Senate Budget Committees= - Establishes a Standing Committee of the Senate to be known as the Committee of the Budget. Establishes such a Committee of the House. Outlines the composition and duties of the committees. Provides that each such committee shall make a continuing study of the effects of budget outlays and devise methods of coordinating tax policies with budget outlays. Title II: Congressional Budget Office= - Creates a Congressional Budget Office and outlines the duties of such Office. States that the function of the Office is to provide information to the Budget Committees of the two Houses and to other Committees of the two Houses with respect to the budget, appropriation bills, and other bills providing budget authority or tax expenditures. It abolishes the Joint Committee on Reduction of Federal Expenditures. Provides for public access to budget data. (Source: https://www.congress.gov/bill/93rd-congress/house-bill/7130.)
- 12. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 11 e. Budget Execution - Once Congress appropriates the funds for the executive branch, agencies must develop mechanisms and plans for spending the allocated funds. An appropriations warrant, drawn by the Treasury and countersigned by the Government Accountability Office, is sent to each agency. Agencies make plans for expenditures for the year and base it on the warrant and submits a plan to OMB for apportionment of the funds. Funds appropriated by Congress are made available on a quarterly basis, but for some agencies, there may be great differences in the amounts for each quarter. f. Budget Control – Once the executive branch spends the approved funds, Congress verifies, checks and audits the expenses to make sure they are legal.
- 13. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 12 III. Problems in the Budget Process: The Federal Budget Process is a lengthy one, taking as up to eighteen months to approve a complexity of negotiations of back and forth debate amongst the competing agencies. The process involves substantial bargaining and analysis, from which emerges a plan for spending billions of dollars. a. The Deficit – According to False Economy, is the gap between what the government spends and what it gets in income, mainly from taxes. Big deficits are inevitable in a recession. Spending goes up to pay extra unemployment benefits. Tax income falls. Companies make smaller profits or even fail. (Source: http://falseeconomy.org.uk/cure/what-is-the-deficit). The importance of the deficit during the election process and debates. The deficit has been a major force driving budget reform in the United States, because of the negative and debts it symbolizes. Politicians need to remain concerned and aware of their charges of fiscal irresponsibility. Because of the ideological baggage associated with deficit and debt, it has been difficult at times to discuss them rationally. b. Uncontrollable Expenditures – Most of the Federal Budget is uncontrollable in any one year. Most federal spending programs cannot be controlled systematically without making policy changes that would be politically unpalatable. With Social Security, Medicare and unemployment benefits being the most important uncontrollable expenditures in the Federal Budget.
- 14. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 13 c. Supplemental Appropriations – To cover any shortfalls, agencies may also require supplemental appropriations to be made outside the normal budget cycle. Oftentimes, due to poor budget management or demands of services, agencies sometimes run out of money. Agencies can often request that a program be approved with minimal appropriations to gain popular vote and support, however, the agencies can then use strategies to attempt to expand funding once the program and funds have been allocated and approved, followed by the agencies anticipation that by returning to Congress for supplemental appropriations when clients materialize and demand benefits. d. Earmarks - These are funds provided by Congress for projects or programs that curtail the ability of the Executive Branch to manage critical aspects of the funds allocation process. The following table summarizes preliminary earmark counts and amounts by Appropriations Subcommittee for FY 2010 as earmarks move through the legislative process to become law. By clicking on the links below, you can browse available earmark data by agency. The data includes total counts, amounts (in thousands), and listings of earmarks with descriptions, funding by stage, congressional sponsors, and supporting citations. These webpages will be updated as federal departments and agencies complete their review of House, Senate, and enacted FY 2010 appropriations. Each total includes a "Date Published" that reflects the date that amounts, counts, and supporting citation information was last modified.
