Transition Towards Jatropha Biofuels in Tanzania

Transition towards Jatropha
biofuels in Tanzania?

African Studies Centre
African Studies Collection, vol. 3

Transition towards Jatropha
biofuels in Tanzania?
An analysis with Strategic Niche
Management

Janske van Eijck

2nd prize of the 2006 ASC/CODESRIA/NiZA Africa Thesis Award

Published by:
P.O. Box 9555
2300 RB Leiden
The Netherlands
asc@ascleiden.nl
http://www.ascleiden.nl

Cover design: Heike Slingerland

Photographs: Janske van Eijck

Printed by PrintPartners Ipskamp BV, Enschede

ISBN 978.90.5448.072.3

© Janske van Eijck, 2007

Contents

List of figures vii
List of tables vii
Preface ix
Definitions, abbreviations and units xi
Summary xiii

1 INTRODUCTION 1
Research problem 1
Research context 3
Research aim, research questions and limitations 4
Research method 6
Structure of the thesis 7

2 STRATEGIC NICHE MANAGEMENT 8
Landscape 10
Regimes 11
Niches 14

3 JATROPHA 18
Properties 18
Applications 21
Technical description of application domains in Tanzania 22

4 ANALYSIS OF JATROPHA BIOFUEL TRANSITION IN TANZANIA 30
Short introduction to the experiments 30
Landscape analysis 31
Regime analysis 36
Niche analysis 49
Cultivation 50
Production 62
Use 69
Other applications for Jatropha oil 74

v

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 89
Research conclusions 89
Methodological reflection 94
Recommendations 97

Appendix I: Various sources for Jatropha yield 103
Appendix II: Actors and projects visited and
interviewed in Tanzania 105
Appendix III: Contact addresses 154
Appendix IV: Interview questions 157
References 159

vi

List of figures

1 Location of Tanzania in Africa 3
2 Research framework 7
3 Technological development as process of variation and selection 9
4 Multi level perspective 10
5 The macro landscape channels micro and meso developments 11
6 Transition by substitution 12
7 Accumulation/transformation as transition route 13
8 Competition between an established and invading product 14
9 Linkages between internal niche processes 15
10 Emerging level of niches in relation to local practices in experiments 16
11 Origin and diffussion of a new technology 17
12 Geographical locations of Jatropha according to International Center for
Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) and Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew 19
13 Jatropha production chain 22
14 Ram-press 23
15 Screw press 24
16 Location of experiments in Tanzania 31
17 Share of renewable energy in global primary energy, 2004 33
18 Insect damage on Jatropha stem at Engaruka 57
19 Intercropping with Jatropha at ikuletwa 57
20 Ram-press 63
21 Sayari oil expeller 63
22 Biogas storage and cooker, Engaruka 72
23 Jatropha seed cake 74
24 Jatropha cooking stove at KIDT 81
25 Jatropha as vanilla support 83
26 Actor network of Jatropha projects in Tanzania, according to information
given by actors 87
27 Jatropha production chain 92
28 Test chamber, university 106
29 Test chamber, university 106
30 Example of farmer’s plot 115
31 Intercropping at Kikuletwa farm 117
32 Jatropha nursery at Mabilione 121
33 Replanted Jatropha at Mabilione 124
34 Nursery at Monduli, Jatropha 6 months old 138
35 Weighing the seeds 141
36 Insect damage on Jatropha stem at Engaruka 145
37 Jatropha used as support for vanilla vine 147
38 Nursery for several types of trees, Moshi 150
39 Jatropha cooking stove at KIDT 150
40 Examples of different seeds at Vyahumu 152
41 Sayari oil-expeller 152

vii

List of tables

1 Oil yield of several crops in ascending order 2
2 Properties of diesel oil, Jatropha oil and Jatropha biodiesel 25
3 Nutritional analysis of oil-seedcakes and manure 27
4 Emmissions from a Jotropha/petroleum mixture in stove within a room
with a volume of 20 m3 compatered with an open wood fire in a
kitchen comparable in size 28
5 Yield, prices and revenue for crops in Tanzania 39
6 Distribution of planted area by oil crop 41
7 Projected consumption of various fuels, in ‘000 MT 42
8 Common existing applications of renewable energy in rural (off-grid) areas 43
9 Import of petroleum products by Tanzania, 1998-2002 44
10 Average monthly energy consumption per household, Mwanga District 46
11 Average consumption expenditure levels in 20001/01 47
12 Economic analysis of several projects 53
13 Jatropha expenses of Ismael Manang 54
14 Sensivity analysis for Ismael Manang 55
15 Parameters of oil-expelling facility 64
16 Economic analysis for two presses 65
17 Sensivity analysis for ram-press and Sayari oil expeller 66
18 Yearly cost of soap-making, 20 tablets per month 76
19 Comparison of three options in soap-making at Engaruka 77
A1 Jatropha yield from several sources 103
A2 Jatropha yield from several sources 104
A3 Expenses of Jatropha at Kikuletwa Farm 118
A4 Economic analysis, Jatropha at Kikuletwa Farm 119
A5 Expenses for Jatropha plantation of the Brotherhood 122
A6 Economic analysis for Brotherhood, without water pump 123
A7 Jatropha expenses, Ismael Manang 133
A8 Economic analysis for 80 acres of Jatropha 134
A9 Expenses of soap-maing, Engaruka 142
A10 Economic analysis of soap-making, oil bought 142
A11 Expenses of soap-making, including press 143
A12 Economic analysis of soap-maing by pressing seeds 143
A13 Economic analysis of Jatropha seeds, Engaruka 144
A14 Test result of the Sayari expeller with Jatropha seeds 153

viii

Preface

This thesis is written for the fulfillment of the Master Innovation Sciences,
Technology and Policy for Developing Economies at the Eindhoven University
of Technology. For this thesis I conducted a field study of three months in
Tanzania, from March till June 2005.
Writing a thesis in a developing country is always a guarantee for the
occurrence of extra ‘harsh’ experiences and unexpected events. Power shut-
downs, language-problems, malfunctioning equipment, huge numbers of insects,
time schedules that are always violated, and so on. I have experienced it all but I
have to say I did it with the greatest enthusiasm. I was able to see and talk to
numerous people in Tanzania, sometimes in very remote areas, which provided
me with great experiences ‘off the beaten track’. I am very grateful that I was
able to experience this.
I never really got pessimistic about my research, not in the least because there
were so many people who always provided me with support and enthusiastic
cooperation. From this place I would like to thank all of you. Especially Henny
Romijn who has provided excellent supervision with great enthusiasm and
always somehow found the time to discuss interesting new findings and
obstacles. It was really a pleasure. I would also especially like to thank prof.
Kees Daey Ouwens who was the initiator of my research and has provided
valuable feedback and an extensive and interesting network. Furthermore I would
like to thank everybody who has had part in this research:
* L. Lemmens and I. Biemond, my second and third supervisors;
* Ruud van Eck director of Diligent Energy Systems, for providing me with
the opportunity to use his network in Tanzania which has provided crucial
information for this research;
* Harry Kuipers & Mark van den Bosch for the opportunity to closely follow
their project at the Brotherhood;
* Albert Mshanga, field officer at Kakute who also introduced me to several
womengroups and shared a lot of knowledge with me;
* René Geelhoed and Bianca van Haperen for letting me join a farmer’s
training event near Arusha National Park and the pre-dinner drinks on their
porch;

ix

* Brotherhood of Jesus the Good Sheperd, especially father Moses, who were
so kind to let me stay at their residence for a couple of days and invite me to a
celebration at the archbishop’s place in Moshi;
* Jon-Erik Rehn and Philipina from TAF for their nice afternoon at the office,
the translating skills of Jon-Erik, and the introduction to the Green Garden
Women Group;
* Actors of Diligent Tanzania; Tjerk Scheltema, Julius Nambua, Hans Baart,
Fons Nijenhuis and Ismael Manang;
* All other interviewed persons: Peter Burland, Bukaza Chachage, Doherty
Malcolm, Mama Leema (Chair of the Green Garden Women Group), Mr. Temu
and Mr. Kibazohi (University of Dar-es-Salaam), Mr. E.N. Sawe (director of
TaTEDO), Mr. S. Kijazi (agri-business officer from Faida MaLi), Mrs. F.
Coutinho (managing director of FINCA), Mr. D. Makundi (senior R&D officer at
TIRDO), Mr. F. Heimbach (Kiumma project), Mr. A. Manyanga (director of
Kakute), Ms. Edith (manager at Kakute), Mr. S. Solomon (assistant village head
at Engaruka), the women from the Monduli Women Group, Mr. F. A. Elise
(manager at KIDT), Mrs. M. Elfasi (Vyahumu Trust), Peter (the contractor who
built the machine), Mr. N. Mwhihava (assistant commissioner Renewable Energy
at the Ministry of Energy and Minerals), and Mrs. J. P. Uisso (senior Research
Officer at the Ministry of Energy and Minerals).
* And last but not least all friends, family and colleagues who supported me
during my stay in Tanzania and/or who stayed with me on the campus.
As Strategic Niche Management emphasises learning processes at all levels, I
cannot conclude anything else than this: I have learnt a lot! At different levels
and in different processes. After completing this research I remain positive about
the potential of biofuels in developing economies, and sincerely hope that a
strong ‘healthy’ biofuel sector will flourish in Tanzania, creating not only
numerous benefits for local people but also for the environment as a whole.
I would like to thank Amin Kassam for editing the manuscript for language,
and Mieke Zwart to do the layout work for the ASC book publication.

x

Definitions, abbreviations and units

Definitions and abbreviations

Biofuel Fuel derived from biomass (pure Jatropha oil as well as biodiesel).
Biogas A methane-rich fuel gas produced through anaerobic digestion of
suitable biomass feedstocks.
Biodiesel A biofuel produced through transesterification, a process in which
organically derived oils are combined with alcohol (ethanol or
methanol) in the presence of a catalyst to form ethyl or methyl esters.
CDM Clean Development Mechanism, one of three flexible mechanisms of
the Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change. Industrialised countries can invest in renewable energy
technologies in developing countries to meet the Greenhouse gas
emission reduction targets.
Jatr. biodiesel Biodiesel derived from Jatropha oil.
Jatropha oil In this thesis, it is the unmodified oil derived from cold-pressed Jatropha
seeds.
BCR Benefit Cost Ratio; sum of the discounted cash outflows divided by the
sum of the discounted cash inflows. The BCR should be larger than 1.
IRR Internal Rate of Return; the discount rate that would make the NPV of
the project equal to zero. The basic investment rule based on the IRR
(which is not sufficient) is “accept the project if the IRR is greater than
the discount rate; reject it if the IRR is less than the discount rate”.
NPV Net Present Value; sum of all expected discounted cash flows. A
positive NPV amount is a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for a
profitable project.
PBP Pay Back Period; the number of years it takes before the sum of the
undiscounted cash flows from the project becomes positive.
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
HC Hydrocarbon
NO Nitric oxide
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
Faida MaLi Faida Market Linkage
FINCA Foundation for International Community Assistance
KIDT Kilimanjaro Industrial Development Trust
KIUMMA Kituo cha Elimu na Maendeleo Matamanga
NGO Non Governmental Organisation
TAF Tanzania Association of Foresters
TaTEDO Tanzania Traditional Energy Development and Environment
Organisation
TIRDO Tanzania Industrial Research and Development Organisation

xi

TU/e Eindhoven University of Technology
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organisation
USDM University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
WHO World Health Organisation

Units

TZS Tanzanian Shilling, 1€ is about 1400 TZS, 1 USD is about 1100 TZS
(exchange rate in May 2005).
USD American Dollar, 1 USD is about € 0.78 (exchange rate in May 2005).
Acre 0.4 hectares
Gr. Gram
Ha Hectare
Kg kilogram
l litre(s)
MT Metric ton (1,000 kg.)
Ppm Parts per million
Tonne 1,000 kg.
y year

xii

Summary

The global energy supply is currently based mainly on fossil fuels. The use of
fossil fuels has added significantly to the carbon dioxide in the earth’s
atmosphere and most scientists agree that this has contributed significantly to the
greenhouse effect, creating the conditions for climatic changes that threaten life
on this planet. Politically, the reliance on fossil fuels has been responsible for
constant tensions – and sometimes war – between countries that have plentiful
supplies and those that rely on other countries for their energy supplies. Also,
fossil fuel resources are limited and some analysts are already predicting that the
supply will decline within a few decades. All this creates an urgent need for more
sustainable sources of energy. Biofuels are one option, as they have a closed
carbon-cycle and do not contribute to the greenhouse effect. The biomass which
is necessary for the production of biofuels can be derived from several sources,
one of which is oil-producing crops. Because such crops require large amounts of
land and agricultural land is often scarce in high-income countries, growing them
in developing countries would be more practical. Moreover, such crops could
provide economic and environmental benefits to the developing countries con-
cerned.
Currently, Eindhoven University of Technology is exploring the potential of
biofuels in Tanzania, where the population is mostly rural, very poor and without
adequate energy services. Production of biofuel could help to stop soil erosion,
create additional income for the rural poor and provide a source of energy both
locally and internationally. Thus, it could also earn foreign exchange.
Current initial activities in Tanzania have been directed towards the use of
Jatropha curcas L., an indigenous plant which does not require a lot of water and
nutrients and has a relatively high oil yield. However, so far it is not clear how a
transition based on Jatropha could be realised, or what factors influence the
process. Therefore, the main research question posed in this research is:
What is the status of the transition process towards Jatropha biofuels in
Tanzania, and how can the process be improved?
Strategic Niche Management (SNM) was adopted as the principal method for
this research. Since it was designed specifically to investigate the experimental
introduction of new sustainable technologies through societal experiments, it
could be expected to be a suitable research instrument for a multidisciplinary

xiii

study about the prospects for a transition towards Jatropha biofuels in Tanzania;
for documenting the initial activities and processes in that direction; and for
taking stock of the important stimulating and constraining factors in that process.
The use of SNM in this research is innovative and experimental, in that the
method has never been used to analyse transitions in developing countries. It was
developed for the study of transitions in high-income countries, and so far it has
only been applied there. This research is based on substantial fieldwork in
Tanzania during March-June 2005. Field data were gathered through interviews
with the actors involved in activities based on, or with, Jatropha. Literature was
used as a secondary source of information.
SNM views transition as a gradual learning process driven by several experi-
ments executed by the new technology’s stakeholders in a protected space called
a ‘niche’. The processes in the niche take place in, and interact with, a broader
context which is composed of a so-called “landscape” and a ‘regime’. This multi-
level perspective – landscape, regime, and niche – is used to analyse whether
developments at those levels have a positive or negative influence on a transition.
Developments at the macro or ‘landscape’ level are external to the developments
in the regime and niches but they do influence them. Regimes are described as
the dominant or ‘normal’ way of doing things. The room for new developments
within regimes is increased by a high level of uncertainty and tensions between
the technological configuration, the actors and the set of rules (that is, a decrease
in ‘alignment’), reduced resistance from the dominant regime against a certain
niche development (that is, an increase in ‘permeability’) and an increase in the
perception that problems are no longer solvable with the current regime (that is, a
change in ‘vision’). Finally, three processes are important at the niche level:
network formation and stabilisation, learning processes, and dynamics of
expectations (voicing and shaping). A high quality of niche processes is indicated
by a wide and interconnected actor network, many learning processes on several
subjects (technology, user acceptance, system, and so forth) and expectations that
are stabilising and becoming more specific. It is also important that the niche
processes give rise to a technology that is financially feasible.
The current activities in Tanzania focus on the use of the plant Jatropha
curcas L (referred to in this thesis as Jatropha). This plant was found to have the
following properties: It is easy to establish and is drought resistant. The plant is
not browsed by animals, therefore it is traditionally used as a hedge. It can live
for up to 50 years and can produce seeds from one to three times a year. The
seeds can be pressed to obtain oil. Seedcake is left after pressing. The seed yield
is highly variable (from 0.1 to 20 t/ha/y), depending on a range of factors. The
seeds contain about 30% oil.

xiv

There are many applications for Jatropha. Using the concept of the production
chain, these different applications can be subdivided into three stages, namely:
cultivation, production (pressing) and usage. Pressing is currently done with hand
presses or screw presses. The oil can be used in diesel engines, either directly
(requiring modifications to the engine), in a mixture with diesel fuel, or, when
chemically converted, as biodiesel (which has about the same properties as
normal diesel fuel). Jatropha oil can also be used in oil lamps, cooking stoves,
and as basis for soap-making. The seedcake has several uses, two of which are in
biogas production and as fertiliser.
The main results of the analysis of the landscape, regime and niche dynamics
are as follows. Most developments at the landscape level influence the transition
positively. Renewable energy and biofuels are gaining interest worldwide. A
global market for biofuels is being created. Currently the share of biofuels in the
total renewable energy supply is still quite low. The Tanzanian government
stimulates some renewable energy technologies but its position on biofuels is
unclear. Tanzania has enough land to be self-supportive in biofuel. Tanzania's
infrastructure is poor but that does not have to be a barrier to local production
and use of Jatropha biofuel. However, export might be more difficult.
Four regimes were found to be relevant to the transition: the agricultural
regime (cultivation of Jatropha), the vegetable oil regime (production of Jatropha
oil), the energy regime (use of Jatropha biofuel) and the financial regime
(financing all niches). For all regimes, the cultural aspect is the same, people
seem to be reluctant to risk trying something new. They prefer to see an
innovation in use before trying it themselves.
The agricultural regime has practices that are close to the cultivation of
Jatropha. Problems have been recognised in this regime and farmers are looking
for new crops to increase their income. This regime seems to be open for a
transition towards Jatropha biofuel. Current practice in the vegetable oil regime
consists of local facilities where industrial or edible seed oils are produced.
Farmers use these facilities to have small quantities of their crops pressed at a
time. However, Jatropha oil is poisonous, so there is a reluctance to use the
existing pressing equipment to produce it. The energy regime is quite complex.
There are different applications (fuel for diesel engines, electricity generation,
lighting and cooking) and sources (fuelwood, kerosene and diesel fuel, among
others). There are currently problems in this regime, which vary from health
issues to limited availability of energy. User preferences are important in this
regime. Consumers are price-sensitive, and they are choosy with respect to their
cooking regime. This limits the prospects for Jatropha as a source of lighting
and cooking fuel. Using Jatropha oil in a mixture with normal diesel fuel seems
to have better prospects. It requires the least modification to engines, so it is most

xv

likely to be facilitated by the current regime. Also, there would probably be little
resistance to using Jatropha biofuel to generate electricity. Finally, in the finan-
cial regime, a new development which facilitates provision of microcredit has a
positive influence on the transition.
The analysis of the dynamics within the different niches showed that the
processes in the first step of the production chain, cultivation, have proceeded
particularly well. In the other niches, the major problems are lack of sufficient
learning processes and expectations that are still wide and diverse.
The main conclusion is that the transition towards Jatropha biofuel in Tanza-
nia is still in a very early phase.
Recommendations are made for several levels:
The government should facilitate protection of the niches and should supervise
the system of cultivating Jatropha (avoiding mono-culture plantations).
Production chain management should be undertaken by organisations like
NGOs or universities, should focus on stimulating all niches with sufficient
network dynamics (many different types of actors and interconnections) and
dissemination of the learning processes to all actors involved.
Finally at the niche level, niche management should focus on the main niche
processes, actor network, learning processes and levelling of expectations.
Local niche champions who could lead this process may, for example, include
local entrepreneurial farmers or foreign lead firms. The thesis makes some
specific recommendations on cultivation, production and biofuel use.
The main methodological recommendations include integrating the literature
on SNM with other literature on technological development in developing
countries, and conducting more research on the interrelationships between the
niches.

xvi

1
Introduction

This chapter starts by presenting some background information on the research
problem and some of the characteristics of Tanzania. It goes on to set out the
research aim and research questions as well as the limitations of the research.
Then, after describing the research method (the research model will be described
in Chapter 2) it outlines the structure of the thesis.

Research problem
The global energy supply is currently based mainly on fossil fuels. This causes
serious environmental and other problems. Emissions from burning fossil fuels
are adding to changes such as global warming (the greenhouse effect) and ozone
depletion, which are expected to have significant long-term effects on the climate
globally. Also, the geographical location of the fossil fuels creates a tension
between countries that are rich in them (oil exporting countries, for example) and
those that are not. Another problem is created by the finite nature of fossil fuel
resources. Estimates of the extent of, for example, oil reserves vary but most
analysts agree that within a period of several decades to over 100 years the oil
reserves will be depleted. It is anticipated that the demand for fuels will continue
to rise in the future, due to increased population and increased demand from
rapidly growing economies such as China and India. This clearly indicates that
other, more sustainable energy sources are necessary.1

1
These problems have been identified by many authors; for example, Meadows et al. (2004).

2

Biofuel is one form of sustainable energy. Biofuels are derived from biomass.
They can be used as substitutes for fossil fuels, in cars or generators, for
example. In contrast to fossil fuels, burning of biofuels is CO2 neutral, since the
emitted CO2 was acquired by the plant from the atmosphere through photo-
synthesis fairly recently. Therefore, it will not contribute to the greenhouse
effect. The biomass which is needed for the production of biofuels can be derived
from several sources (for example, waste). One option is to use crops.
All agricultural crops can yield oil, some more than others. When they are
specially cultivated for their fuel value, they are called ‘energy crops’. Table 1
compares the oil yield of several crops. The yield always depends on conditions
such as climate, nutrients, and so on. Rapeseed oil is the biofuel mostly used in
Europe at the moment.

Table 1 Oil yield of several crops in ascending order
Crop Litres oil/ha
Corn (maize) 172
Cashew-nut 176
Cotton seed 325
Euphorbia 524
Sunflower 952
Rapeseed 1190
Castor beans 1413
Jatropha 1892
Oil palm 5950
Source: http://journeytoforever.org/biodiesel_yield.html,
accessed October 2005.

The oil can be obtained by using very simple technology, mechanical ex-
traction. Biofuels can be used for several purposes, including as a substitute for
diesel fuel. This is not new – for example, when Rudolf Diesel demonstrated his
engine at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900 he used peanut oil as a fuel.
A transition towards biofuels from oil-producing crops is considered to be
desirable and could solve some of the problems associated with energy supply.
However, since a lot of land is required it is difficult to cultivate these crops in
adequate quantities in industrialised countries. Developing countries often have a
lot of available land and could profit environmentally as well as economically by
producing and using biofuels. A couple of years ago I studied a biofuel system in
India. Eindhoven University of Technology is currently studying the potential of
biofuels in Tanzania. Research that has been carried out by several students, for
example by Rabé (2004), has concluded that biofuels can have economic,
environmental and social benefits. However, it is not yet clear how such a

3

transition could be realised in Tanzania, or what influences this process. Further-
more, what are the limitations and possibilities? What would the impact of the
cultivation of biofuels be on the local people? Some characteristics of Tanzania
are described in the next section to place the research in context.

Research context
Tanzania is one of the poorest countries in the world; it is ranked 226 on a GDP
per capita list of 232 countries in declining order.3 The country is situated in
Eastern Africa (Figure 1).
It has a population of about 35.5
million,2 of which 36% lives below the
poverty line.3 GDP/capita in 2004 was
USD 700. A large share of the popu-
lation, over 77%, lives in rural areas.4
These areas are also the poorest, with
39% of the rural population living below
the poverty line,5 in comparison with
18% in Dar es Salaam and 26% in other Figure 1 Location of Tanzania
6
urban areas. Agriculture is a very important in Africa
sector for Tanzania, providing about half of the GDP and employing over 80% of
the workforce.3 Nationally, 97% of the energy consumption is derived from
biomass, mainly fuelwood. Using fuelwood for energy creates serious problems
such as soil erosion, deforestation and health problems related to thick smoke in
the houses. These figures indicate that the rural population in Tanzania
constitutes a major part of the country’s total population, but that they are also
very poor and lack adequate energy services.
Biofuels could be a very good solution to alleviate the environmental, poverty
and health issues in Tanzania. Producing and using biofuels can help to stop soil
erosion, provide an energy source and create an additional income. The pro-
duction process can also create jobs, as it involves site preparation, planting,
harvesting, transport, preparation, selling and other activities. The process also
strengthens the local economy by recycling income in the community.