- 15. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 14 Earmarks table: FY2010 Earmarks by Appropriations Subcommittee Appropriations Bill Earmark 2008 Enacted 2009 Enacted FY 2010 House Committee FY 2010 House Floor FY 2010 Senate Committee FY 2010 Senate Floor FY 2010 Conference Agriculture and Rural Development Count Amount ($K) Date Published 525 337,204 04-Sep- 2009 494 312,830 09-Mar- 2010 323 224,228 11-Apr- 2010 323 224,228 11-Apr- 2010 302 229,240 11-Apr- 2010 302 229,240 11-Apr- 2010 465 359,859 11-Apr- 2010 Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies Count Amount ($K) Date Published 1,738 932,531 04-Sep- 2009 1,556 785,690 09-Mar- 2010 1,090 371,158 11-Apr- 2010 1,090 371,158 11-Apr- 2010 564 384,810 11-Apr- 2010 567 400,925 11-Apr- 2010 1,518 745,389 11-Apr- 2010 Defense Count Amount ($K) Date Published 2,087 6,644,746 04-Sep- 2009 2,091 5,577,811 11-Apr- 2010 1,132 3,078,455 11-Apr- 2010 1,132 3,078,455 11-Apr- 2010 793 2,953,160 11-Apr- 2010 793 2,953,160 11-Apr- 2010 1,759 4,592,471 11-Apr- 2010 Energy and Water Development Count Amount ($K) Date Published 1,781 3,686,124 04-Sep- 2009 1,839 3,801,893 11-Apr- 2010 617 602,808 11-Apr- 2010 617 602,808 11-Apr- 2010 547 921,016 11-Apr- 2010 547 921,016 11-Apr- 2010 965 1,185,239 11-Apr- 2010 Financial Services and General Government Count Amount ($K) Date Published 202 409,240 04-Sep- 2009 265 143,204 11-Apr- 2010 189 152,800 11-Apr- 2010 190 153,175 11-Apr- 2010 111 257,631 11-Apr- 2010 278 350,766 11-Apr- 2010 Homeland Security Count Amount ($K) Date Published 122 348,218 04-Sep- 2009 131 501,328 09-Mar- 2010 151 109,723 11-Apr- 2010 158 159,723 11-Apr- 2010 25 125,725 11-Apr- 2010 25 125,725 11-Apr- 2010 177 243,695 11-Apr- 2010 Interior and Environment Count Amount ($K) Date Published 568 436,058 04-Sep- 2009 565 447,300 09-Mar- 2010 275 158,131 11-Apr- 2010 275 158,131 11-Apr- 2010 299 236,136 11-Apr- 2010 310 242,461 11-Apr- 2010 555 371,356 11-Apr- 2010
- 16. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 15 Appropriations Bill Earmark 2008 Enacted 2009 Enacted FY 2010 House Committee FY 2010 House Floor FY 2010 Senate Committee FY 2010 Senate Floor FY 2010 Conference Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education Count Amount ($K) Date Published 2,252 899,278 04-Sep- 2009 2,163 882,671 09-Mar- 2010 1,139 439,574 11-Apr- 2010 1,139 441,574 11-Apr- 2010 780 453,262 11-Apr- 2010 1,786 823,347 11-Apr- 2010 Military Construction and Veterans Affairs Count Amount ($K) Date Published 190 1,177,245 04-Sep- 2009 178 1,329,609 11-Apr- 2010 109 578,994 11-Apr- 2010 109 578,994 11-Apr- 2010 96 628,055 11-Apr- 2010 96 628,055 11-Apr- 2010 184 1,206,086 11-Apr- 2010 State and Foreign Operations Count Amount ($K) Date Published 5 23,012 04-Sep- 2009 1 5,000 09-Mar- 2010 0 0 11-Apr- 2010 0 0 11-Apr- 2010 0 0 11-Apr- 2010 0 0 11-Apr- 2010 0 0 11-Apr- 2010 Transportation and Housing and Urban Development Count Amount ($K) Date Published 2,053 1,748,036 04-Sep- 2009 1,841 1,495,744 09-Mar- 2010 1,021 595,775 11-Apr- 2010 1,021 595,775 11-Apr- 2010 575 733,082 11-Apr- 2010 575 733,082 11-Apr- 2010 1,505 1,218,913 11-Apr- 2010 Total Count Amount ($K) 11,523 16,641,692 11,124 15,283,080 6,046 6,311,646 6,054 6,364,021 4,092 6,922,117 9,192 11,097,121
- 17. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 16 e. The Rebirth of Program Budgeting - The ideas of program budgeting continue to appear in thinking about the budget process, and especially in thinking about reforms. The basic idea of making the most efficient allocation of money among competing resources is an extremely alluring one, and politicians and analysts will attempt to pursue that rationalistic goal even in the face of massive evidence that it may not be attainable in the rough world of politics. The Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 (GPRA) represented the rebirth of the fundamental idea of making the allocation of funds more rational. The principal concept underlying this legislation was to shift the focus in assessing organizations in the budget process away from inputs and toward outcomes and “results.” Thus, each organization in the federal government has been required to develop a strategic plan and a set of operational indicators of attaining the goals specified in that plan. The degree of success or failure in attaining the goals then plays a significant role in determining the budgetary success of the organization. This process involves neither the direct linkage to expenditures nor the level of analysis inherent in program budgeting, but it does depend on some of the same assumptions.
- 18. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 17 Analysis The analysis of this case study addresses a scenario where a recently graduated MPA, Master of Public Affairs-Administration, is hired by a Congresswoman as the Campaign Manager, Advisor and Expert on the Federal Policy Process, to advice and recommend policy updates, status and formulation according to the votes, needs and requests of the candidate’s constituents. The campaign manager, must stay current on all policy formulation processes and must make recommendations to the Congresswoman based on the current election and the budget cycle. He or she must stay current on all policies affecting the programs in the candidate’s district to make sure that the allocation of funding goes to these programs. New or younger candidates are less politically networked and might not be current on policy formulation at the U. S. Capital. This is a clear example of how a candidate might not know all processes of the budget cycle, along with the endless amount of negotiating with the agencies that entails the process before the Federal Budget is approved. By hiring a campaign manager with expertise on policy formulation, the Congresswoman can focus on getting new votes and keeping the existing supporters happy by addressing their wants and needs and by focusing on getting approval and funding for much needed programs in her district. 1. Resources/Money – The candidate must have the support of his or her constituents and should remain transparent on how and where funding is going to programs in the district. 2. Working with and around the Deficit and the National Debt – The candidate must work closely with the campaign manager, to research the Deficit and the Federal Budget Process and how funds are allocated for specific programs by agencies and how it may
- 19. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 18 affect his or her district. The candidate must be able to adjust his or her agenda based on constituent popular vote and recommendations. 3. The Top-Five Elements of the Budgeting Process, according to The Heritage Foundation (www.heritage.org). There are actually ten elements that are crucial to the Federal Budget Process, however, I will address the top five as these a critical during a candidate’s campaign during the election process, which the candidate must remain transparent in order to gain the support and trust of the constituents and be seen as a candidate with morals, values, and ethics, thus earning the credibility and respect of the people with a deep-rooted concern for being the voice of his or hers constituents. a. Element #1: Statutory Spending Caps Taxpayers' bill of rights cap: The most promising budget reform would be to cap federal spending increases at the inflation rate plus population growth (economic growth rates could be another, albeit more loose, target). Lawmakers could allocate federal spending however they wish as long as total government growth does not exceed this predetermined rate. Such a cap could save $3 trillion over the next decade by forcing lawmakers to set priorities and to make trade-offs. i. Omnicap. Like a taxpayers' bill of rights cap, an "omnicap" would apply a single cap to all federal spending (including mandatory). Rather than cap spending increases by a preset formula, lawmakers would manually set omnicap levels every few years, similar to the discretionary spending caps of the 1990s. ii. Discretionary spending caps. Discretionary spending caps successfully restrained discretionary spending while in effect from 1990 through 2002.