2
July 2005 est. World factbook, http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tz.html
3
2002 est. Worldfactbook, http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tz.html
4
Data from October 2004, Tanzania National Profile Data in Brief, National Bureau of Statistics
Tanzania.
5
A ‘basic needs’ poverty line is used here, which includes 2,200 calories a day and allows for basic
non-food consumption (Household Budget Survey).
6
Data from 2000, Household Budget Survey, 2000/01, National Bureau of Statistics, Tanzania.

4

In Tanzania most attention is currently being paid to an indigenous plant
called Jatropha curcas L. (referred to in this thesis as Jatropha). The great
advantage of Jatropha is that, in addition to yielding a relatively large oil yield, it
does not require a lot of water and nutrients. It can grow in very poor soils,
thereby reclaiming land (and preventing soil erosion). Another advantage is that
the seeds are poisonous; therefore the plants can be used as a hedge to keep
animals at bay (this is a traditional use of Jatropha) and the oil does not compete
with food products. The plant has several uses, which will be explained in
Chapter 3.
Chachage (2003) identifies the current activities in Tanzania based on Jatropha
oil as soap-making on a limited scale and use in oil lamps. So, while most reports
on biofuel are upbeat about its potential, Jatropha oil does not seem to have been
developed to its full potential in Tanzania so far.
In principle, a transition towards biofuels which includes the complete pro-
duction chain would be beneficial for Tanzania, especially when it is based on
Jatropha with its many advantages. However, the activities with Jatropha have
not been particularly successful. According to Raven (2005b), this pattern often
occurs with respect to innovations with (potentially) improved environmental
characteristics. Even innovations that have very promising characteristics can fail
to be commercially successful because the competition from incumbent fossil-
fuel based technologies is too powerful. Raven used a method called “Strategic
Niche Management” (SNM) which has been designed to investigate the
experimental introduction of sustainable technologies through societal experi-
ments before exposing them to market-based competition. Several factors are
taken into account; for example, the social, institutional and economic structure
surrounding the technology.
On the face of it, SNM seems to be suitable for analysing the prospects of a
transition towards Jatropha biofuels in Tanzania, since the technology is locally
so novel that it will require substantial experimentation in order to be commer-
cially viable and applicable on a larger scale. Up to now, however, SNM has only
been used to study transition processes in industrialised countries. It has never
been used to analyse experiments in developing countries.

Research aim, research questions and limitations
The aim of this study is to obtain insight into the current transition process in
Tanzania towards Jatropha biofuels, by using Strategic Niche Management as the
research instrument. The main research issues include:
the opportunities for such a transition,

5

the factors influencing that process, including existing technological and
socio-economic, cultural, political and institutional conditions (that is, the
existing “regime” and “landscape” in SNM-terminology)
possible ways to stimulate the process.
There are many possible application-domains (“niches”) for Jatropha. For
example, in addition to diesel fuel, Jatropha can be used to make soap and as
lamp oil; its by-products can be used as fertiliser and raw material for biogas.
Therefore, a study of the transition should focus on the quality of the experi-
mentation processes within these different niches, and one has to ask whether all
these processes actually add to the transition process.
According to SNM, the transition process can be stimulated by inducing more
experimentation. SNM tacitly assumes that all experimentation is (equally)
beneficial. However, in the context of a poor developing country like Tanzania,
“stimulation” has to take social equity considerations into account. Certain
transition processes may be more beneficial for local people than others because
they provide possibilities for their participation in the process. In this thesis,
“stimulation” will take these wider socio-economic issues into account.

The main research question is:
Tanzania and how can the process be improved?
There are several sub-questions:
Question 1: What are the main processes that are important for a
transition?
Question 2: What are the different niches or application domains for
Jatropha in Tanzania?
Question 3: What is the influence of the related regimes and landscape on
the transition process?
Question 4: What lessons can be learned from the analysis of Jatropha
experiments in Tanzania, using the SNM-method?
Question 5: What recommendations can be made to improve the transition
process?

This research was conducted to fulfil the requirements of an MSc degree.
Inevitably, that created time and financial constraints which affected the extent
and depth of the research. The following are the main limitations.
Geographical boundaries are hard to set for this research as the landscape level
contains global influences. However, only experiments which are executed by
actors in Tanzania will be analysed.

6

There are many sources for biofuels and there are also many ways in which
biofuels can be produced. In this report only biofuels derived from Jatropha will
be analysed. And only the technologies that are actually used in Tanzania will be
taken into account. Other processes to produce biofuels, such as Fischer-Tropsch,
will not be addressed (although they are also viable options). Mechanical
extraction is the simplest technology, so this report focuses on pure Jatropha oil
(obtained by cold pressing), a mixture of Jatropha oil with diesel fuel and a
conversion to biodiesel by adding methanol (methyl ester). Jatropha biofuels can
only serve as diesel substitutes, not as, for example, a substitute for the fuel in
gasoline engines.
Only the processes that are important to the transition process will be
analysed. Furthermore, the transition to Jatropha is considered to be desirable.
This is taken as a fundamental assumption in this research, in keeping with the
SNM method. The desirability of the transition is not in question here.

Research method
The method used in this research is Strategic Niche Management (SNM). SNM
utilises a multi-level perspective to study transitions. This will be explained in
detail in Chapter 2. Using the SNM methodology, the transition to Jatropha
biofuels in Tanzania will be analysed on three levels: landscape, regime and
niche levels. The main focus is on lessons learnt from experiments. The research
will be exploratory in nature.
Experiments on Jatropha carried out in Tanzania, and interactions with actors
involved in Jatropha activities, will provide the input for the analysis at niche
level. In the Jatropha chain, the activities (processes and applications) are the
“niches” used for analysis in this thesis. Experiments which were executed in the
same niche will be grouped together for the purpose of the analysis. The quality
of the niche processes will be analysed and the potential influence of the niche on
the transition explained. The related regime and landscape processes will also be
analysed to determine whether they have a positive influence on the transition
process or not. An overall conclusion will be presented for each of the three
levels, as many of the actors operate in more than one niche. The research
framework is summarised in Figure 2.
A study of the relevant concepts in the literature was the starting point for this
research. The data were derived from various information sources: reports on
projects and reports on the techniques for the Jatropha niches, among others. The
data necessary for the niche-level analysis were collected during a three-month
stay in Tanzania from March to June 2005. Field visits to several experiments
and interviews with several actors in the Jatropha chain have provided the data.

7

Several questions were asked to the actors In an open interview setting (see
Appendix IV for the list of questions). Other data sources included e-mail
contacts, data on websites and seminars. The data necessary for analysis at the
regime level were also derived from the interviews, and were complemented with
information from statistical data, reports (from organisations in Tanzania as well
as libraries), books and websites. The data for analysis at the landscape level
were mainly derived from reports and websites.

Niche level Regime level Landscape level

exp. exp.
exp. exp. Regime
Landscape
exp.
exp. exp. Regime
exp. exp. Regime
exp. exp. exp.
EXP. Etc. exp. Etc.

Strategic Niche Management

Recommendations
Figure 2 Research framework

Structure of the thesis
Chapter 2 explains the Strategic Niche Management method, with the landscape,
regime and niche levels being described separately. Chapter 3 describes the
properties and applications of Jatropha and gives some technical details on its
applications in Tanzania. Chapter 4 presents the data analysis. Again, the three
levels are analysed separately, starting with the landscape level. Then follows the
regime analysis, covering four regimes. The third part of the analysis consists of
an analysis of the experiments at niche level. The analysis at this level is sub-
divided into the different niches, following the Jatropha production chain.
Chapter 5 presents the conclusions and recommendations. The appendices con-
tain literature on Jatropha yield, the information derived from the field visits and
interviews, contact addresses, and the questions that were asked to most of the
actors.

2
Strategic Niche Management

The method used in this report to analyse the transition is called Strategic Niche
Management (SNM). This method is grounded in evolutionary economics and
was first propounded in literature on innovation diffusion theory in 1999
(Ieromonachou et al. 2004). In these theories technological development is seen
as a process of variation and selection. Variation because several technologies
and products are generated, and selection because of the process where the
variation is reduced until the most viable of the options has become the dominant
one. The generation of new technologies and products is not random, the
developers are using guidelines (heuristics) to solve problems and are therefore
steering the process. The selection is done in an environment where several
factors play a role, for example the market, institutional factors (government,
political structure) and social factors (for example, public opinion). The
interaction between variation and selection leads to technological trajectories;
that is, cumulative developments in a specific direction, see Figure 3 (Geels &
Kemp 2000).
SNM focuses on the trajectories and socio-technical dynamics that bring about
change. The concept of a ‘regime’ is used to understand the structure of techno-
logical development. A regime can be described as a set of ‘rules’ that structures
actors’ behaviour and guides them into specific directions (Raven 2005a). The
concept is explained in more detail below. Successful adoption of a new
technology implies a regime change or the establishment of a new regime. So
SNM views technology in a broad and sociological sense. The focus is on
learning its various aspects by performing several experiments: ‘Learning by
doing’. ‘Experiments’ can be defined as “unique socio-technical laboratories for

9

learning about the problems, shortcomings and barriers a new technology faces”
(Hoogma 2000).

Figure 1 Technological development as process of variation and
selection
Source: Schot (1991) in Geels & Kemp (2000).

Strategic Niche Management can be defined as:

The creation, development and controlled break-down of test-beds (experi-
ments, demonstration projects) for promising new technologies and concepts
with the aim of learning about the desirability (for example in terms of sustain-
able development) and enhancing the rate of diffusion of the new technology
(Weber et al. 1999).

The purpose of SNM is ‘to learn more about the technical and economical
feasibility and environmental gains of different technological options, that is to
learn more about the social desirability of the options’; and ‘to stimulate the
further development of these technologies, to achieve cost efficiencies in mass
production, to promote the development of complementary technologies and
skills and to stimulate changes in social organisation that are important to the
wider diffusion of the new technology’ (Hoogma et al. 2002).
It is important to have appropriate levels of niche protection. With too little
protection there is no learning process and with too much protection there is a
risk of creating an expensive failure. New technological options can only become
competitive when exposed to increasingly demanding economic and regulatory
environments. The goal is to successfully introduce the new concept and, after a
period of niche protection (which usually includes financial and organisational
support) expose it to real-world conditions where it should be able to survive.
Once the protected space has performed its function, SNM demands the dis-

10

mantling of the protecting factors, so the new technology can be tested in real-
world conditions (Ieromonachou et al. 2004). Even when projects have turned
out to be a failure SNM can still drawn lessons from the dynamics of, for exam-
ple, network processes.
The transition process towards adoption of a new technology can be analysed
on three different levels through a multi-level perspective (Figure 4). First is the
micro level, which includes the niches, the second level includes the regimes and
finally the macro level is the landscape. This perspective emphasises that the
success of a technology does not only depend on the processes within the niche,
but it is also influenced by developments at regime and landscape levels. Suc-
cessful niche processes can be reinforced by changes at regime and landscape
levels; together, they determine whether a regime shift will occur (Kemp et al.
2001 in Geels 2002). The three levels will be explained in more detail in the
following sections.

Figure 4 Multi level perspective
Source: Geels (2004)

Landscape
The landscape is at the macro level. Developments in the landscape level are
external to developments in the regime and niches but they do influence them.
Factors at this level include material aspects such as infrastructure; highways and
power lines, and non-material aspects such as culture, lifestyle, prices and wages
(Geels & Kemp 2000). Most processes at this level, such as industrialisation,
develop slowly. However, sudden or unexpected (often ‘global’) events also
belong to this level when they can influence the regimes and niches. Some

11

examples of these are wars, disasters like the accident leading to release of
radioactivity at Chernobyl, and the oil crisis of 1973. The development of a
technology slowly ‘moves’ through the landscape (see Figure 5). The landscape
determines whether a certain technology path faces barriers or not.

Figure 5 The macro landscape channels micro and meso developments
Source: Sahal (1985) in Geels & Kemp (2000).

According to Geels & Kemp (2000), the following elements are often important
at the landscape-level:
Material infrastructure
Political culture (broad political coalitions)
Social values, lifestyles (‘common sense’)
Macro-economic aspects (for example, the oil price, recession or economic
growth)
Pervasive technologies (for example; ICT, electricity, steam engines)
Demographic developments (for example, emigration)
Natural surroundings (for example, environmental problems, raw material
supply)

The outcome of a landscape analysis should provide information on whether the
developments at this level have a positive or negative influence on the transition
process.

Regimes
The concept of ‘technical regimes’ has been used to explain processes which
occur within the process of variation and selection. Traditionally it was used in a
rather narrow technological sense, for example by Nelson & Winter (1977) and
Dosi (1982). However, it was necessary to broaden this definition to include the
selection environment as well; therefore, the concept of a ‘socio-technical

12

regime’ was introduced (Geels & Kemp 2000). This thesis uses the term ‘regime’
to denote this concept. Regimes could be described as:

The dominant social, technical and economic forces that support the technology
and its physical and non-physical infrastructure (Lane 2002).

An example of this is the fossil-fuel-based regime that currently dominates
energy production and use.
Changes in regimes normally occur gradually. Regime change (transition)
takes place in different ways due to niche developments, substitution and accu-
mulation/transformation. In substitution (Figure 6) the ‘new’ technology has to
compete with the ‘old’ technology to obtain more market share and in the end the
old regime is replaced by a new regime. In accumulation/transformation (the
existing system is adapted instead of being replaced. New elements are added to
the system, which leads to adaptations and new learning processes.

Figure 6 Transition by substitution
Source: Geels & Kemp (2000)

According to Raven (2005a) the main factors in a regime are technological
configuration, the actors and the set of rules.

Technological configuration can be described by analysing the technology and
infrastructure. Important issues can be, for example, the rise of new technologies
as well as optimising of existing technologies. The actors are important because
their role in the regime can change, with some actors becoming more important
and others less important. For example, companies that are active in distribution

13

can become more important than production companies. The role of users of the
technologies can also change; for example, they can become more active within
the regime. The set of rules consists of formal and informal rules. Formal rules
are, for example, the institutional design or strategies for sustainable energy.
Informal rules are more intangible, for example, the rules engineers have to
observe when designing a project.

Figure 7 Accumulation/transformation as transition route

The process that combines these factors is ‘alignment’; a regime is more
aligned when all three factors are in line. According to Raven, the introduction of
new technologies is more difficult when the alignment is higher. This is because
there is less room for different views and circumstances. Tensions between the
factors and a high level of uncertainty are an indication of a low alignment within
a regime.
Two other processes that are important within a regime are permeability and
visions. Permeability describes the process outside the current regime. How
much room is available for new technologies? Energy from biomass, for
example, takes place outside current structures but within, for example, the waste
regime and agricultural regime. The dominant regime typically exerts a certain
resistance against a certain niche development; that is, its permeability is limited.
The vision of the problems within the current regime is also important. What
are the problems within the regime and do actors think the current regime can
provide a solution to those problems? A vision that is shared by many actors will
create more room for niche development than a vision that is shared by only a
couple of actors.
So the regime describes the ‘normal way of doing things’, and according to
Raven (2005a) the room for niches within a regime, and thus for a transition, is
increased by a decrease of alignment (high level of uncertainty and tensions
between the technological configuration, the actors and the set of rules), an
increase of permeability (reduced resistance from the dominant regime against a

14

certain niche development) and an increase in the vision that problems are no
longer solvable with the current regime. A transition is facilitated by a regime
that is open to new developments in niches.

Niches
The final level of analysis is the niche level. New technologies often have a low
performance in the beginning of their development; therefore it is hard to
compete in the market. They need to be protected for their development to be
stimulated. In Figure 8, protection is necessary between T(1) and T(2). These
protected spaces for new technologies are called ‘niches’ (Geels & Kemp 2000).
Niches facilitate a variety of further innovations and by doing so create a new
development path. Experiences with a new technology in the niche help to gain
user acceptance, change established views (both on the supply and demand
sides), benefit from feedback from users, achieve scale advantages and can
promote the development of complementary assets (Kemp et al. 1999).

A niche can be defined as:

A loosely defined set of formal and informal rules for new technological practice,
explored in societal experiments and protected by a relatively small network of
industries, users, researchers, policy makers and other involved actors (Raven
2005b).

Figure 8 Competition between an established and
invading product
Source: Utterback (1994) in Geels & Kemp (2000)

15

Several factors are important in determining whether a technology is still in a
‘niche-phase’. First, the technology should be surrounded by a protected environ-
ment; for example, financially through subsidies or organisationally through
technical or other assistance. According to Raven (2005b) market share and
stability are also important factors. Both are relatively low in a niche; market
share is low because few people have adopted the technology yet, and stability is
low because the ‘rules’ of the technology (for example, on the production side)
are not yet clear.
There are two kinds of niches: technological niches and market niches. When
some kind of protection (subsidies or other preferential treatment such as special
services offered at a low price) is provided to the technology by certain actors,
because they expect the technology to have ‘market potential’, about it is a
technological niche. In a market niche, the protection is derived from the specific
problems or demands of the market. For example, the mining and aerospace
sectors require specific performance from the equipment.
Several processes take place within the niche itself. The three main processes,
as identified by Raven (2005a, 2005b) are:
Network formation and stabilisation.
Learning processes (as regards technology, user preferences, infrastructure,
and so on).
Formation and stabilisation of expectations (voicing and shaping of
expectations).

Formation and stabilisation of
expectations and strategies

(Temporary)
Funding Learning processes outcome of
processes

Network formation

Figure 9 Linkages between internal niche processes

These processes influence each other (see Figure 9). Expectations can change
due to a different composition of the network, but they can also change due to the
outcome of learning processes. When a certain new technology performs well in
the experiments, and the users are satisfied, the expectations around the techno-
logy will rise and become stronger. This will facilitate the expansion of the actor

16

network. Because of these higher expectations and the expanded network, more
money will become available for further learning processes. Eventually a new
stable socio-technical regime will appear. The expansion of the actor network is
important because participation in the niche from a wide set of actors is needed if
the lessons are to be effective, according to Hoogma et al. (2002).
It is also possible that expectations are unfulfilled or that there has been move-
ment in the surroundings. This will cause destabilisation of the niche and prevent
the formation of a new regime (Geels & Kemp 2000).
The quality of niche processes is increased by:
Widening the actor network and increasing the connections within the network
Wide and qualitative learning (single, double loop learning)
Increasing the quality, robustness and specification of expectations
When the niche processes proceed well, they will ultimately culminate in a
change of the regime. This process is visualised in Figure 10.
With regard to processes between niches, the niche can also serve as a
stepping-stone for the diffusion of an innovation. When the technology is
developed within a certain niche, the technology can be used for other applica-
tions, other niches, as well. Electricity, for example, was first used in telegraphy
(1830s), after which it was adopted for lighting (1870s) and then used as a power
source for engines (1980s) (Geels & Kemp 2000).

Figure 10 Emerging level of niches in relation to local practices in experiments
Source: Raven (2005b)

Figure 11 summarises all three levels. On each level there are developments
that are important for the diffusion of the new technology. The technology
originates at niche level. When successful, it will slowly induce a regime-change

17

and finally a landscape change. The arrows in Figure 11 are very much simpli-
fied; in reality, there are different processes on each level with sometimes a
positive and sometimes a negative effect on the development of the new techno-
logy.

Figure 11 Origin and diffusion of a new technology
Source: Rip & Kemp (1996) in Geels & Kemp (2000)

3
Jatropha

Several aspects of the Jatropha plant will be discussed in this chapter. First, the
properties of the plant are explained by describing the history, botanical
properties, yield and potential pests. Then, the chapter describes the possible uses
of Jatropha. It ends with a technical description of the applications in Tanzania.

Properties
The genus Jatropha contains approximately 170 known species and is a member
of the Euphorbiaceae family. Jatropha is derived from the Greek jatrós (doctor)
and trophé (food), which implies medicinal uses (Heller 1996). Jatropha curcas
Linnaeus is the species that is referred to as Jatropha in this report. This species
is commonly known as ‘physic nut’ in English and as ‘purgeernoot’ in Dutch.

History
Jatropha has been used a lot in history. For example, Jatropha oil exports con-
tributed 60% to the agricultural exports of Cape Verde in the nineteenth century,
and 5 to 15% of the total reforested area in 1989 and 1990 were planted with
Jatropha, mainly for erosion control purposes (Heller 1996). There are also
reports on the use of Jatropha oil as a diesel substitute in Mali during the Second
World War, but after this the potential of the plant seems to have been forgotten.
The plant was originally found in Central America but now grows in several
regions across the world. Figure 12 shows the spread of the plant in Africa,
where it is believed to have been brought by Portuguese seafarers (Heller 1996).

19

Figure 12 Geographical location of Jatropha, according to
International Center for Research in Agroforestry
(ICRAF) and Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew
Source: Research Group International Programs (IP) (2002).

Botanical description
Jatropha curcas L. (referred to as Jatropha in this thesis) is a large shrub, or
small tree. The genus Jatropha contains approximately 170 known species.
Jatropha is easy to establish, even in soil which is quite infertile, and is drought
resistant. The root system of Jatropha plants (seedlings) consists of three to four
lateral roots and a vertical taproot which reaches 5m into the soil. Reports
mention that cuttings do not develop a taproot (Heller 1996). Jatropha tolerates a
minimum annual rainfall of 250 mm (observed in Cape Verde – Research Group
IP 2002) and a maximum annual rainfall of 3000 mm. The minimum depends on
the humidity, the higher the humidity the less the minimum rainfall Jatropha can
tolerate. Jatropha can be found from sea level to an altitude of 1800m. The tree
grows to a maximum height of nearly 8 m and can live for up to 50 years
(Chachage 2003).
Provided the nutrient level is sufficient, plant growth is a function of water
availability, especially in the tropics (Openshaw 2000). When water is available
Jatropha growth is rapid and a thick hedge can be formed nine months after
planting. The plant produces a round fruit, with two seeds (kernels) inside. The
seeds are inedible. Fruit production varies; it can start four to five months after

20

planting or up to three to four years after planting. Flowering is associated with
the rainy season, both at the beginning and end in many locations, so the plant
can flower one to three times a year according to Jones & Miller (1993). Fruits
mature two to four months after flowering and turn yellow when they are mature
(ibid.). Harvesting takes place during the dry season, normally a quiet period for
agricultural labour. The seeds contain about 30 to 40% oil. The oil is pale yellow
to brown in colour. The oil contains a toxic substance, curcasin, which is a strong
purgative (Chachage 2003). The seedcake which is left after pressing is relatively
rich in nitrogen. This implies that Jatropha requires a nitrogen-rich soil for good
seed production. This is because Jatropha is not a nitrogen-fixing plant (Open-
shaw 2000).

Yield
The yield from the plant varies substantially. Openshaw (2000) mentions a varia-
tion in seed production in the literature, from 0.4 to over 12 tonnes/ha/y. The
number of plants per hectare varies from 1100 to 3300. In addition, two tables in
Heller (1996) and Jones and Miller (1993) summarise several Jatropha yields in
the literature (see Appendix I, Table A-2). They report an even larger variation in
seed yield, from 0.1 t/ha/y to 15 t/ha/y. The mean of these two tables is 4.8 t/ha/y
(the median is slightly lower, 3 t/ha/y). At the project sites in Tanzania there are
large variations in expected yields as well. A reasonable estimate according to
several experts seems to be 3-5 tons per ha. This estimate is used in the
calculations for the projects.

Pests
“Jatropha cultivation has no known major disease or insect pests,” which is one
of the reasons the plant is so popular according to Jones & Miller (1993). Heller
(1996) mentions several insects, although he also mentions that pests and dis-
eases do not cause severe problems. According to him, seedlings are susceptible
to competition from weeds during their early development. Therefore weed
control, either mechanical or with herbicides, is required during the establish-
ment phase. Millipedes can cause total loss of young seedlings. Jatropha is
probably also a host for cassava viruses that can be transmitted, so the plant
should not be used to fence in cassava fields. Termites can also damage Jatropha
plants.
Grimm (1999) identifies the insects that can cause damage to Jatropha. He
describes three insects, two species of fruit-feeding true bugs and one flower-
feeding true bug: Pachaycoris klugij Burmeister, Leptoglossus zonatus and
Hypselonotus intermedius. Other pests, according to Grimm & Maes (1997),

21

include the stem borer Lagocheirus undatus (Voet) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae),
grasshoppers, leaf-eating beetles and caterpillars as well as leaf-hoppers.

Applications
Jatropha is a multi-purpose plant, with many possible applications. In Tanzania
the plant is known under the Swahili name Mbono Kaburi (graveyard tree). This
is because it was traditionally planted on graves, probably because Jatropha
cuttings can establish in any season and so the plant can be used to mark a grave
whenever someone dies.7 In another Tanzanian language, Harya (spoken near
Lake Victoria), Jatropha is called Mwitankoba or ‘thunder killer tree’. Every
house was traditionally supposed to have at least one Jatropha tree near it to
prevent the house from being destroyed during a thunder storm.8 Another
traditional use for Jatropha is medicinal. The milky sap that bleeds from the
leaves when they are broken is used, for example, to heal skin cuts.9 A project in
the Philippines found that the signs of Tinea pedis (“athlete’s foot”) and
ringworm disappeared after the application of Jatropha ointment (Aesotope
2004). Jatropha is also planted as a hedge (living fence) by farmers all over the
world around homesteads, gardens and fields, because it is not browsed by
animals (Henning 2004). The seeds, too, are useful: they can be pressed to obtain
oil, leaving a seedcake relatively rich in nitrogen. While the seed oil can be used
for soap production, as insecticide or for medicinal purposes, the seedcake can be
used as fertiliser, animal fodder (after detoxification) or to produce biogas (the
seed shells and branches can be used for this purpose as well) (Heller 1996). The
Jatropha plant itself has insecticidal properties.
Several processes are necessary to produce Jatropha oil and use it in diesel
engines (either directly or converted into biodiesel). These processes are listed in
Figure 13. They are divided into three separate stages (a) Cultivation: the
Jatropha is grown and the seeds are harvested; (b) Production: the Jatropha seeds
are expelled and Jatropha oil and seedcake are produced; and (c) Usage: the
Jatropha biofuel (pure Jatropha oil or converted into biodiesel) is used in diesel
engines. In this stage also, the seedcake is used to produce biogas production for
cooking, as fertiliser or pressed into briquettes for cooking fuel. Other appli-
cations that are being explored in Tanzania are expanded use of Jatropha oil for
soap-making, use of the oil in oil lamps, and use of the oil in cooking stoves.

7
Interview with Tanzanian Association of Foresters, Moshi, May 2005. See Appendix II.
8
Ibid.
9
Ibid.

22

The applications listed in the figure are not exhaustive; more applications are
possible, as the dots indicate. For a transition towards biofuels the use of Jatropha
biofuel in diesel engines is the final stage.

Jatropha Nursery
Seeds
Seedlings/cuttin Cultivation
gs
Cultivation
Seeds
Large amount of seeds

Seedcake Production
Oil-expelling facility

Oil

Conversion to: - Production of biogas
- Fertiliser Usage
- Soap
-… - Briquettes
-…
Direct use in:
- Cooking stoves
- Oil lamps
-… In diesel engines
(either straight
or converted into
biodiesel

Figure 13 Jatropha production chain

Technical description of application domains in Tanzania
Only the Tanzanian applications from which technical data was available will be
described in this thesis. These are, extraction of the oil, usage of the oil in diesel
engines, usage of the oilseed cake for biogas production (for cooking purposes)
and as fertiliser. Also the use of Jatropha oil for soap making, in oil lamps and in
cooking stoves will be described.

Extraction of the oil
A variety of equipment is available to obtain oil from the seeds. The oil can be
extracted mechanically with a press (ram, hydraulic or screw) or chemically with

23

organic solvents or water (Foidl et al. 1997). In Tanzania currently, the oil is
obtained only mechanically with a ram press or a screw press.
A ram press is a small hand-press (Figure 14). In this press, the seeds are
poured which applies pressure on the seeds, extracting the oil, which then drips
into a container. Jatropha seedcake is left after the pressing. The extraction rate
of this press is quite low as the seedcake still contains part of the oil. About 5 kg
of seed is needed for 1 litre of oil (Henning 2004). The capacity is about 1.5 litres
per hour. There are also larger expellers, screw presses, which are run by an
engine (Figure 15). The extraction rate of this press is higher; because more oil is
extracted from the seeds, the cake residue is much dryer. The screw turns
continuously, transporting the seeds from one side of the press to the other while
squeezing out the oil. The capacity is higher than that of the ram press. For
example, the Sayari oil expeller (Figure), which is used in Tanzania, has a
capacity of about 20 l/hour (60 kg/hour) and can extract 1 litre of oil from 3 kg of
seeds. There are also larger screw expellers, for example Chinese expellers which
can extract about 50 l/hour (150 kg/hour). After the oil is expelled it is filtered by
letting it stand for a while or pouring it through a cloth.

Figure 14 Ram-press

Storage of the raw material is important for continuous operation, as the
Jatropha seeds are available seasonally. Two options are bulk storage and bag-
storage. The storehouses should be well ventilated in order to prevent self-
ignition. The location plays an important role, as it has a considerable impact on
transport and storage costs. Raw material transport costs are often higher than oil

24

and cake transport as the volume weight of the seeds is higher. If the oil cake can
find local use a location in the rural area might be advantageous. However, an
export industry might be better located in urban areas with easy access to
harbours, railway stations or truck stops. The oil-seeds should be weighed and
registered when entering the facility and a sample should be taken to control the
quality. A number of skilled workers are necessary for such a facility, so training
is also important (UNIDO 1983).

Figure 15 Screw press (hole cylinder)

Use in diesel engines
When Jatropha oil is used as fuel, it can be utilised directly, in a blend or
modified into biodiesel.

Direct use. The viscosity (‘thickness’) of Jatropha oil is much higher than that of
diesel fuel (see Table 2). This is the main problem of using Jatropha oil in an
engine. A number of Jatropha oil properties are compared with those of diesel oil
in the table. When Jatropha oil is used directly in a diesel engine, some
modifications are usually necessary, although Heller (1996) says that the filtered
oil can be used directly in many suitable engines such as Deutz, Hatz, IFA,
Elsbett, DMS, Farymann and Lister-type (India). Some experiments have shown
that only changing the nozzles and fuel lines is enough for the engine to work
properly, for example in India. Other tests with vegetable oils have shown that
the overall functioning of the motor is affected and caused premature wear.
Long-term testing demonstrated the following problems, according to a report by
TIRDO (no date):

25

obstruction of feeder filters and injector nozzles
deposition of carbon and gum on injector nozzles, valves, pistons and cylinder
components
shortened durability of lubricating oil
difficulty in cold weather starts
weak combustion efficiency during idle
Appropriate engine modifications can overcome these problems. There are
several options; for example, use of a dual fuel tank system, or preheating of the
fuel to improve the flow of the oil. With a dual fuel tank system the engine is
started with normal diesel fuel and switched over to the tank with Jatropha oil
when the engine is warm. Before the engine is stopped, a switch back to diesel is
necessary. There are also ‘one-tank’ systems, where the switch to diesel fuel is
not necessary. The German company Elsbett, for example, sells ‘adaptation-kits’
for about €500 to €1700.10

Table 2 Properties of diesel oil, Jatropha oil and Jatropha biodiesel
Properties Diesel Jatropha oil Jatropha biodiesel
Density (gm/cc), 30°C 0.84-0.85 0.90-0.93 0.88
Kinematic Viscosity
(cSt), 30° 4-8 50-53 5.7-8
Cetane No. 40-55 38-51 50
Flash point, °C 45-80 110-240 170
Calorific value, MJ/kg 42-46 38-42 38
Sulphur (%) 1.0-1.2 0.13 0
Carbon residue (%) 0.1 0.64 0.5
Sources: Pramanik (2002), Prof. E. Schrimpff, FH Weihenstephan, Germany (www.jatropha.de) and
Kumar et al. (2003).
Notes:
Density is a measure of mass per unit of volume. The higher the density of a fluid, the higher its mass per
volume.
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow under gravity at a specific temperature. Kinematic
means the absolute viscosity of a fluid divided by its density. The higher this figure, the more difficult the
flow of the fluid .
The Cetane number expresses the ignition quality; the higher this number, the more easily the fuel ignites.
The Flash point indicates the temperature at which the vapour-air mixture can just ignite. This tempera-
ture should be over 50 degrees for safety reasons. Jatropha oil and Jatropha biodiesel both exceed this
temperature.
The Calorific value expresses the energy content of the fuel; the higher it is, the better. For both the
sulphur and carbon residue counts, the lower the values, the better.

10
www.elsbett.com, accessed November 2005.

26

Blended diesel. According to Pramanik (2002) Jatropha oil can be blended with
diesel fuel – in a blend containing about 40-50% Jatropha oil – without any
adaptations to the engine or preheating of the blend. A report by Forson et al.
(2004) conclude that even a blend with 97.4% diesel and 2.6% Jatropha oil has
the highest cetane number and an even better engine performance than 100%
diesel fuel, suggesting that Jatropha oil can be used as an ignition-accelerator
additive for diesel fuel.

Conversion into biodiesel. Jatropha oil can also be converted into biodiesel (also
known as methyl ester), which has a lower viscosity and has properties com-
parable to those of normal diesel fuel (see Table 2). The engine not have to be
adapted, although some reports mention that biodiesel affects fuel hoses, so
replacing rubber hoses with synthetic hoses might be necessary. Obtaining bio-
diesel requires a chemical modification of the Jatropha oil. The oil is mixed with
methanol and caustic soda and then left to stand. Glycerin settles to the bottom of
the tank, leaving the methyl ester, or biodiesel, at the top. Methanol is highly
flammable and toxic so this requires special equipment. Also, it is very important
to monitor the quality of the fuel, so a laboratory setting is necessary. The
glycerin can be used for several purposes (for example, to make a high-quality
soap) or it can be refined and used in a range of products (for example, cosme-
tics, toothpaste, embalming fluids, cough medicine, and so forth). (Research
Group IP 2002).
Exhaust emissions from Jatropha biodiesel are comparable to the ones from
diesel fuel. Kumar et al. (2003) found that CO (carbon monoxide) and HC
(hydrocarbon) emissions are slightly higher with Jatropha oil and Jatropha
biodiesel as compared with normal diesel, while NO (nitric oxide) is slightly
lower. HC emission for diesel is 100 ppm, compared with 110 ppm for Jatropha
biodiesel and 130 for Jatropha oil. In most other research on biofuel emissions,
these figures are reversed, often showing lower emissions of CO and HC for
biofuels as compared with normal diesel, and a slightly higher NO emission.11

Seed-cake for biogas production. Biogas can be generated from cattle dung and
animal wastes, and from some crop residues. The seedcake which is left after
Jatropha oil has been extracted can be used for this purpose.
The cake is converted by a process of anaerobic digestion (bacterial action in a
tank without air). The Jatropha cake is placed in a digester where bacteria
ferment the organic material. There should be a continuous supply of organic
material (Jatropha cake) and water. The gas, comprising methane (50-70%) and
carbon dioxide, is stored in a gasholder. There are different designs for a biogas

11
For example, at the Central Pollution Control Board, Govt. of India, http://cpcb.nic.in/ch30902.htm

27

facility to hold the gas; a floating dome (a moving gasholder keeps the biogas
under pressure with its own weight as well as additional weights), a fixed dome
(gas is collected under a fixed top which pushes the liquid slurry into an
expansion chamber; gravity secures the pressure) or a bag type gasholder (gas is
collected in plastic bag, which is kept under pressure by squeezing the bag with a
weight).
Staubmann et al. (1997) found that the biogas yield from Jatropha seedcake
can be very high, with 1 kg seedcake residue (organic dry material) yielding 446
l of biogas. The theoretical total yield of gas as calculated from different
substrate components would be 649 l/kg organic dry material. The nut shells
from the seeds are only slightly degradable and can give about 37 l biogas/kg dry
weight. About 80% of the substrate can be converted in four days, 90% within
seven days (Staubmann et al. 1997).

Seed-cake as fertiliser
Jatropha cake has good fertiliser qualities, as Table 3 shows.

Table 3 Nutritional analysis of oil-seedcakes and manure (percentages)
Property J. curcas Neem Cow Chicken
oilcake oilcake manure manure
Nitrogen 3.2 – 4.44 5.0 0.97 3.04
Phosphorus 1.4 – 2.09 1.0 0.69 6.27
Potassium 1.2 – 1.68 1.5 1.66 2.08
Sources: Wiemer & Altes (1989), Delgado Montoya and Paredo Tejeda (1989), ‘Wealth of India 1959’
in Research Group IP (2002).

In addition to the above applications, which are related to use in diesel engines
(including byproducts thereof) there are some other applications for the Jatropha
oil, as listed below.

Jatropha oil in soap-making
The process of soap-making is quite simple. The ingredients are: 1 litre of oil, 0.5
litre of water and 150 g of pure NaOH (sodium hydroxide) dissolved in the
water. The oil is stirred while the water-NaOH solution is mixed in until a
creamy consistency is achieved. This is poured into a form, where the soap
hardens (in tropical countries overnight, in Europe up to a week). After it is hard,
the soap is taken out of the form and can be cut into pieces.12 Projects in the
Philippines and other places have found the soap made from Jatropha oil to be

12
http://www.jatropha.de/faq.htmm , accessed November 2005.

28

excellent. It is a detergent soap and is also used for the elimination of scabies,
Tinea pedis, acne and pimples (Aesotope 2004).

Jatropha oil in lamps
Jatropha oil cannot be used directly in conventional lamps. Its viscosity (between
50 and 53 10-6 m2/s, see Table 2) is much higher than that of the traditionally
used kerosene (2.2 10-6 m2/s). The ignition temperature is also higher (340 °C13
vs 50-55 °C). So, Jatropha oil will not burn easily and could clog up all the tubes
and nozzles in a conventional lamp (Research Group IP 2002). This problem can
be overcome by using a low-intensity lamp with a wick which has been
developed in Germany.13 The oil lamp requires a very short wick so that the
flame is very close to the oil surface. It is also possible to have kerosene both to
start the stove and to clean it just before it is turned off.

Jatropha oil in cooking stoves
A conventional cooking stove (using kerosene) does not function with the high-
viscosity Jatropha oil. The tubes and nozzles would clog up (Research Group IP
2002). A Jatropha/kerosene mixture and/or an adapted stove are necessary.
Research shows that a petroleum-Jatropha oil mixture used in a slightly modified
kerosene stove within a room with a volume of 20 m³ produces a very high level
of emissions (see Table 4). The report does not mention the proportion of
Jatropha oil in the mixture.
While emissions of CO, formaldehyde, and suspended particulate matter are
within the same range using the plant oil cooker and the open wood fire,
respectively, emission of NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) is very much higher with the
plant oil burner. All these levels are far beyond the safe limits set by the WHO.
The safe limits are 10 mg/m³ for CO and 60 m g/m³ for NO2, respectively. Since
cooking often takes place in poorly ventilated kitchens in developing countries,

Table 4 Emissions from a Jatropha/petroleum mixture in stove within a room with a
volume of 20m3 compared with an open wood fire in a kitchen comparable in
size
CO (mg/m3) NO2 (mg/m3) Formaldehydes Suspended
(g/m3) particles (mg/m3)
Jatropha mixture 114 45 400 2.4
Open wood* 32-102 0.145-0.220 145-182 4.3
Sources: Kollar (1993), Kandpal & Maheshwari (1995), Kandpal et al. (1994) in Mühlbauer et al. (1998)
* Concentration depends on position in room.

13
www.jatropha.de, accessed December 2005.

29

the plant oil cooker requires considerable improvement regarding emissions in
order to lower the risk of health problems (Mühlbauer et al. 1998).

4
Analysis of Jatropha biofuel
transition in Tanzania

After a short introduction to the main sources of data for the analysis and the
most important actors in the field, this chapter analyses the landscape, followed
by the regimes and the niches. Each section ends with a conclusion. Finally, there
is a niche analysis followed by a brief summary.

Short introduction to the experiments
In order to obtain a good overview of the Jatropha-related activities in Tanzania,
as many experiments as possible with Jatropha were identified. In total, 16
experiments were visited, one experiment (Kiumma) was analysed through e-
mail contact, seven organisations were visited (of which three were actively
executing projects), and two companies and two individuals were visited. Data
on these projects, organisations and companies are given in Appendix II. Most
experiments were situated in the Arusha and Kilimanjaro region (see Figure 16).
Other actors or projects which were analysed were situated in Morogoro, Dar es
Salaam and in Tunduru in the south. All actors were asked to identify barriers
and state what lessons they had learnt and what expectations they had (see
Appendix IV for the list of questions).
The most important actor in the Jatropha field in Tanzania is Kakute. This is a
private company (but working like an NGO), established in 1995. Its activities
include several rural technologies, of which the Jatropha activities are currently
the most important. The company is funded by several NGOs and organisations.

31

Figure 16 Location of experiments in Tanzania

It is a source of Jatropha information and is approached by individuals in Tan-
zania (for example, when someone wants to set up a Jatropha nursery) as well as
from abroad (some have even visited Kakute from abroad for information).
Another important actor is Diligent, a Dutch company based in Eindhoven, the
Netherlands, and Arusha, Tanzania. It has been active since 2003 and wants to
become a large supplier of Jatropha oil in the European biofuel market for and/or
in the Tanzanian market).

Landscape analysis
Several developments at the macro level influence the transition towards Jatro-
pha biofuels in Tanzania.

Rise of oil price
The oil price has increased sharply during the last years and is expected to
remain high or even rise further in the near future. This is due to the growing
worldwide demand for oil, modest increase in economically exploitable oil
resources, geopolitical instability and hurricanes, among other factors.14 In 2003

14
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/steo/pub/contents.html, accessed March 2006.

32

the price per barrel of the benchmark Brent crude was under USD 25 while in
2005 it was over USD 60 per barrel. It is expected to average USD 64 per barrel
in 2006.14 Worldwide, people are now beginning to understand that they are
dependent on oil, and that a rise in the oil price can be damaging to all econo-
mies. This is strengthening the movement towards sustainable energy sources.

Dependence on oil exporting countries
The dependence on countries in the (unstable) Middle East is considered to be a
risk. Therefore, domestic (national) sources of energy are important for sustained
economic development.

Increased environmental awareness
Due to the two reasons explained above, among others, policies to promote
renewables have mushroomed worldwide over the past few years. At least 43
countries, including 10 developing ones, now have some type of renewable
energy promotion policy (Renewable Energy Policy Network 2005). There is
increased environmental awareness and the Kyoto Protocol to the UN Frame-
work Convention on Climate Change, which has been ratified by 165 countries,15
is an example of this. The Kyoto negotiations started in 1997 and the Protocol
effectively came into force in February 2005. The countries that have ratified this
protocol have committed themselves to reducing their emissions of six green-
house gases16 with an average collective reduction of 5.2% compared with the
situation in 1990. Each country has its own target, but emission trading between
the countries is allowed. This means that countries which do not yet meet the
limits can buy credits from countries that have limits above their production. The
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is one of these instruments.
At a seminar on renewable energy in Dar es Salaam in September 2005,
UNIDO’s representative in Tanzania, Mr Felix Ugbor, said that “the timing of
the seminar was appropriate because the rest of the world is warming up to the
idea of renewable energy and Tanzania does not want to be left behind”.17 This
confirms that in Tanzania, too, there is an increased environmental awareness.

Increasing global interest in biofuels
Although biofuels account for only a small part of the worldwide renewable
energy contribution (see Figure 17) more and more attention is being directed
towards them. The worldwide production of biofuels (bio-ethanol and biodiesel)

15
As of Feb. 2006, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol, accessed January 2006.
16
Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
17
http://www.bcstimes.com/dailytimes/printable.php?category=1&newsID=975, accessed February
2006.

33

exceeded 33 billion litres in 2004, of which 31 billion litres per year was ethanol
and 2.2 billions litres biodiesel. This was 3% of the worldwide gasoline con-
sumption of 1,200 billion litres. Furthermore, about 900,000 people worldwide
are active in this sector. The biodiesel-sector grew by 25% per annum between
2000 and 2004. The production of biofuels is highest in Germany, with 50%
growth in 2004. France and Italy come second and third (Renewable Energy
Policy Network 2005). The European Union is particularly active in promoting
biofuels and its members have agreed on guidelines to promote them. The goal is
to have biofuels comprise 2% of the total fuel supply in 2006 (in terms of energy
content). The share is intended to be 5.75% in 2010.18 The European Union is
promoting biofuels in order to reduce dependence on oil imports, because of
rising oil prices, and in order to reduce greenhouse gases. Biofuels can also be a
means to protect agricultural jobs and will increase Europe’s technological
leadership in these sectors. While biofuels are attracting increasing interest, many
other sources of renewable energy are being stimulated as well.

Figure 17 Share of renewable energy in global
primary energy, 2004
Source: Renewable Energy Policy Network (2005).

Renewed interest in agriculture
The World bank and other organisations view agricultural development as being
very important for achieving the Millennium Development Goals,19 especially for

18
Guideline 2003/30/EG
19
In the year 2000 the member states of the United Nations adopted the Millennium Declaration, which
includes eight Millennium Development Goals to motivate the international community and provide
an accountability mechanism for actions taken to enable human development.

34

developing or low-income countries (World Bank 2006). Cultivating Jatropha in
a developing country fits in with this perspective.

Tanzania’s low GDP
Another global factor is Tanzania’s GDP, which is low even in comparison with
that of many developing countries. Related to this is the scarcity of foreign
exchange. GDP is currently USD 26.62 billion (2005 est.) for a population of
almost 37 million. GDP/capita is USD 700. In Tanzania, 36% of the population
live below the poverty line (2002 est.).20 Growing Jatropha could contribute
substantially towards relieving the country’s foreign exchange constraint, while
at the same time boosting growth.
Tanzania imports all its diesel fuel. If Jatropha oil were to be used as a
substitute for that diesel, the country would save an enormous amount of foreign
exchange. For example, the import of over 465 million litres of diesel (gas oils)
imported in 2002 had a value of over TZS 465 billion (USD 423 million) at a
pump price of TZS 1000 (USD 0.90). This was 4.7% of the GDP for that year
(USD 8,927.1 million), a heavy burden on the balance of payments. To
produce465 million litres of Jatropha oil, the country would need: 232,500 to
465,000 ha of land (with an assumed Jatropha oil yield of 1000 to 2000 liters/ha.
The total surface area of Tanzania is about (900,000 km2) or 90 million hectares,
of which 94.4%21 (85 million ha) is not arable or under permanent crops. Less
than 1% would have to be covered with Jatropha in order to make Tanzania self
sufficient in diesel. Even partial substitution would yield big savings in foreign
exchange.

Poor infrastructure in Tanzania
The infrastructure in Tanzania is very poor. The roads are hardly sufficient for
lorries, especially in very remote areas. The infrastructure for electricity is also
very poor, most electricity being generated in the south of Tanzania (through
hydro power) and the power lines being reliable. This results in regular power
shutdowns. Jatropha biofuel can be produced in remote areas, creating an energy
source which is not dependent on the current infrastructure. On the other hand,
when Jatropha seed or biofuel is exported to other countries, the infrastructure is
more important.
The perspective of the government of Tanzania with regard to renewable
energies is described in the following section.

20
http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tz.html, accessed January 2006.
21
2001 est. http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tz.html

35

Role of the government
The government of Tanzania is currently involved in setting up rural energy
agencies. These agencies would facilitate the access of the rural population to
modern energy services by providing capital subsidies to qualifying projects on
the basis of established criteria.22
The objectives of the National Energy Policies say nothing about oil-bearing
seeds or biodiesel. However, one of the objectives is “to promote development
and utilisation of appropriate new and renewable sources of energy”.23 Jatropha
biofuels could be viewed as an appropriate new and renewable source of energy.
The government of Tanzania is aware that an appropriate instrument for policy
implementation is necessary in order to “undertake the development and efficient
use of indigenous energy resources”.23 It is in the process of setting up a Rural
Energy Agency (REA) which will serve as the responsible institution for rural
energy development. REA will facilitate development of projects which will
ultimately be owned and implemented by the private sector, NGOs and
community-based organisations. A Rural Energy Fund (REF) will be established
as well to provide capital subsidies in order to reduce the risk to project
developers.
The Rural Energy Act of 2005 was passed by the Parliament in April 2005 to
allow the establishment of REA/REF. Currently the Ministry is waiting for the
President to endorse the Act and for it to be gazetted. The expectation is that
REA/REF will be operational during the 2005/06 financial year, which started in
July 2005. The budget has already been submitted to the Treasury.24
Although the government seems to be active, there is still a serious problem
with corruption, which surfaced during several interviews conducted for this
research. For example, Mr Malcolm, who wanted to start a large-scale Jatropha
plantation for the international company D1 oils, was unable to do so because
certain politicians wanted a large sum of money for long-term use of the land.
Politicians were a problem, too, for Mr. Burland, who owns a large scale farm
near Moshi where he also has a Jatropha plantation. He would be able to provide
employment for hundreds of people if the government was willing to invest in his
farm, but, according to Mr. Burland, certain politicians seem to be more
interested in personal gain. Mr. Fons Nijenhuis, who is involved with Diligent in
Tanzania, explained that it is very important to work with someone who knows

22
E-mail contact with Mr N. Mwihava, Assistant Commissioner Renewable Energy, Ministry of Energy
and Minerals, Tanzania.
23
Government Policy on Rural Energy Development, document written by Mrs Justina P. Uisso, Senior
Research Officer, Ministry of Energy and Minerals.
24
E-mail contact with Mrs Justina P. Uisso, Senior Research Officer, Ministry of Energy and Minerals.