- 20. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 19 Bringing back these caps would help to rein in federal spending, although lawmakers should improve on previous caps with supermajority enforcement and by closing the "emergency" loophole. iii. Entitlement spending caps. With entitlement spending projected to consume the entire federal budget eventually, the country cannot afford to allow entitlements to remain on autopilot. Lawmakers could write one cap for total entitlement spending or write a formula that would apply to each program individually (such as inflation plus beneficiary population). This could be enforced by requiring Congress to reform excessive entitlement spending or face an across-the-board sequestration. b. Element #2: Realistic and Honest Budget Scoring: i. Accounting for unfunded liabilities in the budget. While businesses compute their long-term liabilities, Congress does not. Budgets should include a calculation of all future explicit and implicit taxpayer liabilities and lawmakers should create a point of order against increasing these liabilities. ii. Dynamic scoring of taxes. Currently, Congress evaluates tax policies by "static scoring," a method that assumes changes to tax policy have almost no economic impact. History, economics, and common sense prove this assumption false. Dynamic scoring would more accurately estimate the economic and budgetary impact of tax changes. iii. Ending baseline budgeting. Baseline budgeting keeps entitlement spending on autopilot and creates the false impression that anything less than a
- 21. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 20 large, previously assumed spending increase is a "cut." That is a recipe for rapidly accelerating spending. c. Element #3: Strengthening the Budget Resolution: i. Joint budget resolutions signed by the President. Because concurrent budget resolutions do not carry the force of law, appropriators can easily bypass them. A joint budget resolution would not only add the force of law, but also allow the White House and Congress to negotiate spending levels in the spring, rather than waiting until the completed appropriations bills reach the President's desk in the fall. ii. Dividing budget resolution by committee, not function. The budget resolution's functional breakdowns have no binding effect and can be altered by the Appropriations Committees. Dividing the budget resolution's discretionary spending by appropriations subcommittee makes more sense, especially since Congress uses this breakdown when filling in the discretionary budget. d. Element #4: Enforcing Existing Budget Rules: i. Requiring a roll call vote to waive a point of order. The House Rules Committee has routinely reported rules automatically waiving all points of order against excessive spending. Rules that can be so easily circumvented quickly become irrelevant. ii. Requiring a supermajority to waive a point of order. Budget rules are supposed to prevent a simple majority from violating predetermined budget standards. Yet allowing the same simple majority in the House to
- 22. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 21 vote to ignore its own rules effectively eliminates all enforcement. Raising the bar to three-fifths would make it harder to violate budget rules. iii. Requiring a caucus majority to waive a point of order. If the majority party fears a three-fifths requirement would give the minority party a veto on bypassing budget rules, they could enact an internal party rule requiring a majority vote of the caucus before bringing to the floor a motion to waive a point of order. iv. Budget Committee enforcement of spending limits. The Budget Committees should be empowered to enforce the budget resolutions that they write. Spending bills that exceed the 302(a) or 302(b) allocations should be sent back to the Budget Committees for approval, modification, or rejection. e. Element #5: Tools for Accountability: i. Requiring a roll call vote for authorizations. Lawmakers often pass expensive authorization bills by voice vote, thus removing individual lawmaker accountability with voters. Roll call votes should be required to pass legislation authorizing $50 million or more over five years. ii. Congressional Budget Office cost estimate for every bill. The CBO does not provide cost estimates for all bills and only rarely for conference reports. Lawmakers should always know the cost of a bill before they vote. iii. Repealing the Gephardt rule. House lawmakers should not be able to hide debt limit increases by automatically including them in the budget
- 23. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 22 resolution. Lawmakers who truly believe in policies to increase federal debt should be willing to publicly vote that way. iv. Term limits for appropriators. Long-time appropriators have some of the highest spending records in Congress. Even appropriators who may wish to restrain spending are often required to vote for runaway spending to remain on the committee long enough to build seniority. Placing a term limit on membership on these committees would help to tear down the barrier between appropriators and other Members of Congress, and free appropriators to vote for less spending. v. Caucus election of appropriations subcommittee chairmen. Currently, only the chairman of the House Appropriations Committee is elected by his peers. Yet chairmen of appropriations subcommittees also have enormous power and have been accused of wielding that power in ways detrimental to Congress as a whole. Basic accountability requires that subcommittee chairmen also be elected by their peers in a caucus vote. vi. Biennial budgeting. Lawmakers rarely finish all budget bills by October 1, when the federal fiscal year begins. Biennial budgeting would free lawmakers to spend more time overseeing federal programs and reforming failed or unnecessary programs.