36

his way around at the government level. So far, the government seems to be more
a barrier than an important facilitator.

Conclusion
The situation is quite good for a transition to biofuels. At the landscape level,
renewable energy, including biofuels, is receiving considerable attention world-
wide. The share of biofuels in the renewable energy market is currently very
small, but an increasing number of countries are committing themselves to
achieving a certain share of biofuels in their total fuel supply. This is creating a
global market for biofuels, which has very positive implications for a transition
in Tanzania. Tanzania could export biofuels to other countries, which is a stimu-
lation for the cultivation of Jatropha. Agricultural development in developing
countries is also a worldwide concern. The government of Tanzania is aware of
environmental issues, but its position on biofuels is unclear. So far the govern-
ment has been a barrier rather than a facilitator, especially when investors do not
know the right people. Tanzania has enough land to be easily self supportive in
fuel (at the current rate of consumption, less than 1% of uncultivated land
covered with Jatropha would be sufficient) and could thereby save foreign ex-
change. Also the poor infrastructure does not have to be a barrier for a transition
to biofuels, as even in very remote areas the fuel can be produced locally.
However, for export purposes the poor infrastructure might be a barrier.

Regime analysis
A regime could be described as the dominant or normal way of doing things. A
regime can provide room for new developments, or it can make it very hard to
induce changes. Several regimes are important for the transition to Jatropha
biofuel: the Agricultural regime (for the cultivation of Jatropha), the Vegetable
Oils regime (production of Jatropha oil), the Energy regime (use, not only in
engines but also for electricity, cooking and lighting) and finally the Financial
regime (to finance Jatropha activities in each niche). These regimes are analysed
in order to determine the room that the regime provides for new developments. If
a regime provides considerable room, the transition towards Jatropha biofuels is
facilitated by the regime.
Some cultural attitudes, about which information was derived from the inter-
views, are important in each regime. To quote from the respondents statements:
People have an attitude like not trying anything new before other people in
your neighbourhood have tried it. (Diligent)

37

The Chagga people think they already know all there is to know and are very
reserved in trying out new things. You cannot push them too hard, they slowly
have to get used to it. (Fons Nijenhuis)
The main barrier is a cultural one, according to Mr. Burland. People in the
Kilimanjaro region are from the Chagga tribe and seem to lack any incentive
whatsoever.
TAF offered 2000 Jatropha seedlings free in three villages, for use as support
for vanilla plants. Only a few villagers accepted the offer. (TAF)

This indicates that the cultural attitude is quite reserved, and changes will not be
accepted easily. However, as activities prove to be profitable, more and more
people will probably be convinced.

Agricultural regime
Agriculture is a very important sector for Tanzania, providing about half the
GDP (GDP/capita in 2004 was USD 700) and employs over 80% of the work-
force.25 Most of it is subsistence agriculture, the harvest being meant for own
consumption. The technology used is often very simple, either manual labour or
animal labour. Most of the rural people are very poor, as observed earlier. This
indicates that there are currently problems in the regime.
Remarks from the interviews:
Most land in the region around Moshi (Kilimanjaro), and also in other parts of the
country, is owned by co-operatives. These co-operatives consist of large groups
which, for example, all help one day to harvest or to weed. According to Fons
Nijenhuis, all members have to agree before a certain new crop, for example
Jatropha, is adopted.
In the Maasai tribe, land is owned by men, not by women. However, agricultural
labour is often done by women, so there is a conflict. Women will be reluctant to
plant Jatropha because they are not in charge. (A. Mshang)
Traditionally, Jatropha is used to mark a grave or for its medicinal properties
(TAF and T. Scheltema). Therefore, the species is known, which facilitates the
adoption process although a ‘graveyard’ tree has negative connotations for some
people (TAF). It is new for people to use it as a cash crop.
In high-altitude areas like Monduli (1700m) it is very common to buy trees from a
nursery. Plants will not establish easily at this altitude and, therefore, people often
buy trees from a nursery, according to a women’s group in Monduli.
The price of coffee (which is traditionally grown in the Moshi region) has fallen
dramatically on the world market; therefore people are looking for new crops.
(TAF)

25
2002 est. http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tz.html

38

In the Monduli region, many trees were chopped down during a tsetse fly
infestation because people believed that the flies, which transmit a parasite that
causes sleeping sickness, were hiding in the trees. (A. Mshanga)
In the region around Moshi, sisal is often used to fence off land. While Jatropha
cuttings are maturing, sisal could be planted to keep cows away from the Jatropha
saplings. (Green Garden Women Group)
Sisal is also often used as a fence and the leaves are then sold to rope-making
factories.
Euphorbia is also used as a fence. This, too, is a poisonous plant like Jatropha, but
it does not need pruning. (A. Mshanga)
Nurseries are already established for a variety of trees and plants. You see them in
villages as well as in cities.
Farmers around Dar es Salaam were very enthusiastic about planting Jatropha and
selling the seeds to Diligent. Their main crop until now has been cashew, but the
price of cashew-nuts has fallen and they are looking for another crop to plant.

From these remarks it appears that growing Jatropha is not radically different
from current practice. People are used to planting a fence around their land and
selling crops for processing into various products (for example, selling sisal
leaves to rope-making factories). Even more importantly, farmers are looking for
new crops because the prices of their current crops have fallen drastically. This
last factor indicates that there is a vision in which problems in the current regime
are recognised and that actors are open to ‘new’ solutions like, for example,
planting Jatropha.
The major crops cultivated in Tanzania are maize, sorghum, millet, rice,
wheat, pulses (mainly beans), cassava, potatoes, sweet potatoes, bananas and
plantains. The main export crops are: coffee, cotton, cashew-nuts, tobacco, sisal,
pyrethrum, tea, cloves, horticultural crops, oil-seeds, spices and flowers.26 Most
of the prices of these export crops have fallen considerably. Farmers are willing
to try new crops to regain their income. Table compares the yield and income
from some of the main crops (food and cash) in Tanzania and Jatropha. It is
assumed is that the yield for Jatropha is between 3 and 5 tons/ha/yr, and that the
seeds can be sold for TZS 80/kg. Most Jatropha fields were in the Arusha region;
the prices and yields for other crops are listed for that region only where data was
available.
Table 5 indicates that using Jatropha as a cash crop (selling the seeds) is very
profitable, and the revenues are higher than for the traditional crops. The main
difference between cultivating Jatropha and other food or cash crops is that
Jatropha does not have to be replanted every season (it can live up for to over 50
years) and can be harvested only after one to two years. This requires more long-

26
http://www.tanzania.go.tz/agriculture.html, accessed November 2005.

39

term thinking, unlike for crops that need to be replanted each season. When a
system of intercropping is used, farmers can still keep planting other crops.

Table 5 Yield, prices and revenue for crops in Tanzania
Crop Average yield Average price (TZS) Average revenue for
(kg/hectare) one hectare (TZS)
Maize 1220 (‘94/01) 136.70 (TZS/kg) 166,774 (≈ €119)*
(Arusha region) (July’98-June’99)
Wheat 1344 (‘94/01) 220 (TZS/kg) (’98) 295,680 (≈ € 211)
Sweet potatoes 2085 (‘94/01) 100 TZS/kg (97/98) 208,500 (≈ € 150)
(Arusha region)
Banana 2585 (1994-2001) 300 TZS/kg (97/98) 775,500 (≈ € 554)
Cassava 2219 (2431 for all 125 TZS/kg (97/98) 277,375 (≈ € 198)
regions, 94-01)
Cashew-nuts Total production: 375 TZS/kg (‘93/’00)
2001-2002: 122
*1000 tonnes
Sisal Total production:
23.5 *1000 tonnes
for 2001-2002.
Jatropha (seeds) 3,000-5,000 80 TZS/kg 240,000-400,000
(≈€171 - € 286)
Note: TZS 1400 = € 1 (May 2005)
Sources: Basic data, agricultural sector, Tanzania Ministry of Agriculture and Food security.
http://www.agriculture.go.tz/MAFS-Services/Statistics.htm (chapter 1 and chapter 2) and
http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/004/w9479e/w9479e00.htm

Jatropha can be grown on uncultivated land, which means that it not compete
with food crops. Of the total surface area of Tanzania (900,000 km2), 4.53% is
arable land and 1.08% is used for permanent crops. This indicates that a large
amount of land is not yet cultivated.
In most cases, food crops are sold in the market – this is true of 59% of rural
households in Tanzania. The majority of the holdings (31%) sell their produce to
private business persons. An agricultural survey conducted in 1997/8 (National
Bureau of Statistics 2000) found that 29% of the holdings faced several market-
ing problems: low prices, poor roads, transport difficulties, lack of a market and
no grain bags.
It is not (yet) normal practice to sell Jatropha seeds in a market. The seeds are
collected by either Kakute or Diligent. This is comparable to the current system
of private business persons buying agricultural produce from farmers. When the
quantity of Jatropha seeds becomes much larger, collecting the seeds might be

40

more difficult. So a system for trading the Jatropha seeds could be expanded in
the future. Poor roads, transport, lack of a market and lack of grain bags are also
important factors to take into account for Jatropha trading.
Overall, the agricultural regime seems to provide enough room for new
developments. Problems in the current way of doing things are recognised
(farmers are looking for new crops) and the differences between the current way
of doing things and starting to cultivate Jatropha seem to be minimal. However,
there are certain risks associated with the long-term nature of the investment
required for Jatropha cultivation (less flexibility than with seasonally planted
crops). Several systems – such as, for example, intercropping – could reduce this
risk. The transition towards biofuels in Tanzania, in which the first stage –
cultivation – is very important, does not seem to be held back by the agricultural
regime. Because the cultural attitude is quite reserved it will take some time (and
a couple of good, profitable examples) before the farmers are convinced of the
value of this relatively new crop. This is the lesson from the free seedlings given
by TAF. While not all villagers accepted them, some farmers became very
enthusiastic when Diligent told them how much they could sell the seeds for.
This indicates that at least a portion of the farmers are willing to try this ‘new
crop’ and their success could motivate others.

Vegetable oil regime
There is some overlap with the agricultural regime here, but in addition to being
grown and harvested, an oil-seed crop also has to be processed to obtain
vegetable oil. Therefore this is a separate regime.

Lesson from the interviews:
Because it is poisonous, it is hard to find people who want to press the seeds.
It is better to tell them the seeds are not for human consumption than to tell
them they are poisonous because they get scared. (Diligent)

The ISIC classification (revision 2) has a separate number for Vegetable and
animal oils and fats (3115). The annual Survey of Industrial Production (2003)
mentions that in Tanzania there were 31 establishments in this industry in 1996
and 32 in 1999. The number of employees grew marginally from 2626 in 1996 to
2938 in 1999. So there is very limited growth in this industry.
The ‘traditional’ oil-seed sector can be divided into two sections; industrial
and edible oil-seeds. An example of an industrial oil-seed is the castor-oil seed.
Examples of edible oil-seeds are sunflower, groundnut (also known as peanut),
sesame, coconut, cottonseed and soya bean. These seeds have shown irregular

41

production trends, mainly due to low producer prices and the collapse of do-
mestic export and marketing systems.27
The main crops used for oil production in 1997/98 are listed in Table 6.
Groundnuts and cashew-nuts were the principal oil crops, with 41% and 32% of
the area under oil crops being covered by them respectively.
It is not unusual in Tanzania for an oil facility to be owned by a co-operative.
Farmers take their seeds there and have them pressed for a fee. This is the case at
the Vyahumu Trust in Morogoro. So the current practice is not very different
from what is required for the production of Jatropha oil. However, there is a
substantial barrier within this regime for Jatropha because Jatropha is poisonous.
Few processing firms are willing to use their equipment to press both edible
seeds as well as a poisonous seed. Therefore, room for new developments within
this regime seems to be quite low. For a transition towards biofuels in Tanzania,
it might be necessary to develop new oil-expelling facilities that are specifically
dedicated to pressing Jatropha seeds.

Table 6 Distribution of planted area by oil crop
Type of oil crop Planted area (ha)
Groundnuts 202,343
Cashew-nuts 157,505
Sunflower 80,676
Coconuts 33,435
Simsim 20,794
Other 4,125
Total 498,878
Source: National Bureau of Statistics (2000: 20)

Energy regime
The most important source of energy in Tanzania is biomass, especially for
people in rural areas. Some biomass is converted into charcoal and sold in
commercial markets. Of the total energy consumption in Tanzania, 93% is
derived from biomass. This mainly consists of fuelwood and charcoal, a smaller
percentage is derived from agricultural and forestry waste and dung. Fewer than
8% of households in Tanzania are connected to the electricity grid. Energy pur-
poses vary from fuelling engines, cooking and heating to lighting.

27
http://www.agriculture.go.tz/Agr-Industry/Crops-grown-tz.htm#Pyrethrum, accessed December 2005.

42

Table 7 shows the projected consumption of various fuels in Tanzania is
given. The demand for energy is expected to rise in the future so the potential for
biofuels is quite high.

Table 7 Projected consumption of various fuels, in ‘000 MT
Fuel type 1990 2000 2010 2020
Oil products 729.4 1,028.3 206.0 2,707.5
Coal 82.26 134.0 206.0 317.0
Wood fuel* 9,000.00 11,862.0 16,420.0 22,729.6
Natural gas** 0 153.0 226.4 226.4
* Units in tonnes of oil equivalent
** Units in millions of cubic metres
Source: Meena & Mwandosya (1996)

The use of these ‘traditional’ sources of energy creates many problems. The
use of wood fuel causes deforestation and hence soil erosion. Both are quite
severe in Tanzania: the deforestation rate in 2001 was 250,000 hectares per
annum.28 Furthermore, health is severely affected by the use of fuelwood and
kerosene for cooking and lighting. Rooms are often badly ventilated and without
chimneys, which leads to a buildup of smoke indoors.
Several renewable energy options are available to avoid the problems related
to the use of these traditional energy sources (see Table 8).
The main projects that are promoted, according to the Tanzania Country
Assessment of 2001, are biogas production for cooking, improved technologies
(cooking stoves and kilns), solar thermal applications for water heating and
cooking, and solar and wind technologies. The Tanzanian government has, for
example, decided to reduce the tax on solar panels. However the Country Assess-
ment also states that very few attempts have been made to utilise wind and solar
energy. The main problems are:
a poor payment record
low awareness and lack of confidence in renewable energy technologies
high investment requirements in relation to the low purchasing power of the
target groups
weak institutional framework and infrastructure for effective promotion and
support
lack of financing mechanisms to provide credit to potential users.

28
http://www.areed.org/country/tanzania/tanzania.pdf accessed February 2006.

43

Table 8 Common existing applications of renewable energy in rural (off-grid) areas
Energy services Renewable energy application Conventional alternatives
Cooking (homes commer direct combustion (fuel wood, crop LPC, kerosene
cial stoves and ovens) wastes, forest wastes, dund,
charcoal, and other forms)
biogas from household-scale
digester
solar cookers

Lighting and other small hydropower (pico-scale, micros- candles, kerosene,
electric needs (homes, scale, small-scale) batteries, central battery
biogas from household-scale
schools, street lighting, digester recharging, diesel
telecom, hand tools, small-scale biomass gasifier with generations
vaccine storage gas engine
village scale mini-grids- and
solar/wind hybrid systems
solar home systems

Process motive power small hydro with electric motor diesel engines and
(small industry) biomass power generation and generators
electric motor
biomass gasification with gas
engine

Water pumping mechanical wind pumps diesel pums
(agriculture and drinking) solar PV pumps

Heating and cooling (crop biomass direct combustion LPG, kerosene, diesel
drying and other biogass from small- and medium- generations
scale digesters
agricultural precessing, hot solar crop dryers
water) solar water heaters
ice making for food preservation
Source: Renewable Energy Policy Network (2005)

A biofuel like Jatropha oil could be used for all the energy services listed in
Table 9. The different applications within the energy regime will be analysed
separately. These are: use in diesel engines, for electricity, lighting and cooking.
Electricity can be used for all the other applications but is treated separately
because the infrastructure is very different from that of the others.

Diesel engines. Diesel fuel is used for transport (in cars and trucks), in agricul-
tural equipment such tractors, and in diesel generators. Most rural people do not
own vehicles, nor do they have agricultural equipment requiring fuel. They often
rely on public transport such as dalla-dalla’s (taxi-vans) or on private persons

44

who do own vehicles. Also, trucks in Tanzania use diesel fuel, which has to be
transported a long distance from the harbours. In big cities like Dar es Salaam,
there is high demand for fuels because of the volume of traffic.
The price of diesel fuel in Dar es Salaam rose to TZS 1090 and TZS 1100 per
litre in August 2005. (Rik Luiten)
Currently, diesel fuel and gasoline are used as transportation fuel. All fuels are
imported. Table lists Tanzania’s diesel oils imports between 1998 and 2002.

Table 9 Import of petroleum products by Tanzania, 1998-2002
year Distillate fuels: Distillate fuels: Light oils and Light oils and Medium oils and
gas oils (GO) diesel oils preparations: preparations: preparations:
(l) (IDO, Industrial motor spirit motor spirit illuminating
diesel oils) (l) (Regular) (Premium) kerosene (l)
1998 317,633,113 60,192,929 3,769,763 118,952,760 122,535,993
1999 519,627,730 21,552,735 999,679 156,104,969 141,441,143
2000 513,682,796 27,488,877 31,202 179,412,478 138,216,276
2001 423,294,177 29,137,233 10 137,484,979 126,652,542
2002 465,177,996 14,870,931 128,117 148,100,158 154,702,808
Source: TRA

Diesel engines would have to be modified to run on Jatropha oil (for example,
installation of a two-tank system or a change of nozzles). Since vehicle manu-
facturers do not provide vehicles with such modifications, there would be an
additional cost for vehicle owners, leading to considerable resistance as people in
Tanzania are quite poor. Another barrier to the transition is that technical
knowledge is required to make the modifications.
When Jatropha oil is converted into biodiesel before being used, vehicles
require almost no modification (only the fuel hose need to be resistant to bio-
diesel). The University of Dar es Salaam, in co-operation with Eindhoven
University of Technology, the Netherlands, is starting a research project to study
the effects on the engine when biodiesel is used. Jatropha oil could also be mixed
with normal diesel fuel and sold at gasoline stations; people would not even
know they were driving on biodiesel. Resistance against this new development
could therefore be anticipated to be low were a mixture to be used.

Electricity. Petroleum, hydropower and coal are the major sources of commercial
energy in Tanzania. The electricity sub-sector contributes about 0.6 per cent of
total energy consumption (Tanzania Country Assesment). Two thirds of Tanza-
nia’s installed capacity is hydro powered. Rural areas often have no electricity.
Even in the larger cities, power shutdowns are very frequent and consumers have

45

to use diesel generators as a backup source. The room for niches in this regime is
quite large, as villagers are often interested only in how much electricity they can
get and what equipment they can connect to it; how the electricity is generated –
from solar panels, biodiesel or another source – is not an issue. Also, electricity is
often generated for more than one household, so the maintenance of the equip-
ment can be shared. This increases the likelihood of of the equipment having a
long lifespan. However, equipment maintenance requires some technical skills.

Lighting. The fuel in oil lamps is mostly kerosene. Other sources of lighting are
candles, torchwood, batteries, solar electricity, and grid electricity. However for
more than 90% of low-income households, kerosene is the light source of choice;
in rural areas, this figure is almost 100%.29 There is a fairly well-established
distribution network. Kerosene is imported by private oil companies, and sold at
gasoline stations. This facilitates its use by low-income urban and rural house-
holds.30 A rural family spends about TZS 3000 per month on kerosene.
The price of kerosene keeps rising: it was TZS 426 per litre in 2002, TZS 505
in 200331 and TZS 850-980 in 2005.32 All kerosene in Tanzania is imported and
the quantity keeps rising as well. In 1998 Tanzania imported 122,535,993 litres
of kerosene; in 2002 this figure had risen to 154,702,808 litres (see Table 9). This
would seem to indicate a large potential market, with additional savings in
foreign exchange, if Jatropha oil were to be used for lighting.
Jatropha oil can be used in diesel generators to generate electricity, which can
then be used for lighting. It is also possible to use Jatropha oil directly in oil
lamps. However, the oil can only be used in lamps especially made for it. The
Jatropha oil lamp costs TZS 1700, and Jatropha oil TZS 2000/l; this is higher
than the price of kerosene. People are habituated to using kerosene whereas
Jatropha oil is not only a new fuel, it also involves using a different type of lamp.
The price of Jatropha oil is very important in deciding whether the room for new
developments in lighting is high or low. At the current price of TZS 2000/l,
people are unlikely to be enthusiastic about a transition to Jatropha biofuel.

Cooking. The dominant energy source for cooking is fuelwood. In the year 2000,
households in sub-Saharan Africa consumed nearly 470 million tonnes of wood
fuels in the form of wood and charcoal. This is far more than on any other conti-
nent. For 94% of the rural households (41% of urban) in sub-Saharan countries,

29
http://www.hedon.info/goto.php/TanzaniaCountrySynthesis, accessed July 2005. This information is
based on KAALE and HIFAB (1998), who conducted a rural energy study.
30
Ibid.
31
http://www.tanzania.go.tz/economicsurveyf.html, accessed July 2005. Development in different
sectors of the economy.
32
Price in Dar es Salaam on 28-7-2005 (at different gasoline stations).

46

wood or crop residues are the primary source of energy. Charcoal is the primary
source for 4% of rural households (34% of urban), and kerosene for 2% of rural
households (13% of urban) (Renewable Energy Policy Network 2005). Table
shows the average monthly consumption of various types of energy in Mwanga
district, along the highway between Dar es Salaam and Arusha. The figures were
derived from interviews in the district by Harry Kuipers.
Jatropha seedcake can be used to produce biogas for cooking. In addition,
Jatropha oil can be used directly in modified cooking stoves.

Table 10 Average monthly energy consumption per
household (hh), Mwanga District
Energy source Consumption
Hh/month
Fuel wood (kg) 230
Charcoal (kg) 25
Kerosene (liter) 5
Electricity (kWh) n.a.
Source: Kuipers (2004)

Several relevant remarks emerged from the interviews:
• The price of charcoal is TZS 3000 for a bag which can last two weeks; however, the
majority in this village use fuelwood, which is collected free. (women’s group,
Engaruka)
• Charcoal, kerosene and wood fuel are used instead of Jatropha oil in cooking stoves.
(Green Garden)
• Although biogas (Jatropha) was available to the Monduli women’s group, they were
cooking with firewood. When asked why they did not use the biogas stove, they said
they only use this during the rainy season when firewood is not easy to find. However,
the technical properties of the biogas installation were not very good. (Monduli)
• A charcoal stove costs TZS 15,000. Another alternative energy source for cooking is
briquettes made from sawdust. There is a small factory at KIDT in Moshi, which
currently sells these briquettes only to schools that were provided with a briquette stove
earlier. (KIDT)
• A Jatropha cooking stove costs TZS 12,000-20,000. (Green Garden, KIDT)
• A (Jatropha) biogas cooker costs TZS 10,000. (Monduli)

Several NGOs are actively spreading more efficient cooking stoves. TaTEDO,
for example, has provided several households with improved cooking stoves.
And Kakute is providing several groups with a biogas system. However, from an
interview with a women’s group it appears they are not used with enthusiasm.
This indicates there are some alternative energy sources available for cooking
purposes.