- 24. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 23 Concluding Recommendations – Performance Measurement My concluding recommendations for this case study are for the use of Performance Measurement in the Federal Budget Process. The Performance Measurement Process is when an organization uses performance measures and standards to achieve desired results. It is a forward- looking, continuous process. Performance management can be implemented at the program, organization, community, and state levels. What Is Performance Measurement? It is the regular collection of data to assess whether the correct processes are being performed and desired results are being achieved. First, by using quantitative measures that provide information about critical aspects of activities, including their effect on patients. Measures of what “actually happened” can be compared to goals set by your organization. Second, it analyzes the success of a work group, program, or organization's efforts by comparing data on what actually happened to what was planned or intended. Finally, it asks “Is progress being made toward desired goals? Are appropriate activities being undertaken to promote achieving those goals? Are there problem areas that need attention? Successful efforts that can serve as a model for others?” It focuses more on the organization when evaluating the progress and less on the individual provider.
- 25. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 24 Why Measure Performance? There are many reasons why an organization or an agency should measure performance. First, it promotes total Quality Improvement. Measuring performance can tell you what you’re doing well so you can share your successes and also reveal areas where you need to make adjustments. Measuring performance tells you whether you are achieving your ultimate goal of improving patient outcomes. Second, it promotes Transparency to the public, thus gaining the trust and respect of the community. Third, it encourages Accreditation. For example, such organizations as NCQA, the Joint Commission, and the Accreditation Association for Ambulatory Health Care (AAAHC), evaluate health care provider organizations to provide accreditation or certification signifying that those places meet certain performance standards. Fourth, it allows for Recognition from the community as providing information that is credible and empirical. Finally, it promotes Participation or Citizen Engagement. It gets the community involved and the people feel as if their voice, their opinions do matter. Concluding Statement: The use of Performance Measurement during the Federal Budget Process established Performance standards or organizational standards, goals, and targets. It establishes Performance measures or the development, application, and use of performance measures to assess achievement of standards. It Reports on the Progress by documentation and reporting on the progress in meeting standards. Finally, it promotes organizational Quality improvement or the Establishment of a program or process to achieve quality improvement based on performance standards, measurements, and reports.
- 26. Budgeting: Allocation and Public Policy 25 References Office of Management and Budget - Earmarks. (n.d.). Retrieved August 9, 2015, from https://earmarks.omb.gov/earmarks-public/ H.R.7130 - Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 197493rd Congress (1973- 1974). (1974, June 21). Retrieved August 8, 2015, from https://www.congress.gov/bill/93rd- congress/house-bill/7130 Peters, B. (Brainard) Guy (2012-10-16). American Public Policy: Promise and Performance (Page 153). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition. Riedl, B. (2006, June 15). 10 Elements of Comprehensive Budget Process Reform. Retrieved August 10, 2015, from http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2006/06/10-elements-of- comprehensive-budget-process-reform The U. S. Department of Health and Human Services - Performance Management & Measurement. (n.d.). Retrieved August 11, 2015, from http://www.hrsa.gov/quality/toolbox/methodology/performancemanagement/index.html .