47

Some (health) problems are recognised by this regime, but they are mainly
recognised by NGOs, not by the local people. Especially from the remarks in the
interview it appears that the dominant cooking regime is quite strong. People are
not satisfied with a system which increases the cooking-time, even if their health
would be improved. So a new fuel should meet their demands precisely.
Overall, the current energy regime faces many problems, ranging from lack of
availability to health issues. Many sources are used for the different purposes in
this regime; they vary from wood fuel to kerosene and solar panels. There does
not seem to be a very strong dominant energy regime; as many (rural) people
lack energy sources, fuelwood is used most often, mainly for cooking. There is
room for new developments as the many initiatives by NGOs for improved
stoves show, but the users do not seem to be willing to compromise on their
demands for a fast and cheap fuel. Using Jatropha oil in a mixture with normal
diesel fuel requires the least modification to the engines, so this option is most
likely to be facilitated by the current regime. Also, the use of Jatropha biofuel to
generate electricity will probably arouse little resistance. For cooking purposes,
the room for new developments seems to be quite low.

Financial regime
Households in the rural areas do not have much money; they spend less than half
of what a household in the city Dar es Salaam spends (see Table 11). Any
additional income is welcome, and every extra cost, for example, for cooking
fuel, will not be accepted easily.

Table 11 Average consumption expenditure levels in 2000/01 (28 days, TZS,
nominal prices)
Measure Dar es Salaam Other urban Rural areas Mainland
areas Tanzania
Mean expenditure per capita 21,949 14,377 8,538 10,120
Median expenditure per capita 16,349 11,561 6,860 7,523
Mean expenditure per houshold 117,893 78,079 52,649 59,935
Source: Household Budget survey 2000, http://www.tanzania.go.tz/hbs/HomePage_HBS.html, accessed
December 2005.

In rural areas the interest the loans is often quite high and loans are not given
easily. However, several new systems have been developed and small micro-
credit loans are given to, frequently rural, people who often have a very high
repayment rate. For example, in one system a group receives a loan and all
members are responsible for the repayment. In another system, each member of a
group contributes a small amount per week to a group savings fund; once a week

48

in turn, one of the members receives the amount that all the members have saved.
Usually the amounts are quite low, but the members can use the money, for
example, to pay school fees. According to Mrs. Coutinho, the director of FINCA,
a microcredit organisation (see Appendix II) the cost of going from a rural area
to the bank regularly to repay the loan in instalments is very high. Therefore, it is
difficult for rural people to get a loan. Furthermore, she said, most women in
Tanzania are shy and afraid to enter the premises of a microcredit organisation or
a bank. When a microcredit is obtained from FINCA, (its focus is mainly on rural
areas and women) the loan size varies between USD 500 and USD 5000,
depending on the scale of the business and the collateral. The average repayment
time is 12 to 18 months. For a USD 500 credit, for example, a refrigerator and a
TV could serve as collateral. A business plan is required for a loan, but FINCA
can send a research team to help with this. Kakute has a link with a microcredit
facility, which has given some farmers in Engaruka loans of TZS 50,000-
100,000 or TZS 500,000.
Last year (2005) was declared ‘the international year of microcredit;33 this
indicates a change in the regime towards more awareness and initiatives to
provide these credits. Overall, there is a tension in this regime towards rural
people who hardly obtain any loans. But new developments towards microcredit
and the support of rural people shows that the regime could facilitate a transition
towards biofuels.

Conclusion
The culture of Tanzanian people creates barriers because they seem to be some-
what sceptical about new technologies.
The agricultural regime in Tanzania seems to be open to a transition towards
biofuels. The current regime is not very different from the cultivation of
Jatropha, although Jatropha could require more long-term investments than other
(cash) crops. Problems are recognised in this regime, as farmers are already
looking for new crops in view of poor revenues from existing ones. However,
some farmers will probably wait to see the results of cultivation of Jatropha on
other farms.
The vegetable oils regime shows that people are already used to oil-expelling
facilities. However, Jatropha oil is poisonous and this could be a barrier to the
use of existing facilities.
The dominant regime for energy is quite complex. In rural areas, the energy
sources are mostly wood (fuelwood or charcoal). Energy purposes vary from
using fuel in engines to electrification, lighting and cooking. Switching to

33
http://www.yearofmicrocredit.org/, accessed February 2006.

49

Jatropha biodiesel or a mixture of Jatropha oil and diesel fuel would seem to
have potential. These fuels do not require extensive engine modifications, so they
would be more in line with the current regime than using Jatropha oil in its pure
form. Electricity (which can be generated with Jatropha biofuel) is often not yet
available in most Tanzanian villages, but electricity could be used for lighting as
well as cooking and would raise the standard of living. Kerosene is used mostly
as a source of lighting. Its comparatively low price does not encourage the use of
Jatropha oil as a substitute. Finally, changing cooking habits seems to be quite
difficult.
There are already many alternatives in this regime. There is room for a transi-
tion, but user preferences are very important.
In the current financial regime, it is quite difficult for rural people to obtain a
loan (for example, to purchase an oil press). But there are organisations, like
FINCA or NGOs, from which it is possible for rural people to acquire a (small)
loan. The room in this regime for new developments seems to be increasing.
When microcredits are more easily accessible to rural people, there will be a
positive influence on the transition.

Niche analysis
Several niches will be analysed. At the end, an actor network overview will be
given for all the niches together as there is some overlap between them (see
Figure 26 below: Actor network of Jatropha projects in Tanzania, according to
information given by actors). Each niche offers potential for actors to start
activities. The niches analysed in this section are derived from the interviews and
communications during the fieldwork in Tanzania (see Appendix II for a detailed
description of each experiment or interview).
The Jatropha production chain consists of three separate stages: cultivation,
production and usage (as was illustrated in Figure 13). Experiments in the second
and third stage, production and usage, need the input of the previous stage. Some
experiments contain more than one step of the Jatropha chain. Soap-making
activities can, for example, also consist of growing the Jatropha and expelling the
oil. Related lessons from these experiments are placed in their separate niche.
For this thesis, only the niches that were related to actors and activities in
Tanzania were analysed. The niches are:

1 Cultivation
Jatropha cultivation (additional income is acquired by selling seeds or
seedlings/cuttings)

50

2 Production
Jatropha oil production (in an oil-expelling facility)
3 Use
Jatropha oil used as substitute for diesel fuel
Jatropha cake used in a biogas facility
Jatropha cake used as fertiliser
Jatropha cake pressed into briquettes (no data)
4 Other applications for Jatropha oil
Jatropha oil used as basis for soap-making
Jatropha oil used in oil lamps
Jatropha oil used in cooking stoves
Jatropha plants used as support for vanilla plants(no data)

The three main niche processes, as explained in Chapter 2, are: network form-
ation and stabilisation (actor network composition and network dynamics); learn-
ing processes; and formation and voicing and shaping of expectations (dynamics
of expectations). These three processes will be described for each niche. Each
niche will also be given a short introduction, an economic analysis to determine
the financial feasibility, and a conclusion.

1. CULTIVATION
Farmers can create extra income by selling Jatropha seeds or seedlings. Jatropha
seeds can be harvested about two years after planting. The Jatropha plant can be
harvested twice a year when nourished properly (with water and nutrients). There
are several ways in which Jatropha can be planted; for example, on a small scale
as a fence along the farmer’s plot or on a larger scale in a plantation setting with
or without intercropping. It is also possible to pick seeds from Jatropha growing
‘wild’ or to sell small Jatropha seedlings from a nursery. All these methods are
practised in Tanzania.

Introduction
Currently Kakute and Diligent are paying farmers for seeds, and both are
encouraging farmers to grow more Jatropha. Diligent, however, is stimulating the
farmers on a much larger scale. The data in this application-domain are collected
from about nine different experiments. They are: Kikuletwa Farm – data from
Peter Burland in TPC (near Moshi, this farm has Jatropha and Aloë Vera); the
Brotherhood of Jesus the Good Shepherd in Hedaru (they grow Jatropha on a
small scale and intend to use the oil as a diesel substitute); and farmer Ismael
Manang near Arusha, who is going to deliver seeds to Diligent. Several farmers
and villagers around Arusha, Dar es Salaam and Selela/Engaruka are also going

51

to deliver seeds to Diligent. Furthermore, data were obtained from a women’s
group in Monduli, who sell seedlings from a nursery (the members also use
biogas made from Jatropha) and individuals like Bukaza Chachage (who wrote a
thesis on Jatropha oil in Tanzania), Doherty Malcolm (who was about to start a
large-scale plantation for D1 oils two years ago), Mr. Sawe (director of
TaTEDO), the director of Kakute and finally field officers of Kakute.

Network formation and stabilisation
Actors:
- Kakute (supervision, management, seed trader)
- Diligent (supervision, seminar training, seed trader)
- Seed/seedling suppliers (Peter Burland, Brotherhood of Jesus the Good Shepherd,
Ismael Manang, farmers around Arusha and Dar es Salaam, women’s groups in
Monduli and Engaruka, villagers in Selela, more farmers in future)
- Research institute: Sokoine University of Agriculture
- Other interested parties: Harry Kuijpers, Mark van den Bosch, Malcolm, Bukaza
Chachage, NGOs like TaTEDO, Faida MaLi, etc.

The women’s groups are involved through Kakute, Peter Burland from
Kikuletwa Farm has acted as an individual and farmer Ismael Manang and
several other farmers and villagers have been encouraged to grow Jatropha by
Diligent. Harry Kuijpers and Mark van den Bosch came into contact with
Diligent as well (through connections at the TU/e with Kees Daey Ouwens) and
have started to encourage Brotherhood of Jesus the Good Shepherd. Kakute also
provides technical assistance: two field officers are visiting the groups and
explaining how, for example, they can set up a nursery. They also act as traders,
buying oil or seeds from one women’s group and selling them to another group.
Diligent is stimulating farmers and villagers to grow Jatropha by guaranteeing
them a fixed price for the seeds. It has provided interested villagers and farmers
with free seeds and is also organising seminars to make farmers and villagers
aware of the guaranteed price for Jatropha seeds sold to Diligent.

Dynamics. The number of actors in this part of the chain is increasing. More and
more farmers are planting Jatropha. Large players like Diligent are also growing.
One group of farmers even came all the way from Dar es Salaam to talk with
Diligent about planting Jatropha. Several NGOs are involved due to connections
with Kakute; in addition, other NGOs are focusing more on biofuels while the
possibility of using them as an alternative fuel continues to gain interest
worldwide. TaTEDO, for example, wants to create a strong network/Jatropha
sector, according to the director, Mr. Sawe. People or organisations that are

52

interested in Jatropha in other countries also come to Kakute for information on
how Jatropha should be managed. Kakute, in turn, collects this information from
women’s groups or individual farmers like Peter Burland. So far little research
institutes are involved in studying Jatropha in Tanzania. There are reports that a
research project is starting at Sokoine University of Agriculture in Morogoro.

Economic analysis
Picking seeds. Between 2 and 10kg of seeds can be picked per hour, (it depends
on the density of the plants), this equals a revenue of TZS 160 to 800/hour, which
is quite reasonable.

Planting Jatropha. Detailed calculations on each project are given in Appendix II.
Table 12 summarises the economic analysis of five running projects. All of the
projects (except the brotherhood) are making a profit from Jatropha, albeit in a
protected environment. The first three projects in the table, Kikuletwa Farm, the
Brotherhood and farmer Ismael Manang, have started either large or small
plantations of Jatropha and their object is to make a profit by selling the seeds.
The other two projects in the table do not have plantations; the villagers of
Engaruka simply pick seeds from Jatropha growing wild and from planted
Jatropha fences. In Monduli, the women’s group sells Jatropha seedlings which
its members grow in a nursery.
The calculations are made with an assumed yield of 3 to 5 tons per hectare.
The price for which seeds can be sold varies with the buyer. So far only
Kakute and Diligent have showed interest in buying the seeds from individuals,
farmers and/or groups. While Kakute is working like an NGO and is supported
and sponsored by several funds and organisations, the price Kakute pays is
higher than that paid by the commercial company Diligent. Kakute is currently
paying about TZS 150/kg for Jatropha seeds and Diligent is paying TZS 80/kg.
Farmer Ismael Manang is going to supply seeds to Diligent; therefore, he will
sell them for TZS 80/kg, the same price paid to Engaruka villagers and Kiku-
letwa Farm. The Brotherhood has not yet decided to whom it will sell the seeds
and therefore both prices are used in the calculations (low estimate with low
yield and low selling price, high estimate with high yield and high selling price).
The seedlings in Monduli are sold for TZS 50-00/pc.
All figures are quite positive, only the Brotherhood does not have positive
figures. Kikuletwa Farm and Ismael Manang, particularly, earn a very high
profit. However, for various reasons, there are some differences between the
figures for the projects.

53

Table 12 Economic analysis of several projects. Prices in TZS where not specified as
USD ($)34

Project Kikuletwa Brotherhood Farmer Engaruka Monduli
Farm of Jesus the Ismael Village Women’s
Good Manang Group
Shepherd
Size of 200 ha 0,41 ha (1,25 33 ha 300 10,000
plantation ha after 2 bags/season, seedlings
years) total 18 tons
(0,8-1,7 ha)
Investment $20,000 $1,430 $1,700 zero minimal
costs during
first 2 years
Forecast of $108,045 to At max: $- 433 $7,188 to $2,618 $455 to
cash $180,773 to $147 $11,988 $909
inflow/year
after 5 years
Net Present $160,775 to $-2,732 to $- $10,295 to $10,959 $1,448 to
Value $282,238 2,003 $18,315 $2,896
Internal Rate 168% to negative for 113% to - -
of Return (in 236% both estimates 157%
real terms)
Pay-back between 2 X to >18 years between 2 0 0
Period and 3 years and 3 years
Other assumptions:
Constant prices
Real discount rate (r): 9.8%, calculated by using inflation (p) of 4.4% and the average
interest rate (i) on medium- and long-term loans in 2003, which was 14.6%35, in the formula:
r=(1+i)/(1+p)-1.
Project running time: 5 years
Yield of seeds for plantation (Kikuletwa, Brotherhood and Ismael Manang): harvest starting
after 2 years, in 3rd year yield of 50%, in 4th year 75%, 5th year 100%. So there is no income
from Jatropha in the first two years.
Decision positive when: NPV>0, IRR>real discount rate (9.8), BCR>1

A large difference between the projects is the scale; Mr. Burland’s Kikuletwa
Farm is working with 200 hectares (494 acres), Mr. Manang is working with 80
acres, while the Brotherhood is so far working with only one to three acres. This

34
USD 1 $ = TZS 1100
35
http://www.tanzania.go.tz/economicsurvey1/2003/part1/financeinstitutions.htm, accessed August
2005.

54

creates large differences in the cash inflow after the plants start producing. The
larger the surface covered with Jatropha, the more the cash inflow.
Other differences in the table are due to the necessity or otherwise of invest-
ments. Establishing a plantation entails investment and costs and the plants take
some time to mature. However, the Engaruka villagers, for example, do not need
to invest money to grow Jatropha. Jatropha is indigenous in the region, so they
can pick seeds from the wild plants and grow more Jatropha along their fields. If
the villagers used their cultivated land for Jatropha plantations, there would be
the costs of ploughing, weeding, harvesting, and so on (higher opportunity costs).
Another difference is the way the Jatropha plantation is managed. Kikuletwa
Farm uses a system with intercropping, therefore there are no labour costs for
weeding and irrigation. The Brotherhood has hired one person who is in charge
of the Jatropha full-time. The drive to the area where the Jatropha is grown
requires diesel fuel. Farmer Ismael Manang was able to provide a detailed list of
the expenses for his Jatropha plantation (see Table 13).

Table 13 Jatropha expenses of Ismael Manang
Expenses per acre first year TZS
Pegs (sticks) 140 pieces (cost is for labour, pegs are made from wood) 1,000
Paint (for the pegs) ½ litre 450
Painting of pegs, labour charge 1,000
Seed sowing 1,000
Seeds 35x35=1225 (2 per hole) x2=2450 no charges yet
Diesel for tractor 6,5 litres to dig trenches 6,500
Survey team: 1 supervisor + 4 people 3200+1000 TZS 4,200
Weeding 3 times a year (2 times spot-weeding, once complete weeding)
4000 TZS for complete weeding, 2500 for spot-weedingx2=5000 9,000
Equipment: brush (1000,-), tape measure (6000,-), hammer (5000,-),
sisal rope (2500,-), Panga (machete to clear the area) (3000,-), total:
17,600 for 80 acres, per acre: 220
Total per acre 23,370
Total 80 acre 1,869.600

Expenses for 2nd year
Weeding 9,000

Expenses for 3rd year to η year
Weeding 9,000
Picking seeds 4,500
Total 13,500

55

None of the projects required a loan for starting the activities. Those who
undertook the projects either already had a business from which they could
obtain the money, or they were sponsored by a third party. This means they all
were able to survive the first two years during which a Jatropha plantation does
not provide an income. Some small farmers who want to start a Jatropha planta-
tion would, of course, need a loan and the economic analysis would than be not
as positive, depending on the size of the loan.
The Monduli women’s group had already established a nursery for several
species of trees and plants. Jatropha only had to be added, therefore their invest-
ment costs were very low. Also, the members do not depend only on Jatropha for
their income since they still sell other seedlings. The Jatropha income should be
seen as additional revenue. The same applies to the villagers of Engaruka; they
are still carrying on their own business, but pick the seeds to add to their income.
To summarise, the differences between the projects are: the price obtained for
seeds, the scale of the plantations, the investment and maintenance costs, and the
predicted yield of Jatropha seeds.

Sensitivity analysis
Ismael Manang was able to provide the most detailed and complete picture of all
the costs on his farm. A sensitivity analysis for his farm is summarised in Table
14.

Table 14 Sensitivity analysis for Ismael Manang
Yield 1 kg/plant/yr Cash outflows doubled Price for seeds halved
NPV 11 million TZS about 48.5-100 million TZS (about 24-54 million TZS
$ 10.000 $44,000-91,000) ($22,000-46,000)
IRR 112% 175-262% 175-262%
BCR 7 14-27 14-27

When the yield is changed to a very low estimate of 1kg/plant/year, the results
are still positive. After five years he would still make a profit of at least USD
7,115 a year (USD 4,901 if discounted). When the yield is lowered to 0.15
kg/plant/year the BCR is 1 (and the IRR is 11%). When the cash outflows are
doubled, the results are still positive. The low-yield estimate has a BCR of 1 (and
IRR of 10%) when the cash outflows are 27 times as high. When the price for the
seeds (TZS 80/kg) is halved to TZS 40/kg only the NPV changes in relation to
the double cash flows. At a price of TZS 3/kg, the low-yield estimate has a BCR
of 1 (IRR 11%).

56

Learning processes
Cultivation of Jatropha:
The ground should not contain left-over roots from other crops. If it does and
ploughing is not done properly, the Jatropha will choke. So it is important to
plough the land properly. (Malcolm)
Cuttings establish faster than seedlings (Burland). However, some reports say that
the roots of cuttings will not establish properly in the long term. Also, Mr.
Malcolm mentioned that the roots of Jatropha cuttings will not grow as deep as
the roots of seedlings. In the end, cuttings will thus not help to stop soil erosion.
(Malcolm)
A mixture of cow dung and soil seems to work fine in the seedling nursery.
Kakute taught this to the Brotherhood and the Jatropha grew well, although not all
seeds germinated.
Mr. Ismael Manang also mentioned that 30% of the seeds did not germinate on his
plot. He thought it was due to the fact that the seeds had not been sorted.
Normally, seeds for sowing must be sorted.
Jon-Erik from TAF planted some Jatropha seeds just after the rainy season (thus
at the start of the dry season) as a test. He did not water some of the saplings. The
saplings that received no water did not survive, the ones that were given a small
amount of water did survive (about 80-90% of them). At Kikuletwa Farm, plants
that were watered copiously grew very fast and with a high yield. Plants that
received less water (for example, at the end of a row) grew much slower. When
Jatropha was planted and left for 18 months without water, it did not grow, even
after being watered (although this could also be due to salt in the soil).Fons
Nijenhuis also said that availability of water is important. At a teacher training
college in Monduli, however, plants that did not receive water survived, although
they were relatively small. So it seems that water is not absolutely necessary but it
increases yield.
After 6-8 months, the seedlings in the nursery should be replanted to their
permanent spot. If this is done later, the taproot will be destroyed and the plant
will not establish properly. This was learned after plants that had been replanted
after a longer time remained very small (although this could also be caused by
marginal soil or the fact that those plants were also given fertiliser) (Fons
Nijenhuis). This was in contrast to a lesson learned in Monduli. There, the
taproots of the Jatropha seedlings were cut because they were growing too deep
into the soil. The women’s group thought that cutting the taproot would harden
the plant and perhaps stimulate the growth of lateral roots from the main root.
According to the women’s group, the plants treated in this way establish properly.
Tjerk Scheltema bought some of the seedlings to check if that was true, and
indeed they seemed to establish properly.
Jatropha planted in marginal soil does not establish properly. However, some
were planted on a slope and the cold temperature at night and in the early morning
could also have had an effect (the area is influenced by the nearby Mount Kilima-
njaro). (Fons Nijenhuis)
Jon-Erik (TAF) planted some Jatropha in his garden as well. It seems that in some
places it grows well and in others it does not. Plants as close as 2 metres to each

57

other planted at the same time can vary widely in size. The reason for this is not
known.
If Jatropha is grown without fertiliser the yield will decrease over the years.
(Malcolm)
System:
A small tight fence of Jatropha cuttings is necessary in a plantation to prevent
Maasai cows from damaging small saplings, according to Albert Mshanga. The
Green Garden Women Group also mentioned this; cows destroyed all the plants in
their 5- acre plot, which had no fence and was not guarded.
According to Mr. Malcolm, it is important to keep in mind that large-scale planta-
tions can damage the environment. When a Canadian firm planted 100,000 ha
with wheat, it caused desertification of the entire area.
Intercropping is a useful way of getting villagers to look after Jatropha well. This
is practised at Kikuletwa Farm (see Figure 19).
Managing Jatropha:
Weeding is not really necessary. The Jatropha field at the teacher training college
in Monduli was not weeded and the plants survived; however, they were relatively
small. Mr. Ismael Manang mentioned an important reason for weeding: when
there are weeds in the field during the dry season, Masaai herders will come to the
field to graze their cattle. Spot-weeding (only removing weeds in the direct
neighbourhood of the Jatropha) can suffice in the beginning. So weeding could be
important for larger plots.
Jatropha does not like shade. (TAF)
When passing by Engaruka village, it could be seen that some of the Jatropha
plants had been pruned. It was the wrong season to do this as the plants could be
harvested in a month’s time. When the village ward was asked why the plants had
been pruned, he said there was no incentive to increase production since Kakute
had limited resources for purchasing seeds. However, he said he would imme-
diately start telling the villagers not to prune the Jatropha at that time.

Figure 18 Insect damage on Jatropha Figure 19 Intercropping with
stem at Engaruka Jatropha at Kikuletwa
Farm

58

In Engaruka, termites damaged the stem of a Jatropha tree (see Figure 18). In a
group of about five Jatropha trees (>30yrs old) only one stem was affected. It is
not clear which termites did this.
Seed production:
The figures in Table 12 showed that planting on a large scale generates more
income, but it is also important to keep the investment and maintenance costs
(weeding, irrigating, and so forth) low, for example by using intercropping
(Kikuletwa) or using the Jatropha as a fence (Engaruka).
One farmer had already picked a bagful of Jatropha seeds to sell to Kakute. Even
while the Kakute field officer was present, the farmer was (in the end) willing to
sell the seeds to Diligent for TZS 80/kg. He said the seeds would be sold to
whoever came first to buy them (in other words, the farmer needed the money).
Tjerk paid the higher Kakute price to create goodwill, but next time he will pay
TZS 80.
There is a chance that people will start to ask for a higher price for the seeds. This
happened with farmers around Arusha National Park.
Local people are positive about the potential of Jatropha. (around Dar es Salaam,
Engaruka, etc.)
The difference in the price the farmers received from Kakute and the lower price
Diligent is paying might be a problem. At first the villagers think they are getting
paid too little; however, when it is explained that Kakute can only buy a limited
amount of seeds and Diligent will buy any amount, whether it is 1 kg or 10,000
kg, and for a guaranteed price, they agree.
User preferences:
People often ask for a seminar to have new technologies or crops explained; for
example, such a request was made by the women in Monduli as well as a farmers’
group near Arusha National Park.
Land is often owned by cooperatives and it can be used for Jatropha only if all
members agree. (Fons Nijenhuis)
You have to show up regularly and keep promises, otherwise the people will not
trust you any more (around Arusha National Park).
Acceptance:
Kakute did not return to pay for the collected seeds; therefore the farmers in some
regions are a bit reserved or even sceptical. It is important to gain trust by making
long-term agreements and returning on a regular basis.
TAF has offered villagers free samples of Jatropha seeds, but not all villagers
accepted the seeds. Only the villagers who were willing to try something new did
so. The Jatropha was promoted as support for vanilla plants. It will probably take
some time to get the local people to understand the profits that can be earned from
Jatropha.
According to Mr. Albert Mshanga, Maasai woman form a special group and are
more difficult to persuade to grow Jatropha. This is because they do not own the
land (it is owned by men). With mixed tribes, this cultural problem is much less.
The Swahili name for Jatropha, Mbono Kaburi (graveyard tree) is causing some
scepticism because it is used in graveyards and people have associations with that.

59

It is used to mark graves, probably because Jatropha can establish in any season,
so when a person dies Jatropha cuttings are planted on the grave
Jatropha curcas is an indigenous plant. This is very helpful for the adoption
process: what TAF/Kakute is telling people (to plant Jatropha) is not completely
new for them, so they are less sceptical. (TAF)
Farmers around Dar es Salaam: were very enthusiastic about planting Jatropha
and selling the seeds to Diligent. Their main crop until now was cashew-nuts but
the price for this crop has fallen and they were looking for another crop.

Dynamics of expectations
Expectations about cultivating Jatropha:
Planting Jatropha will provide a lot of possibilities: fencing, nursery, cuttings; it
will help to stop erosion. (T. Scheltema)
Jatropha can grow in very dry areas. This can be seen throughout the country, so it
would be a waste to use valuable irrigated land for Jatropha; that land is better
used for food crops (T. Scheltema). (Note from author: however, the yield can be
significantly higher if irrigated.)
Many things will have to be learnt in the future: Is fertiliser necessary? Is pruning
necessary? Is irrigation necessary? (I. Manang). Bukaza Chachage has also men-
tioned the necessity of these kind of lessons; therefore he is planning to set up
several plots at his home-town (near Iringa) to experiment.
The expectation is that irrigation is not necessary. The rains were good this year,
so they already received a lot of water. (I. Manang)
A lot more research has to be done on several aspects (such as growing/culti-
vation) of Jatropha (and Moringe). The ecosystem is fragile and unstable, there
can be huge effects which work up all the way through the food-chain. The
influence of Jatropha plantations has to be researched first. They should set up test
plots to measure, for example, how deep the roots of cuttings and seedlings
actually go, the amount of fertiliser (nitrate) that works best, and so on. When it
goes wrong, the reputation of Jatropha will be destroyed. (D. Malcolm)
Perhaps at a later stage also involve the Government, who can profit because of
less soil erosion and could perhaps provide women with subsidies for this.(T.
Scheltema)
Expectations about seed production and selling for cash:
When Mr. Burland started he did not think much money would be generated by it
(a barrel of oil was then USD 30) but now with oil prices of nearly USD 50 per
barrel it is getting much more interesting.
Most farmers will not transfer to Jatropha completely; to survive the two years
without a harvest they have to keep up other income-earning activities.
At first the idea (with Ruud van Eck from Diligent) was to plant 10,000 ha with
Jatropha themselves, but at a later stage they agreed it was better to invest in
knowledge instead of in capacity. So now they leave the planting to their out-
growers with whom they were working already. When farmers ask for more
money Diligent will just have to wait and eventually the farmer will sell for 80 or
85 shillings anyway. (Hans Baart)

60

The Jatropha can only be harvested after one or two years; the farmer does not
have the money to wait for a harvest that long (Manang). There are costs in-
volved, such as ploughing, etc.
The village heads and farmer were very enthusiastic and are willing to plant a lot
of Jatropha. The farmer has already started planting eight acres because he thinks
it will be very profitable. (Selela)
The villagers and village heads seemed to be really enthusiastic about the idea of
selling Jatropha seeds to Diligent. They really think they can make a lot of money.
Because the rains were not so good last year they now want to plant Jatropha
instead of maize and beans. This indicates they have a great trust in the future of
Jatropha. (Engaruka)
Farmers around Dar es Salaam have high expectations and will start planting
soon.
Their expectation regarding Jatropha is that in 3-5 years’ time a lot of Jatropha
will be planted mostly by private persons. (TaTEDO)
Originally the Green Garden Women Group wanted to plant five acres with
Jatropha and two acres with Aloe Vera. Money is the problem at this moment. If
they received some support in the form of money they would try to plant the five
acres with Jatropha again, this time with a fence.
Jatropha storage is important. According to Mr. Malcolm, the high humidity in
Tanzania could cause the seeds to germinate. A normal silo could become too
warm.
On yield:
Tjerk Scheltema expects a yield of 2 kg a plant.
Kakute is planting 2x3 m and we are 2x2, so 1600 trees/hectare for Kakute and
2700 trees/hectare for Diligent.
Suppose 30 acres, 1000 trees per acre, yield of 2 kg/tree, will yield 60 tonnes of
seeds, which will give the farmer TZS 4,800,000. Oil content is 30% so 20000
litres of oil. The farmer can grow 30 acres of Jatropha, he will give the seeds to us
and will get some diesel in return. (Tjerk)
Predicted yield is reported at 1500 kg/acre but this seems to be on the positive
side. (Fons Nijenhuis)
Barriers:
The amount of information that is still lacking on growing Jatropha. Several
people are waiting for this information or are now trying to get the information
themselves. Information like: how much water is needed, how many nutrients,
when and what is the best height for pruning, etc.
Options like intercropping or pre-financing could overcome the problem of lack
of money to wait very long for a harvest. When Jatropha is grown as a fence or on
a small scale, this problem is smaller.
The government of Tanzania is not very supportive, so far they have only showed
interest when they can make some money as well.
Logistics in the field as well as transport to other places is expensive and time-
consuming.

61

Multiple actors: Kakute was already active in this area; he does not want a clash
of interests with this organisation so he hopes they can work together on the
promotion and let the farmers decide to whom they are selling their seeds,
Diligent will tell them Kakute will pay more but will not be able to buy
everything. (T. Scheltema)

Conclusion
At this point the actor network is expanding rather quickly. More and more
farmers seem to be willing to participate and are starting to plant Jatropha,
expecting to make a considerable profit. This is happening mainly because they
are able to sell their seeds now to Diligent, which is guaranteeing them a fixed
price for a longer period, thereby reducing their risk (of a dramatic fall in the
prices they get for their crops). Also, because the prices of other crops (cashew-
nuts, coffee) have fallen considerably, the farmers were looking for new crops.
The network is quite diverse with many actors., Only research institutes had not
really been involved so far, but one is involved now.
From the economic analysis it appears to be profitable for most farmers to
plant Jatropha, although it is important to pay attention to the scale, investment
costs and maintenance costs.
There are many learning processes in this part of the chain, mostly with regard
to how Jatropha should be grown and managed, but also regarding user accept-
ance. There are also learning processes of a higher order, for example Mr.
Manang who says in his expectations that many more things (like amount of
water needed, etc.) will have to be learnt. So, although already there are many
learning processes, many more lessons are necessary on the cultivation of
Jatropha.
Expectations from several actors are high and positive, and in some cases even
rising (like those of Mr. Burland who did not think much of the project in the
beginning, or Diligent who, when they started, thought the yield would be much
lower). However, the period of experience is too short to be stable or to allow
very specific conclusions. According to Mr. Burland, a ‘good name’ can be
destroyed quickly when a project fails, which happened with Moringe. The larger
companies that are involved in processing the seeds into biodiesel (Diligent, D1
oils) also expect to make a considerable profit. Their expectations are based on
the forecast of a large market for biofuels. If this market (for Jatropha oil) turns
out to be not as big or profitable as anticipated, the price the farmers get for their
seeds will drop drastically. So there is still a risk involved for the farmers.
Especially if they were to completely change over to Jatropha without any other
activities, they would become totally dependent on the price of Jatropha seeds
and wouldl be much more vulnerable if their Jatropha crop was damaged, for
example by a plant disease. Therefore, changing completely to Jatropha might

62

not be a good idea, although this is true of all crops. (The risk is especially when
food crops are changed for Jatropha.)
The barriers to Jatropha as a cash crop mainly have to do with lack of
information on growing Jatropha and the cultural attitude towards risk. Tanza-
nians are not very willing to take risks, so an initiator (either local or western) is
necessary. All barriers seem to be surmountable though.
So the processes all seem to be quite positive for this part of the chain; rising
expectations, increasing actor network and many learning processes – although
not stabilised yet, so further lessons are necessary.

2. PRODUCTION
The next step in the Jatropha chain is to obtain the oil from the seeds. Although
so far most of the groups that are involved in processing the oil, for example into
soap, are also expelling their own oil. This could also be a separate facility. Two
presses are used currently, the difference between these presses (the ram press
and screw press) was explained in Chapter 3.

Introduction
Only mechanical extraction methods are used In Tanzania. Kakute has a number
of ram presses in store (see Figure 20) and is selling them to the groups
associated with it. A women’s group in Engaruka owns one; it sells Jatropha oil
in addition to making soap from the oil. A women’s group in Mto wa Mbu,
which is also managed by Kakute, uses the same type of expeller (this group was
not visited). The Green Garden Women Group in Moshi also makes soap and has
a ram-press.
The Sayari Oil Expeller (see Figure 21) is designed by a German company,
manufactured by the Vyahumu Trust in Morogoro and assembled by sub-
contractors. It can press a large variety of seeds, and clients can choose whether
they want their machine to run on diesel fuel or electricity. The Vyahumu Trust
has a factory in Morogoro, where one expeller is available for farmers to have oil
extracted from their seeds for a fee. Clients can also buy an expeller. Recently,
Kakute installed a screw press from China, with a capacity of 20 bags x 60
kg/day, 8 hours a day (150 kg/hour). Diligent is planning to set up an oil-
expelling facility near Moshi or Arusha.

Actors:
- Kakute (technical assistance, provider of equipment)
- Vyahumu Trust (manufacturer of oil expeller, provider of oil-expelling facility)
- FAKT (German company, subsidised Vyahumu)

63

- Subcontractors in Tanzania (to build the Sayari expeller)
- Other oil press suppliers (China)
- Women’s groups (buyers of oil-pressing equipment, providers of labour for pressing)
- Villagers (oil buyers)
- Diligent (wants to set up one or more facilities in the near future)
- Eindhoven University of Technology (research institute)

Figure 20 Ram-press Figure 21 Sayari oil expeller

Dynamics. Equipment can be supplied by several manufacturers; for example,
Kakute has bought a press in China. When women’s groups that own a ram-press
want to have a press with a larger capacity, they turn to Kakute. This indicates
that Kakute plays an important role as a connector or ‘platform’, but also that not
all actors in the network are interconnected. Maintenance is required for larger
presses; this indicates opportunities for technical services as well as for spare-
part suppliers. Diligent has links with several researchers at Eindhoven Uni-
versity of Technology which are, or going to be, directed to optimising Jatropha
oil extraction (and performance of the oil and equipment).
Thus, although all the activities are only in a starting phase, the diversity of
actors is quite good, with many different type of actors. At least the potential for
the dynamics is very good.

Economic analysis
There are two options for making an oil-expelling facility financially feasible.
Firstly, seeds can be brought in by seed pickers and pressed for a fee. Secondly,
the owners of the facility can press seeds (which have been bought or picked)
and sell the oil.
The Vyahumu Trust in Morogoro charges the following fees for extracting oil
from seeds:

64

- TZS 60/kg for sunflower seeds
- TZS 90/kg for all other seeds
Sunflower seeds are less hard than other seeds, therefore less electricity or diesel
is used.
The cost of having one litre of oil expelled from Jatropha seeds is: 3 kg of
seeds for 1 litre: 3*90= TZS 270.The oil can be sold for at least TZS 700 (diesel
fuel is about TZS 1100 and kerosene TZS 750). Thus, the profit (without taking
into account any additional production costs) is 430 TZS/l.

Table 15 Parameters of oil-expelling facility
Inputs Parameters
Seed picking 2 kg per hour (3-5kg/l)*
Seeds TZS 80/kg
Ram press
Investment cost 275,000 (lifetime 5 years)
Labour for pressing: ram. 1.5 litres/hour** (5kg/l oil)
Sayari expeller
Investment cost 3,500,000 (lifetime 6 years)
Diesel consumption 1-1.5 litre/hour
Labour for pressing: Sayari 20 l/hour, (3kg/l oil)
Maintenance costs 280,000 after 20 tonnes, 270,000
after 140 tonnes of seeds***
Filtering 2 l/hour
Revenue from oil sale TZS 2000/l
*
Henning (2004). Data on Tanzania derived from Kakute’s 2003 data.
**
The ram-press can extract 2 litres/ hour, according to A. Mshanga. Henning (2004) and informants
in Kakute give the extraction capacity as 1 litre/hour, so the calculations are made on the basis of the
average: 1.5 litres/hour.
***
www.jatropha.de. Economics of the ELCT/FAKT project, accessed December 2005.

The second option is practised in Engaruka, where the oil is expelled and sold
to villagers for TZS 2000/l. The seeds from which the oil is extracted are
obtained by picking or buying. Table lists the parameters for an oil expelling
facility, both the ram-press and the Sayari expeller at Vyahumu Trust.
The life time of the ram-press is five years, the lifetime of the larger expeller is
a bit higher. A manufacturing employee said it is safe to take five years for
planning purposes, but a person at Vyahumu Trust said the machines manufac-
tured six years ago are still working very well and the lifetime could be as much
as 10 years. Currently the by-product, seed-cake, is of no value; if a market could
be found for this product, the profit would be higher. Kakute is currently working

65

on a biogas system in which the Jatropha seed-cake could be used. Another
option would be to sell the seed-cake to farmers as fertiliser.
Table 16 compares the economic aspects of the two presses. The following
assumptions are made in the calculations:
Constant prices
Real discount rate (r): 9.8%, calculated by using inflation (p) of 4.4% and the
average interest rate (i) on medium- and long-term loans in 2003, which was
14.6%36, in the formula: r=(1+i)/(1+p)-1.
Project running time: 5 years, investments are made in year 0, production in years
1-4.
Hours in action: 8 hours a day, 50% of the days in a year; this adds up to 1460
hours annually at maximum output
All necessary seeds are available and bought for TZS 80/kg, all produced oil is
sold (for 2000 TZS/l), the diesel price is 1100 TZS/l.37
Decision positive when: NPV>0, IRR>real discount rate (9.8), BCR>1.

The analysis shows that the economic parameters are very good. However,
some of the assumptions are perhaps too positive. In reality, the supply of seeds
might not be sufficient for the Sayari press and it is also not very likely that all
the oil would be sold.

Table 16 Economic analysis for two presses
Ram Sayari
Non-financial cash flow from TZS TZS
1st year 3,504,000 48,531,000
Labour annually (hours) 2,555 14,600
Oil produced (litres) 2,190 29,200
NPV 10,887,708 151,105,413
TZS TZS
($9,898) ($137,369)
IRR 1,274% 1,387%
BCR 3.86 3.98
PBP 2 years 2 years
Liquidity Good Good

36
http://www.tanzania.go.tz/economicsurvey1/2003/part1/financeinstitutions.htm, accessed August
2005.
37
Price at pump in Dar es Salaam, July 2005.

66

Sensitivity analysis
Assume that the oil is not sold for TZS 2000/l but for TZS 1000/l, which is more
likely to attract new consumers. For both presses, all parameters are still good
(see Table 17).

Table 17 Sensitivity analysis for ram-press and Sayari oil expeller
Lower oil price 50% of output Both
Ram Sayari Ram Sayari Ram Sayari
NPV positive positive Positive Positive Positive positive
IRR 477% 552% 637% 675% 237% 257%
BCR 1.93 1.99 3.59 3.34 1.79 1.67
PBP 2 years 2 years 2 years 2 years 2 years 2 years

If the oil is sold for TZS 2000/l but only 50% of the maximum output is
realised (due to, for example, 50% shortfall in seed supply) the parameters are
also positive for both presses: almost 1100 litres of oil for the ram press and
14,600 litres for the Sayari press, which is still a large quantity. When both the
price of the oil and the supply of the seeds are lower, the parameters for both
presses are still positive; however, they are, of course, much lower.
To break even with the ram-press, at least 165 litres of oil should be sold (at
TZS 2000/l); this would recover the investment costs for press and seeds. The
break-even point for the Sayari press is about 2000 litres.
For all assumptions, the liquidity is good, with enough profit being made in
the first year to recover the investment costs plus 14% interest.
Conclusion: The choice of press depends on how much oil can be sold, the
quantity of seeds available and the amount of time available to make the decision
as to which machine to buy. Both options can be very profitable.

Learning processes
System:
It is taking a lot of time to achieve large-scale production of Jatropha seeds, so
there might not be enough supply for a big expelling unit.
Transportation is very expensive, with a lorry load from Dar es Salaam to Kili-
manjaro region costing USD 1000, according to Mr. Burland. Mr. Scheltema, too,
thinks transportation is going to be the big problem, with a factory needing tonnes
of seeds a day.
Be careful how you set up the system. Everyone is seeking a personal optimum; if
the driver gets his money, he will not consider it his responsibility to obtain a
higher price. (Malcolm)

67

User acceptance:
The village ward was not happy with the low capacity of the ram-press; he wants
to have bigger (electrical) equipment for the expelling process (Engaruka).
Few people are prepared to press Jatropha seeds because they are poisonous.
(Diligent)
Technology:
The quality of the seeds is very important; if the seeds are not fresh, they will
yield less oil, but if you use fresh seeds the yield is quite high. Drying and
maturity are important. (Vyahumu)
Most people are very satisfied with the Sayari machine; if the machine breaks
down, it is usually because it was used improperly. (Vyahumu)
The hulls of Jatropha seeds are quite hard, but pressing in the Sayari oil expeller
went very well; cone adjustment is necessary (see 3.10 for test results).
The quality of the equipment might be a problem. In very remote areas it can take
a long time before spare parts arrive. (Diligent)
According to Malcolm, an expeller designed for sunflower seeds will never give a
good yield on Jatropha seeds because the pressure exerted by a sunflower seed
expeller is much lower. This implies that a machine should be built especially for
Jatropha; this could be a problem when the market is not big enough. However,
special adjustments, such as another cone, might also work.

Dynamics of expectations:
Mobile expellers could be used; for example, they could be placed on a lorry
which could visit farms twice a year to press seeds on the spot. (Burland)
At a later stage, the seed-cake which is left after pressing could be used in flower-
pots; currently, coconut fibre imported from Thailand/Sri Lanka is used for this
purpose. (Scheltema)
High profits can be made by exporting the oil to the Netherlands; if this was not
the case, they would not have thought about it. (Fons Nijenhuis)
Perhaps small expellers could be installed in several villages and the oil refined in
one place. (Scheltema, Diligent)
Barriers:
Transport
Diligent (and others) lack knowledge with regard to processing the Jatropha seeds
into diesel oil, and the marketing aspects of the oil. Knowledge of emissions,
CDM, and so on is insufficient. Further research is necessary.
Lack of training: the ram-press is a very simple technology but the Sayari expeller
requires a certain amount of maintenance. This requires technological skills.
The investment costs of a large expeller are quite high, a loan might be necessary.
Supply of Jatropha seeds is seasonal, so storage is necessary.

68

Conclusion
This is a rather unclear part of the Jatropha chain. The network formation is quite
good, with a large variety of actors. A research institute, equipment producers
and users are involved. The network is quite dynamic and many actors are
connected to each other; however, most contacts run through Kakute. Supply of
equipment and maintenance creates chances for other sectors and actors to be
involved as well. The economic analysis is promising, but actual data on
quantities of oil sold is lacking. The ram-press requires a lot of labour, but only
165 litres of oil has to be sold for the investment cost to be recovered. In the case
of the larger Sayari expeller, at least 2000 litres has to be sold because, its
investment cost is quite high. However, for both presses, the facility could be
profitable. Once a value for the by-product seed-cake is established (for example,
sale as fertiliser) the profitability of such a facility could be even higher. There
are few learning processes as yet: some technical lessons regarding the presses
and the quality of the seeds, and some regarding user acceptance. However, there
are no learning processes yet on the infrastructure, how best to set up such a
facility or, for example, on storage of seeds. This may be a temporary gap,
because, with a research institute involved, it is likely that more (technical)
lessons will be learnt in the near future. An important aspect is that expectations
vary widely. It is not clear to everybody in what direction the Jatropha chain will
evolve: Will small expelling units be installed or will there be a big one in a
central place? Will the technology be will it be hand-presses or larger expellers?
Currently, the groups are mostly working with a ram-press, but at least one of the
groups (Engaruka) is not satisfied with its capacity. And the seed production is
not yet enough to start a large facility. The investment costs of a large expeller
are also quite high. Some aspects, such as transport, reliable and efficient
equipment and financial support, are seen to be important barriers.
The women’s group in Engaruka is selling the oil (presumably for use in oil
lamps), for the rather high price of TZS 2000/l, while the normal diesel price is
about TZS 1000/l. This indicates that there is a market for the oil.
The supply of seeds is not yet guaranteed and the market is not yet developed;
this makes it difficult to invest in an oil expelling facility for Jatropha seeds only.
The machine manufactured by the Vyahumu Trust can press more than one
variety of seeds and could be a way to overcome some of the problems.

69

3. USE
Use in diesel engines
Jatropha oil can be used directly in a diesel engine, blended with diesel or
converted into biodiesel (as explained in Chapter 3).
Diesel fuel is currently used in rural areas mainly as fuel for tractors and in
generators for main or back-up electricity supply. Jatropha oil can serve as a
substitute for this diesel. In urban areas, too, Jatropha oil can be used in diesel
engines; for example in electricity generators and cars. A third application for use
in diesel engines, would be to export the oil (or biodiesel), for example to
Europe.

Introduction
Jatropha oil is not yet used as diesel fuel in Tanzania. However, Diligent (and
probably D1 oils although it is unclear whether the company is active in
Tanzania) is directing its efforts towards this application of Jatropha oil. Diligent
wants to set up a factory in Moshi to produce Jatropha oil and/or Jatropha bio-
diesel, and research is being conducted on the properties of Jatropha oil as fuel in
engines. The University of Dar es Salaam (USDM) is also going to conduct
research in cooperation with Eindhoven University of Technology (the Nether-
lands), mainly into the exhaust emissions from Jatropha biodiesel. Research on
biodiesel from coconuts is already being done at USDM. The university also
demonsrates a vehicle run on biodiesel at exhibitions. In the south of Tanzania,
the Kiumma project, involving Germans, is setting up a Jatropha plantation with
the purpose of using Jatropha oil in an electricity generator as the main power
supply for a small hospital.

Actors:
- Kiumma project members
- University of Dar es Salaam (USDM) (research on biodiesel)
- Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e) (research on Jatropha oil)
- Diligent (initiator, will become producer of Jatropha oil and/or biodiesel)
- D1 oils (three years ago they wanted to set up a large factory, but failed; the field
officer from Kakute mentioned they might be active again in Tanzania)

Dynamics. The network mainly consists of researchers, and actors intending to
start activities (Kiumma and Diligent). No users are involved yet, while user
acceptance for this application is very important. Diligent is going to set up a
factory in Moshi. They will probably have the oil expelled at several places and
than collect it for refining in Moshi. There is no certainty yet about distribution;

70

for example, it is unclear whether petrol stations will be willing to sell Jatropha
oil or whether oil companies will be willing to blend their diesel with it. The
linkages between the different research institutes seem to be quite good, and
worldwide much more research is being carried out on Jatropha. So, much more
expansion of the actor network and dynamics is possible for this application.

Economic analysis
It is not possible to make an economic analysis with the current data. No Jatropha
oil is available as diesel fuel yet. The Jatropha oil sold in Engaruka is priced at
TZS 2000/l, diesel fuel at petrol stations in Dar es Salaam is priced at about TZS
1100/l (June 2005). Jatropha oil probably should not exceed this price by too
much.

Learning processes
To test Jatropha oil as diesel fuel, the Vyahumu Trust (manufacturer of Sayari oil
expeller) tried it in their own machine and it worked well.
Production of Jatropha seeds on a large scale is taking a lot of time (Diligent).
Modifying the engine of a car costs about TZS 600,000: Elsbett, a two2-tank
system with a preheater (A. Mshanga).
A German in Arusha has converted his car; he uses sunflower oil in his engine (A.
Mshanga).

Use for domestic purposes in remote areas:
In the south of Tanzania, the Kiumma project is going to plant Jatropha and use
the oil in a diesel generator. The expectation is that they can be self-sufficient in
Jatropha-based diesel fuel.
Use for domestic purposes:
Tanzanians will not pay to convert their cars, so the oil will have to be converted
(Tjerk Scheltema).
Mr. Makundi, from TIRDO, has high expectations of biofuels. The main reason
for this is the rise in oil prices.
Tjerk Scheltema thinks it is much better to modify the oil in Tanzania so that the
local people can profit from the technology and buy fuel for their cars etc. This is
in contrast with Hans Baart’s view that the oil should be exported and modified in
the Netherlands.
Use for export:
Rapeseed oil is currently pushed by European governments as a source of bio-
diesel, which they are required to produce by European Union guidelines. It is
only successful because the governments are putting money into it. If the
governments stop doing this, rapeseed oil will become too expensive. Jatropha oil
from Tanzania should be able to compete with rapeseed oil (Scheltema).

71

There will always be demand for diesel. The modified oil is better (Hans Baart).
Big money can be made by exporting the oil to the Netherlands. If this was not the
case, they would not have thought about it (Fons Nijenhuis).
The oil will be used by people who want to have a ‘green’ image. It is not for
people who just want to have the cheapest fuel (Diligent).
Knowledge is lacking about the processing of Jatropha seeds to obtain oil, the
marketing aspects of the oil, emissions, CDM, etc. Further research is necessary
(Diligent).

Conclusion
For this application, there are mainly just expectations by actors and no actual
lessons from experiments. There are different options for oil use: who could use
the oil, could it be used domestically, in remote areas or cities, or for export
purposes. The network of actors is quite limited, although at least two research
organisations are involved. The network is not really expanding (yet), perhaps it
will do so when tests results are positive and are publicised. Diligent, the USDM
and the Kiumma project members are the only actors pushing this application in
Tanzania. There are no learning processes yet on the user side. The only
technical learning processes so far are the experiments carried out by Diligent in
Eindhoven. Worldwide, many more experiments are being carried out on the pro-
perties of Jatropha oil; they seem to be positive, especially about the converted
oil. However, so far there are still some technical lessons to be learnt, for
example about long-term effects. The economic analysis remains unclear. Diesel
prices are about TZS 1100/l at the pump in cities. The general expectations are
very positive, but cannot yet been be more specific due to the lack of learning
processes. Many things remain unclear; for example, whether the oil should be
converted into biodiesel or not.

Uses of the seed-cake
Jatropha seed-cake, which is the residue left after oil is extracted from the seeds,
is currently only a by-product and has no value. When an application is found
that has very good properties for users and the quality of the niche-processes is
good, the Jatropha seed-cake could gain value. This would strengthen the
production stage and have a positive influence on the transition to biofuel.

a) Use of seed-cake for biogas production
In a microbiological process, Jatropha seed-cake and/or leaves can be converted
into biogas (a methane-rich fuel gas produced through anaerobic digestion of
suitable biomass feedstocks) which, for example, is an energy source for cooking
(see Chapter 3: seedcake for biogas production, for a technical description of the
process of biogas generation from seed-cake).

72

Introduction
A biogas facility was built at Kaku-
te, Arusha, to test the properties.
Kakute has also provided a wo-
men’s group in Monduli with a
biogas facility. (The group also has
a nursery with Jatropha and other
trees.) Earlier, the group was pro-
vided with an efficient cooking
stove by TaTEDO, so it has had
links with other NGOs for some
time. The plastic bag in Figure is
where the biogas is stored. The
plastic tube leads the gas to the
biogas cooker. The women’s group
uses cow dung from its own cows
as well as Jatropha seed-cake as Figure 22 Biogas storage and cooker
source of biomass. The group was Engaruka
enthusiastic about the properties of
Jatropha because the seed-cake generates more biogas the same amount of cow
dung does. However, the members did not seem to be so enthusiastic about the
biogas system itself, since they were cooking with firewood even though biogas
was available. When asked why they did not use the biogas cooker they said they
only used it during the rainy season when firewood was difficult to find. This
indicates that they prefer to cook with firewood. When the biogas cooker was
demonstrated, the pressure of the gas in the cooker seemed quite low, extending
cooking time which may be why the group members prefer firewood. Yet, when
asked if they would be prepared to pay for a biomass source such as Jatropha
seed-cake, they said they would be prepared to buy it. In Engaruka, Kakute is
going to install a biogas system as well. The sludge which is left after the process
could serve as fertiliser.

Actors:
- Kakute (providing technical assistance, equipment)
- Women’s group, Monduli (users)
- TaTEDO (familiar with this group)
- In future: women’s group, Engaruka

73

Dynamics. This application is applied in Tanzania to a very limited degree.
Kakute started with just one group, to learn about the technology and the users.
No research organisation seems to be involved, so the network for the biogas
application seems to be quite limited. Also, the feedback from the users does not
seem to be resulting in an adapted design.

Economic analysis
The costs of installing a biogas system are unknown.
The price of a Biogas cooker (not including the system) is TZS 10,000
(Monduli).

Learning processes
Although biogas was available to the women, they were cooking with firewood.
The extended cooking time because of low gas pressure probably plays a role.
The women said they would even be willing to pay for Jatropha seed-cake as it
produces much more biogas than cow dung (Monduli).
The biogas facility, as constructed in Monduli, was of very poor quality.
The users of this application (the women’s groups) are reluctant to share their
learning experiences; only after repeated questioning did they (half) admit that
they prefer to cook with fuelwood. This lesson did not seem to have reached
Kakute, which is installing more facilities (feedback loop is lacking).
Kakute is going to install a biogas facility in Engauka, so it expects this techno-
logy to be beneficial to the villagers.

Conclusion
The actor network seems to be quite limited and the dynamic processes are not
optimal. The users seemed to be very enthusiastic about the properties of Jatro-
pha seed-cake as source for their biogas facility. However, the technology is not
developed enough to satisfy the users. Many learning processes regarding the
technical properties are necessary. Kakute should evaluate its experiments and
install feedback loops. Kakute has positive expectations of this technology, but in
view of the actual performance so far it is not clear what the expectations are
based on.

b) Use of seed-cake as fertiliser
Several people mentioned that Jatropha seed-cake is a good fertiliser. However,
Jatropha cake was not available in large quantities, so it was not being sold (yet).
The agricultural nutritional values of Jatropha cake were outlined earlier in this
study (Chapter 3).

74

Figure 23 Jatropha seed-cake

In Engaruka, a large amount of Jatropha cake is left after the seeds have been
processed with the ram-press (see Figure 23). The women’s group indicated that
the cake was not being sold, and that one farmer was using it as fertiliser on his
land. When the supply increased, the cake could probably be sold instead of
being given away free.
Diligent plans to use Jatropha cake as fertiliser for its Jatropha plants, as
reports mention that Jatropha plants need fertiliser to remain productive over the
long term.

Conclusion
This application has not been practised or tested yet. Potential actors are farmers
who want to use the cake as fertiliser, and all facilities where Jatropha seeds are
pressed and Jatropha cake produced. Worldwide research has been done on the
properties of Jatropha fertiliser, but so far it has not been tested in Tanzania.
There are no learning processes yet and the expectations are slightly positive.

Use of seed-cake as briquettes
When the Jatropha seeds are pressed, not all the oil is extracted. So the cake
residue consists of the hulls and some oil. When this cake is pressed into
briquettes, it can be used as for a fuel in wood stoves. This is practised in
Engaruka, but information about the experience is lacking.

4. OTHER APPLICATIONS FOR JATROPHA OIL
Besides being used as fuel in diesel engines, Jatropha oil can also be used in
soap-making, oil lamps and cooking stoves. This has two implications for its use
as biofuel. On the one hand, these applications can strengthen the transition to
biofuels because, when the niche-processes are good, user acceptance of Jatropha
(oil) increases. On the other hand, they can also have a negative influence on the

75

transition to biofuels if one of these applications is very successful and the price
of Jatropha oil rises as a result.

Jatropha oil in soap-making
Jatropha oil can be used to make soap. There are different options for obtaining it
for the process: the oil can be bought, or expelled from seeds which are either
bought or picked. The process of soap-making was explained earlier, in Chapter
3.

Introduction
Kakute has a soap factory in Arusha, where the managers help women’s groups
to make soap from Jatropha oil. Kakute also supplies the ingredients. The
women’s groups can take the soap home where they sell it (often informally) to
villagers. Kakute also sells Jatropha soap in nicely packaged 30 or 90 gr. tablets.
The soap that is sold by the women’s groups is not packaged in this way. The
market for the soap seems to be quite small: most of the soap sold by Kakute is
bought by (international) visitors, while the women’s group in Engaruka sells
about 20 tablets a month. Users of the soap are really enthusiastic, especially
about its medicinal properties. People are willing to pay TZS 500, which is more
than for normal soap (TZS 250-350). The women’s groups cannot make a living
out of their soap activities yet (they need more capacity in terms of the quantity
of seeds, pressing equipment and market for the soap).

Actors:
- Women’s group, Engaruka (producers and users of the soap)
- Green Garden Women Group, Moshi (producers and users of the soap)
- Kakute (equipment supplier, technical knowledge, soap trading, etc.)
- Villagers, Engaruka (soap buyers)
- Small shops where the soap is sold (e.g. gift shop at Kinderoko hotel, Moshi)

Several important actors or institutions seem to be missing. For example, micro-
credit organisations could be involved, to pre-finance the soap–making process.
Research institutes are also lacking; the properties of the soap should be tested.
Finally an (export) marketing organisation could try to increase the Jatropha soap
market.

Dynamics. There are many interactions between the actors, but the network is not
really expanding. All women’s groups were taught to make the soap at the
Kakute soap factory in Arusha. Kakute is selling the soap on its premises in

76

Arusha, the women’s groups also sell the soap but more informally. The Green
Garden Women Group indicated that they would like to make the soap on their
own premises but they lack the equipment and do not know where they can buy
it. So Kakute’s suppliers of equipment (and raw materials such as caustic soda)
are not being shared.

Economic analysis
Jatropha oil, which is used for the soap-making process, can be obtained in
several ways. It can be bought from oil expellers; this is currently being done in
Engaruka, where the oil is bought for TZS 2000/litre. It is also possible to collect
Jatropha seeds and press the oil in a ram-press (hand-press), and finally the seeds
can be bought and then pressed. Table 18 lists the expenses of the soap-making
process when the oil is bought.

Table 18 Yearly cost of soap-making, 20 tablets per month
Seeds (95 kg)* TZS 80 /kg 7,600
Labour for soap making Hours 16 hours
Labour for various jobs (wrapping, organising etc.)* Hours 10 hours
Oil (19 litres) TZS 2000 /l 38,000
Caustic soda 5000/65 pcs 18,500
Water 0.75 l/1 l oil
Wrapping (polythene) 3000/65 pcs 11,000
Rent for space 8 sq. feet 2,000
TZS 1000/day
Revenue (240 pcs) TZS 500 /pcs 120,000
Note: pcs = pieces (tablets) of soap.
* To yield 19 litres of oil annually; about 5 kg is needed per litre.
Sources: (for seed quantity, labour and water): R. Henning (2004). Tanzania data derived from
Kakute statistics for 2003.

In Engaruka, the women’s group sells about 20 tablets of soap a month, so the
assumed yearly quantity is 240 tablets. Table 19 presents the economic analysis
for soap-making in Engaruka, for comparison purposes. It includes the option of
pressing the seeds. The calculations are made in constant prices, with 9.8% as
real interest rate (see earlier calculations). The project life time is five years, the
output is generated from the beginning because no large equipment is necessary.
See Appendix II (Projects/Kakute/Women’s group Engaruka) for more detailed
calculations.
Currently a rural worker earns about TZS 10,000 a month (Henning, 2004). So
the amount workers can earn through soap-making is quite good; but the
profitability is just about reasonable, due to the small quantity sold. Were the

77

maximum capacity of the ram-press (2,190 litres per year) to be used for soap-
making and all the soap sold, the NPV would be USD 35,583 and the BCR
would be 3.47 (1.62 when the same quantity of oil is bought).
So the profit on the soap is quite good, but due to the small quantity sold the
economic analysis does not show much profit. The market needs to be increased.

Table 19 Comparison of three options in soap-making at Engaruka (TZS)
Oil bought for Including pres-sing, Including pres-sing,
soap-making own seeds seeds bought
Yearly expenses 69,500 306,500 314,100
(31,500 for (39,100 for
ηth year) ηth year)
Non-financial cash flow
50,500 88,500 80,900
in 5th year
Yearly labour 26 hours 97 hours 49 hours
Value added per
1,950 912 1,650
hour (profit/labour)
NPV 211,378 95,435 63,623
(USD 192) (USD 87) (USD 58)
IRR 32% 24%
BCR 1.73 1.23 1.15
PBP 0 3-4 years 3-4 years

Conclusion
The economic analysis for soap-making is positive.
However, the market is currently too small; with 20 tablets being sold per month,
the additional income is very low. It is important to find ways of increasing the
market.
With sales of 240 tablets, it is more profitable to buy oil instead of buying a press.
However, were the maximum capacity of the press to be used and all the soap
sold, having a press would be the best option.
The Jatropha seed-cake which is left after the seeds are pressed can be used as
fertiliser. Currently there is insufficient seed-cake to sell as fertiliser to farmers,
but when production increases the women’s group will probably sell the seed-
cake (or the biogas sludge). So the by-products could create revenue additional to
that obtained from soap sales.
The ram-press accounts for the largest share of the cost. If this press was
subsidised, the profits from soap-making could be substantial (BCR of 3.81).

78

Learning processes
User preferences:
The Jatropha soap is a very good medicinal soap. It is used for the body as well as
the face. It has anti-fungal properties. Mama Leema (from Green Garden Women
Group) uses it a lot. According to her, Jatropha soap is better than Neem soap and
Aloë Vera soap.
The price of other types of soap in this village is TZS 250-350; however, because
of the medicinal properties people are willing to pay a higher price for this soap
(Engaruka).
Neem soap and Aloë vera soap are similar to Jatropha soap, but Jatropha soap has
the strongest medicinal properties. Normal soap is sold for about TZS 250 in
Moshi; the Jatropha soap is sold for twice that, but people are willing to pay that
price. Neem soap and Aloë vera soap are sold for the same price as Jatropha soap
(Green Garden Women Group).
System:
One of the outlet points for the Jatropha soap is the small gift shop at Kinderoko
Hotel in Moshi. There, they sell a large bar of Neem soap or Jatropha soap for
TZS 1500. According to the shop assistant, few pieces of soap are sold; this could
be because the wrapping of the Jatropha soap is of much lower quality than that of
the other soaps. Marketing seems to be important.

In Tanzania you will not get a good price for the ‘funny’ soap made from Jatro-
pha, but in Europe you can get a good price for such soap (Tjerk Scheltema).
Jatropha soap is not suitable for export due to low quality; however, for local
usage it is fine (Peter Burland).
If they had the money and proper equipment for soap-making, they would want to
make the soap in Moshi, but until then they will keep going to Kakute in Arusha.
The Jatropha soap is a really good product, according to Mama Leema (Green
Garden Women Group).
Barriers:
Capacity and market.

Conclusion
The actor network has increased, mainly because of Kakute, which is pushing the
women’s groups and attracting interested persons by selling the soap. However,
some important actors are missing and the dynamics are not optimal. The
women’s groups do not really know how they can expand. The economic
analysis shows that the women’s groups do make a profit, but it is very low. This
is due to market (demand) constraints. The learning process has developed rather
well in terms of technical problems, with all the groups being able to make the
soap. However, the learning process should also include other factors, such as
marketing. Capacity is a problem; for example, in Engaruka the women’s group

79

would like a bigger press, while in Moshi the women would like facilities to
make the soap themselves. Also, research on the properties of the soap is lacking.
The expectations for the soap-making business vary widely. Users of the soap
(the women’s groups) seem to be very enthusiastic about the properties of the
soap, and they would be willing to make and sell more of it. Kakute is also
enthusiastic, but others have different opinions about the soap (Burland, Schelte-
ma).
Overall, it is a profitable business, but there is a very small market. Expecta-
tions are very diverse, but the calculations for the soap-making process seem to
show promise.

Jatropha oil in oil lamps
Jatropha oil can also be used for illumination by burning it in oil lamps. The
technical details of this were given earlier, in Chapter 3.

Introduction
Currently Kakute produces oil lamps of a very simple design in which Jatropha
oil can be used and sells them to villagers in its project areas. Kakute has also
trained a group of young people to produce oil lamps. Some women’s groups –
for example, the women’s group in Engaruka – are selling Jatropha oil to
villagers for use in lamps. In Selela village, the village ward said he had bought
Jatropha oil to use in his lamp. The University of Hohenheim in Germany has
done research on Jatropha oil lamps.38

Actors:
- Kakute (initiator of the project, producer of oil lamps, supervision, training)
- Women’s group, Engaruka (pressing the seeds, selling the oil)
- Buyers of the oil and oil lamps (e.g. Selela villagers )
- Research institutes (the University of Hohenheim in Germany)

Dynamics. The actor network is still relatively small. One actor group was
trained in making oil lamps but did not do anything with the knowledge; it is not
active in the network anymore. Kakute did not train other groups after this
failure. It is unclear how many users there are and whether they are happy with
the oil lamp. The village ward in Engaruka said he was.

38
According to the website www.Jatropha.org

80

Economic analysis
The women’s group in Engaruka (Arusha district) is selling the oil to villagers in
Selela (about 10 km from Engaruka). The villagers are willing to pay as much as
TZS 2000 per litre of oil. Special lamps for Jatropha oil are produced by Kakute
and can be bought for TZS 1700 (€1.21).39
The lamps produced by Kakute are made from small, used, Africafe (instant
coffee) tins. The factory currently produces only on demand (about 1000 lamps/-
year).

Learning processes
Technical:
The oil lamps made from Africafe cans work reasonably well. The Kakute factory
is still producing lamps.
At the Hohenheim University in Germany, research is being done on wick burners
for Jatropha oil.
System:
In Engaruka, Kakute trained young people to make oil lamps, but the trainees did
not do anything with the knowledge.
The oil press currently used by most women’s groups has a capacity of 1.5
litres/hour. This is too low for large-scale production and the groups want a larger
press.
In Selela, villagers are willing to pay even TZS 2000 per litre of oil.

No expectations were shared by the actors.

The number of oil lamps sold by Kakute is still relatively low. It is unclear
why this is so; perhaps the reason is inadequate supply of Jatropha oil, too high a
price level for the Jatropha oil lamp, or users’ lack of faith in the functionality of
the lamp.
When large quantities of Jatropha oil are available, the opportunities for local
people will be: setting up oil lamp factories, saving money by using Jatropha oil
instead of kerosene (if the price of Jatropha oil is lower than that of kerosene).

Conclusion
Network formation has not developed very well. Some young people were
trained but did not do anything with the knowledge. Kakute is the only producer
of the Jatropha oil lamps and there do not seem to be many buyers. However, it
has a capacity of about 1000 lamps/year, an indication that there is a market and

39
€1 = TZS 1400 (May 2005)

81

the lamps probably work well. Information on users of the Jatropha lamp is
lacking, although Jatropha oil from Engaruka is sold to villagers in Selela for use
in oil lamps. Learning processes: some lessons have been learnt on the technical
aspects and the system. Expectations are very unclear, although the application of
using the oil in a lamp seems to work technically and people are willing to use it
for that purpose.

Jatropha oil in cooking stoves
Jatropha oil can be used as fuel in a specially designed cooking stove. A normal
cooking stove cannot be used, as the viscosity of the oil is too high.

Introduction
KIDT (a technical school where, among other things, a charcoal stove has been
further developed) has tried to design a Jatropha cooking stove (see Figure) at the
request of the Green Garden Women Group, which is sponsored by UNDP.
TaTEDO, an NGO, was also involved. The prototype Jatropha cooking stove is
still not functioning properly. KIDT did not have enough Jatropha oil to test it
adequately. None of those using the stove is enthusiastic about it. TIRDO, a
research institute in Arusha, is now doing research on the Jatropha cooking stove.
The problems with using the stove are that the oil is poisonous and the emissions
exhausted while using the stove could possibly be dangerous to the health of
users. The emissions of another stove, which uses a mixture of Jatropha and
kerosene, were listed earlier, in Chapter 3. The emissions from that stove as well
as those from an open wood fire were found to be higher than WHO safety
limits.

Actors:
- Green Garden Women Group (selling the stove,
asked KIDT to further develop the stove)
- Kakute (funding)
- KIDT (R&D, producer of the stove)
- TIRDO (research institute)
- TaTedo (NGO)
- UNIDO (sponsor of the women’s group) Figure 24 Jatropha cooking
stove at KIDT

Dynamics. In the process of developing the stove, the network has expanded
properly; even a user (women’s) group was involved in the development phase.
The stove has been tested (though inadequately) and research is being done
before it is produced on a large scale, which is very positive. However, the

82

feedback from the research (with potential negative results) has not been spread
among the actors. And during the development phase KIDT did not have enough
oil to test the stove, indicating that the network was not properly connected
between the actors.

Economic analysis
So far two cooking stoves have been sold by the Green Garden Women Group,
for TZS 12,000 each (according to Mama Leema). According to KIDT, the final
Jatropha cooking stove will cost about TZS 20,000. Jatropha oil is available at
TZS 2000/l.

Learning processes
Users:
Mama Leema is not using the Jatropha cooking stove herself, she is afraid that the
smoke might cause health problems. She also does not know anybody who is
using the cooking stove at the moment, although two have been sold so far (one in
West-Kili and one in Uhuru).
Technical:
The viscosity of Jatropha oil is too high for a cooking stove (KIDT).
There was a lack of Jatropha oil for further testing; larger quantities of Jatropha
oil should be made available (KIDT).

According to Mr. Frank A. Elise of KIDT, the viscosity of the pure Jatropha oil
is too high to enable it to burn well in stoves. The oil is like raw natural oil. It
would be better to modify it into biodiesel.

Barriers:
Users are not happy, the prototype stove does not inspire faith, it is potentially
dangerous to health.

Conclusion
There seem to be too many barriers to using Jatropha oil in this way. The
technology is not functioning properly and the users are not happy In fact, the
emissions might even be dangerous. The network for the development of the
stove was quite large and very diverse, many different actors were involved.
However, it seems that the actors are not actively involved any more and the
network was not properly connected. Learning processes for this application
were very good in the beginning; the stove was tested and researched with

83

various actors involved. However, the knowledge was not shared in the end.
Expectations have not stabilised yet, but are already very negative.

Other uses for the Jatropha plant
A demonstration site was visited where Jatropha was
being used as a support for vanilla plants (see Figure
25). There were four Jatropha plants, two of which
were quite big and with vanilla vines entwined
around them; but the other two were very small, with
a large vanilla vine around them. It is not clear
whether the vanilla was responsible for the plants
being smaller than normal.
Figure 25 Jatropha as
vanilla support

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE NICHE ANALYSIS

1. Cultivation
Extra income is earned by selling seeds from ‘wild’ Jatropha or from Jatropha
planted as a hedge or in a plantation. The seeds can be sold to Kakute or Diligent.
In the cultivation phase, the actor network is expanding quickly and it is
becoming more diverse with the involvement of research institutes. Several
learning processes have already occurred but have not yet been synthesized or
shared among all the actors. The economic analysis is very good, although
attention has to be paid to the costs of managing the Jatropha. Finally, the
expectations vary.

2. Production (oil expelling)
The niche processes here are less positive than for cultivation. The actor network
is quite diverse, but so far most contacts are linked through Kakute. There is
potential for more dynamics when spare parts suppliers or maintenance service
companies become involved. The economic analysis shows a large difference in
the size (and profits) of the two presses. Unfortunately, actual data on the
quantity of oil that can be sold is lacking. When the seed-cake gains monetary
value, this application will have better profitability. The learning processes are
mainly technical and some are on user acceptance. There are no lessons on the
infrastructure or storage. The expectations vary widely, from small pressing units
in several places to one big pressing unit in a central place. Also, expectations on
capacity vary, with some user groups wanting a press with larger capacity
although it is not clear whether the market is ready for that. Transport, and
unreliability and inefficiency of equipment are seen as barriers. Equipment

84

suitable for processing a variety of seeds could overcome the problem of limited
supply of Jatropha seeds.

3. Jatropha oil as diesel fuel
The fuel can be used domestically, in remote areas or cities, or it can be exported.
The actor network is quite limited; so far only Diligent, UDSM and the Kiumma
project are putting efforts into this application. No Jatropha oil is actually used
by consumers as a diesel substitute yet. Some technical learning processes have
occurred, with experiments by Diligent at TU/e. There are no lessons on user
acceptance so far. The economic analysis is unclear, expectations are positive but
not stabilised yet (e.g. conversion to biodiesel or not).

4. Jatropha seed-cake for biogas production
The women’s group in Monduli is enthusiastic about the properties of Jatropha (a
given amount of gas production requires less Jatropha cake than cow dung), but
not so enthusiastic about the biogas system itself (cooking with woodfuel is
faster). Technical learning processes are necessary; so far the lessons are without
a feedback loop. Kakute is going to install a biogas system in Engaruka as well.

5. Jatropha seed-cake as fertiliser
Several people have mentioned that Jatropha is a good fertiliser. However, so far
Jatropha seed-cake is not available in large quantities so no price is charged for
the cake. The possibility exists of charging a small price for Jatropha cake in
future.

6. Jatropha seed-cake pressed into briquettes
This is done in Engaruka, but no details are available.

7. Jatropha oil in soap-making
Jatropha oil is used with some other ingredients to make soap. The users are very
happy, but the market is very small. Training and equipment are only provided
by Kakute. The actor network lacks some important groups of actors and the
dynamics are not very good, either (everything runs through Kakute). The econo-
mic analysis shows promise but women’s groups cannot make a living from soap
sales due to market constraints. The learning process should include marketing.
Expectations still vary widely.

8. Jatropha oil in lamps
The women’s group in Engaruka sells the oil to villagers, for example in Selela.
Villagers are even willing to pay as much as TZS 2000 per litre of oil. Kakute
has a small oil lamp factory.

85

9. Jatropha oil in cooking stoves
Actor composition is very good, with many different types of actors. Connections
between the actors are very poor. There is no sharing of lessons, and no conti-
nuation of development, due to shortage of oil. The Jatropha cooking stove
prototype is still not functioning properly. Nobody is using the stove with
enthusiasm so far. There is even a possibility of emissions being unhealthy.

10. Jatropha as support for vanilla plants
Too little information was available to be able to draw aany conclusions about
this niche.

Conclusion niche analysis
The main niche processes are: network composition and dynamics, economic
feasibility, learning processes and dynamics of expectations.
Cultivation of Jatropha is very important as this is the first step in the chain.
The niche processes for this stage are quite good. More learning processes are
expected in the future. The big push in number of actors is mostly due to Diligent
and Kakute.
The second step in the chain is the production phase. Diligent is setting up a
facility and Kakute owns a large expeller and sells hand-presses to women’s
groups. Learning processes on technology (equipment), storage and infrastruc-
ture are necessary. Most contacts run through Kakute so far.
The final step in the chain is use. So far Jatropha oil has not been used as a
diesel substitute; therefore many, different experiments will have to be carried
out to create several learning processes. Technical lessons as well as user
acceptance lessons are necessary. There is a division in expectations between
actors who think the oil can best be exported and actors who think the oil should
be used domestically. Neither use rules out the other.
Not only can the Jatropha oil be used as a diesel substitute, but the seed-cake
which is left after the oil has been expelled can also be used for certain
applications. A good application for the seed-cake would strengthen a transition
towards biofuels; after all, if the seed-cake has a value, the production stage is
more profitable. So far, the applications have been explored very marginally. A
biogas production facility has been installed, but there does not seem to be a
learning feedback-loop, as Kakute is installing exactly the same facility
somewhere else while the current facility is hardly being used. Further develop-
ment of this application is desirable, as the users are enthusiastic. Using the seed-
cake as fertiliser is a good application in theory, since the agricultural nutritional
value is high. Farmers seem to be willing to use it on their land. The actor
network should be increased, and more experiments need to be carried out to

86

create learning processes. The application of pressing the seed-cake into bri-
quettes for cooking purposes should also be explored further. No learning pro-
cesses have occurred for this application yet.
Finally, there are other applications for the Jatropha oil that present a dual
possibility: they could strengthen the transition towards biofuels or have a nega-
tive influence. Strengthening of the transition would occur if the niche processes
were good, which would create user acceptance, and stabilised expectations
would create trust in Jatropha oil. The transition to biofuels would be weakened
if the applications for Jatropha oil were so successful that the price of Jatropha
oil rose to a level much higher than that of diesel. One application with this dual
possibility is soap-making, which is quite a profitable business, with enthusiastic
actors. Women’s groups that are producing the soap want to expand their
business. Even with a Jatropha oil price of TZS 2000/l, this business is profitable.
If the oil price were to fall (more towards the current diesel price of TZS 1100/l)
profitability would increase, so this is a very good application for Jatropha oil.
Another use of the oil, in lamps, is practised already. Although a large actor
group of young people were involved in the beginning, they are not part of the
network anymore. Using Jatropha oil in a cooking stove has started off with
high-quality niche processes. However, the expectations of the actors are very
negative and the research institutes that are involved report some negative tech-
nical lessons.
Figure 26 gives an overview of all actors in the Jatropha experiments in
Tanzania. The more the number and types of actors, the better the network
composition. Dynamics in the network are visualised by the connections between
the actors; more connections indicate a better network. Three actors have aban-
doned the network: Faida MaLi (who only supported Kakute in the beginning), a
youth group that was trained to produce oil lamps, and Mr. D. Malcolm, who
wanted to start a large-scale Jatropha/Moringe plantation for D1 oils three years
ago. Other actors have remained in the network, which is expanding rather
quickly with new farmers who want to start cultivating Jatropha. Also, research
institutes are about to start their research (UDSM and Sokoine University have
not started yet). The network is expected to expand further when research results
become available.
Overall, the actor network already has really good properties and many
different types of actors are involved. Kakute and Diligent could be seen as two
platforms which enable other actors to be involved.

87

Youth group Kiumma International interested persons,
NGO’s, University of Hohenheim, etc.
TAF

Heiffer
Kakute TIRDO

Faida
Women’s
MaLi
groups

TaTEDO
Villagers
Kikuletwa/ Brotherhood
Peter Diligent
Vyahumu trust Burland Outgrowers
Harry Kuijpers
Mark vd Bosch
Flower
FAKT (YES-Africa)
companies
Sokoine
University
Local sub-
contractors Green Garden Women
Group TU/e

KIDT UNIDO USDM

Multi-relationship
Only minor connection B. Chachage,
Only donor function D. Malcolm (D1 Oils)

Figure 26 Actor network of Jatropha projects inTanzania, according to information given by
actors

The different types of actors include:
- Research institutes: TU/e, USDM, KIDT, TIRDO, Sokoine University
- Producers: farmers, brotherhood, outgrowers, Peter Burland, Kiumma
- Users: women’s groups, villagers
- Connectors/platforms: Diligent, Kakute, Harry and Mark
- Fund-raisers/providers: TAF, TaTEDO, Heiffer, FAKT, UNIDO
- Faida MaLi, the youth group and D. Malcolm were actors that were
involved in the beginning but are not any more.

A multi-relationship indicates that there is an active relationship, with know-
ledge sharing in both directions: for example, training, asking for information,
etc.
Kakute is one of the most important actors in the network so far. Kakute has
put efforts into training people in, for example, soap-making, oil-pressing and

88

producing oil lamps, but these activities do not seem to be expanding rapidly.
This is mainly due to the small market for these products. The network is mainly
concentrated around Kakute; several NGOs are active and also serve as ‘fund-
raisers’ since Kakute is a private company and cannot receive funds intended for
NGOs. Kakute has created a high level of awareness about Jatropha in Tanzania,
but a large barrier seems to be that Kakute is not showing up regularly in
villages, which is not helpful in gaining the trust of villagers. Also, the role
Kakute plays is not always clear; it both buys and sells seeds and oil, and
sometimes the director is suspected of keepig information under wraps (Bukaza
and other people mentioned this).

5
Conclusions and
recommendations

This chapter is divided into three sections. The first section discusses the research
conclusions, providing answers to research questions 1 to 3. The second section,
methodological reflection, discusses the Strategic Niche Management (SNM)
method. It deals with research question 4. Finally, the last section presents the
recommendations (research question 5), sub-divided into recommendations for
policy and for further research.

Research conclusions
The main research question is:
Tanzania and how can the process be improved?
Question 1: What are the main processes that are important for a transition?
Question 2: What are the different niches or application domains for Jatropha
in Tanzania?
Question 3: What is the influence of the related regimes and landscape on the
transition process?

Following the SNM methodology, the processes that influence the transition
process were sub-divided into three levels. The analysis at landscape level
describes the macro-level (both in the sense of ‘national’ and ‘global’) situation.
Developments at this level cannot be influenced, but they can have a positive or

90

negative effect on the transition. The second level is the regime level. Four
different regimes were identified that could potentially influence the transition
process through the extent to which they are open to new developments and
niches. Important processes at regime level are alignment (high level of
uncertainty or tensions indicate a low alignment), permeability (resistance from
the dominant regime against new developments is low when permeability is
high) and vision (the room for new developments is high when problems are
recognised in the current regime). The niche processes that influence the
transition process are: network dynamics, learning processes and dynamics of
expectations. In addition, an economic feasibility analysis was added for each
niche activity. The main findings for the three levels can be summarised as
follows:

Landscape
The developments at the landscape level are almost all very positive for the
success of Jatropha. Renewable energy is being stimulated worldwide, and
although biofuels currently account for only a small part of the global renewable
energy supply, an increasing number of countries are specifically mentioning
biofuels. Some have even committed themselves to the use of biofuels as part of
their total fuel supply, creating a global market for biofuels, which has a positive
influence on the transition in Tanzania. The position of the Tanzanian govern-
ment is unclear. Although it wants to stimulate renewable energy in principle, it
could also still be a barrier in practice, since policy implementation lags behind
policy pronouncements. Tanzania has enough land available to be self-supportive
in fuel. The poor infrastructure does not have to be a barrier to transition when
Jatropha products are used locally; however, where export is concerned, it might
be a constraint.

Regime
The influences of the regimes on the transition are different for every regime.
There is only one important factor that influences all the regimes in a similar
way, namely the local cultural aspect. Tanzanians seem to be reluctant to take
any risk, including risks associated with the introduction of new technologies.
The agricultural regime seems to be open to a transition. Farmers are already
looking for new crops, recognising the problem caused by low prices for current
crops. Jatropha is treated as just another cash crop, so a guaranteed price for
Jatropha seeds is very important. Alignment is quite high, as the current rules are
clear while the cultivation of Jatropha is not very different from the current
practices. Cultivation of Jatropha does require more long-term investments, but
there are systems to overcome this (intercropping, etc.).

91

A vegetable oil industry already exists, hence there is a vegetable oil regime.
The technology in this regime shows great similarity with that of Jatropha oil
expellers; however, the Jatropha oil is poisonous, which is a barrier against using
the extant expelling facilities.
The energy regime seems to be a bit less open to changes. Currently, energy is
mostly obtained from wood. The problems for Jatropha in this regime vary from
health issues to insufficient energy. Villagers are used to a certain way of
cooking, for example, and are not willing to extend the cooking time (which
apparently occurred when they tried to cook with a jatropha-based biogas
cooker). Lighting, if available, is based on kerosene. For this application, the
price of Jatropha oil is important and it should be the same as, or lower than, that
of kerosene – which is not (yet) the case. Diesel engines (e.g. in generators) are
hardly used in rural areas, so there is little demand for diesel fuel. It is not very
likely that people will pay to adapt their engines (which is necessary when
Jatropha oil is used directly), but a mixture with diesel or the use of biodiesel is
more in line with the current regime and offers more potential. Electricity, which
can be used for lighting and cooking, is also hardly available in rural areas.
Therefore, there is room for a transition, but user preferences are very important.
Finally, the financial regime offers (limited) room for niches. Some new
developments in micro-finance could provide loans to rural people with little
collateral, and this would have a positive influence on the transition.
Most regimes do not have to change radically in order to enable a transition
towards Jatropha biofuels. In terms of the terminology of the Strategic Niche
Management writers, it will be more an accumulation process than a substitution
process.

Niche
As explained in Chapter 2, in Strategic Niche Management, a technology is still
in a niche-stage when its rules are not yet clear, its market share is still low, and
it still needs a protected environment. The Jatropha experiments in the different
niches in Tanzania still consist of a loose set of experiments (cooking, etc.) or are
at best in a niche-stage. This is because the rules of Jatropha are largely unknown
yet. For example, with respect to cultivation, the rules of existing crops are well
known. Farmers know how they should grow, sell and use them; they know the
amount of nutrients required, what is the best height and time for pruning, where
they can sell the crops, how large the market is, what applications there are, and
so on. For Jatropha all these factors are still unknown.
Moreover, there is hardly any market share yet for any of the Jatropha appli-
cations. The availability of Jatropha biofuel, mostly Jatropha oil, is very limited,
and the demand for it is not high. Planting Jatropha has been done so far by

92

providing the seeds free to farmers and supporting them with technical assistance
and a fixed selling price, thereby creating a protective environment. This clearly
indicates that all the experiments are still (at best) in a niche-stage. None of the
experiments has created a regime-change yet.
Another factor in niche analysis is expectations, which are considered to be
very wide and diverse at the beginning of the transition, and then slowly moving
towards more stability. In most Jatropha niches, expectations are still very wide
and diverse. Only in the ‘cultivation’ niche, which is the first stage in the
Jatropha production chain, have the expectations started to stabilise. The
transition process seems to be only at the very beginning. Tanzania is still at the
stage where many experimental activities have been carried out, which has
created much awareness and interest in the plant.

Jatropha nursery
Seeds
Seedlings/cuttings Cultivation

Cultivation
Seeds
Large amount of seeds

Production
Seed cake
Oil expelling facility

Oil

Conversion to: - Production Biogas Usage
- Soap - Fertilizer
-… - Briquettes
-…
Direct use in:
- Cooking stoves
- Oil lamps
-…
In diesel engines
(either straight or
converted to
biodiesel

Figure 27 Jatropha production chain

The production chain (Figure 27) can help to provide understanding of which
niches have contributed most to the transition process. The first stage, culti-
vation, is very important ,as it is the first step in the chain. It is this niche that has
developed rather well so far in terms of SNM. This is visible in the high number
of learning processes on various subjects, such as, for example, the system

93

(nurseries, fencing, plantation, intercropping, etc.) but also user acceptance and
so on. Calculations show that cultivating Jatropha can be very profitable; how-
ever, this depends on the scale, investment and maintenance costs and the actual
yield of Jatropha seeds. The expectations are becoming more specific, which also
indicates that the niche processes have developed properly. The problems and
barriers in this niche are also more detailed. The actor network is expanding.
New actors are, for example, farmers who are willing to shift to cultivating
Jatropha instead of other crops, or villagers who have started to harvest seeds
from Jatropha plants. An important reason for the enthusiasm of these actors is
that they obtain a guaranteed price for their seeds, from either Diligent or Kakute.
This reduces the risk for the farmer who wants to start cultivating Jatropha.
However, there is still a risk: the (guaranteed) price paid for the seeds (currently
by Kakute and Diligent) could be lower in future years, leaving the farmers with
less or no profit. If they have stopped cultivating food crops and are no longer
carrying out other income-earning activities, their situation could be precarious.
However, the landscape analysis indicated that the current interest in biofuels
worldwide is unlikely to be reversed, so demand from other countries could
stimulate cultivation as well. The learning processes indicate that there are also
systems such as intercropping or fencing that could help to overcome this
problem. When other niches further down the Jatropha chain become more
profitable, they will of course also influence this first stage, creating a more solid
basis for sustainable cultivation based on a reliable price for the seeds.
The second step in the chain is the production (processing) step. Economic
analysis shows that an oil-expelling facility can be profitable, but actual figures
are lacking. There are few learning processes yet; lessons are lacking especially
about infrastructure and transport. So this niche requires many more learning
processes. Most contacts currently run through Kakute, so the network needs to
be increased and become more interconnected.
The final step in the chain is use. So far Jatropha has hardly been used as a
diesel substitute, so learning processes are lacking, especially about user accept-
ance and technology. This niche is still so undeveloped that it was not even
possible to conduct an economic feasibility analysis. Expectations vary; some
actors think the oil could best be exported, while others think the oil should be
used domestically. Neither of these two options rules out the other.
While they are not central to a transition to biofuel, the niches that include the
use of Jatropha seed-cake can contribute to that transition process. When the
application of this seed-cake becomes commercially viable, it can gain market
value. This will strengthen the Jatropha production-niche. So far, these applica-
tions have been explored only marginally.

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There are also niches which constitute alternatives to the use of Jatropha oil as
a biofuel. These are soap-making activities and the use of Jatropha oil for
lighting and cooking. It is not clear whether the niche processes associated with
these activities will contribute to the transition process. Awareness is created
with the development of these niches, but if these applications become very
successful they could start to compete with Jatropha for use as biofuel, by
commanding a higher price for Jatropha oil. This might create a barrier to
transition towards Jatropha biofuels. However, this possibility is currently rather
remote, since all these niches are very small and do not show signs of substantial
recent expansion. Soap-making can be a profitable business, but the marketing is
inferior. The niche where Jatropha oil is used for lighting is quite small and the
niche processes are not of high quality. Some actors (a youth group) abandoned
the network and there were too few learning processes, especially for users. The
niche where Jatropha oil is used in cooking stoves had excellent niche processes
at first, but technical barriers (high emissions) and low user acceptance will
probably stop these developments. According to SNM this is not a problem.
SNM emphasises the need to view experiments as a process towards a regime-
change. In this respect, many experiments are necessary to slowly change the
regime.
Overall, the possibilities for a transition process are quite good. This is even
though the government is unlikely to play a stimulating role in the near future,
since its position on biofuels is unclear. When more (types of) actors are in-
volved, all learning processes are shared by the actors in the network, and more
experiments are carried out, a transition towards Jatropha biofuels could be
made. However, it might still take a while before there really is a process of
transition towards Jatropha biofuels in Tanzania.

Methodological reflection
The SNM framework used in this research was developed to study transitions in
developed economies. This research constituted the first application of the
method outside that context. A reflection on the basis of the experiences
encountered with the use of SNM in Tanzania is therefore in order. Conse-
quently, research question 4 is:
What lessons can be learned from analysing Jatropha experiments in
Tanzania, using the SNM method?
First, it is very hard in a developing country to obtain all the information
necessary to analyse a potential transition on the basis of SNM. This is not so at
the landscape level, as most developments at that level take place on a global
scale. However, obtaining information for a regime analysis is rather difficult. It

95

might not be possible to find out the ‘normal way of doing things’, as, for
example, many rural people live in very isolated conditions. In an industrialised
country, one would interview car manufacturers for their opinions on using
biofuel in their cars. In a country like Tanzania, it would be very hard to obtain
such opinions, even if there were such an industry.
Also on the niche level, certain information is hard to gather. For example,
information on the development of the actor network, the underlying reasons for
participation by persons or organisations, and the expectations of actors (or how
they have changed over time) is often unavailable. Such information is not
revealed, especially when it is considered to be negative; for example, an
expectation that the technology might not work would not be easily shared with
the researcher. The actual picture of all relationships between actors in the
Jatropha sector of Tanzania might in reality look different from Figure 26: Actor
network of Jatropha projects in Tanzania, according to information given by
actors. Actors that are not actively involved any more would perhaps not be
mentioned by the current actors. The same holds true for all linkages between
actors, no matter how minor they are.
Moreover, the setting in which the interviewer can ask questions is not
optimal. Often there is a language barrier. Although this can be overcome to
some extent by using a translator, the questions still have to be passed on by this
third person and important information can get lost in the process. Projects are
often located in remote areas, and in such cases it is difficult to return a second or
even third time due to time constraints, lack of transport, and so on. The inter-
viewer needs to try and obtain all the required information during the first (and
often only) meeting. This, of course, is not specific to the use of SNM as such; it
holds true for every research method used in a developing country.
The main difference between the outcome of an SNM analysis in a developed
country and one in a developing country is that most of the time the government
in a developing country does not yet have an active policy on a ‘new’ sustainable
technology. In Tanzania the government is often more a constraint than a sup-
porting force (due to need for bribes, etc.), while in a developed country govern-
ment policies can be a fruitful starting point for a transition.
The main subjects SNM is focusing on are quite useful: actor network,
learning processes and expectations. The lessons people have learnt from their
projects are especially very useful for data collection. By asking questions on all
aspects of SNM it is possible to get a good picture quickly of how the experiment
is going. In that sense, SNM is very suitable for projects in developing countries.
A nice extra is that writing down all the lessons learnt from the experiments has
made this knowledge tangible. It can now be shared with other actors be used for
further research.

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Other theories on technological development in developing countries often
mention surprisingly similar important factors that stimulate or enable innovation
to happen. Most of them agree on the need for a bottom-up instead of top-down
approach, and on involving users at an early stage with efficient feedback loops.
Douthwaite (2002), for example, recognises that innovation is catalysed by a
learning selection approach, which is consistent with SNM theory. Mog (2004)
also mentions an approach to create change ‘through continuous learning and
adaptation’. The new aspect of SNM is that it has integrated a multi-level
perspective into the theory.
Of course, using the SNM methodology does not provide a complete picture
of the transition process in a developing country. This is so for two reasons: (i) it
is hard to obtain all the information that is required (as explained earlier) and (ii)
it is hard or even impossible to predict any new developments or innovations that
might interfere with the transition process. Some developments (say, further
headway in solar energy technology) might be so successful that the work on
Jatropha biofuels would be abandoned. However, SNM stresses the importance
of learning; even if the Jatropha activities end up being only a stepping stone
towards another development, the lessons have still contributed towards that
process.
One limitation of SNM that emerged in practice was that its concepts can
sometimes be rather unclear. The distinction between experiments and niches, for
example, is very vague. Raven (2005) also recognises this. He also distinguishes
no less than four different types of niches: technological niches, regular market
niches, dedicated market niches and protected market niches. In practice, the
distinctions between these different types of niches are hard to make. Even
distinguishing between experiments and niches proved to be difficult to do for
some activities. In this report I have chosen to view all applications which use
Jatropha oil, but also the cultivation and production, as niches. This might not be
right according to SNM, but for analytical purposes it does not really matter how
the groups of experiments are labelled. According to Raven, Jatropha biofuels
can also be seen as a single niche in the energy supply, depending on the purpose
of one's research. The important lesson that seems to emerge from this is that
SNM has to be used in a flexible and creative manner to suit one's research
objectives and the limitations set by the specific context within which the
research has to be carried out.
One example of such creative use is that in addition to using the niche
concept, I have chosen to add the concept of the production chain in this
research. I did this in order to emphasise that certain niches are more important
than others for the transition process, and to get a better grip on how the different
niches hang together. SNM itself is unclear on the nature of the interrelationships

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between different niches (for example, whether there are any competitive or
complementary linkages between them). These interdependencies influence the
transition process, but it is not yet clear how. This is also recognised by Elzen et
al. (2004) who state that ‘from the wide variety of alternatives developed at niche
level, it is necessary to select and focus, and to asses which of them should be
stimulated in what way’. They propose using the method of ‘socio-technical
scenarios’ to help make these choices.
In this study, the transition towards biofuels is analysed and recommendations
are given to strengthen this process. However, the desirability of such a transition
could also be questioned. The carbon cycle is closed, even though the engines
driven by biofuels emit greenhouse gases. Some reports even question whether
the carbon cycle is really closed, whether the use of pesticides has a negative
influence, etc. To people who are questioning this transition as well, I would like
to stress the importance of learning-by-dong, as SNM advocates. Even when the
transition towards biofuels is not the best end-point for our energy supply, there
are always lessons to be learnt. Perhaps biofuels will only play a minor role in
the future, but it will not be bad to have multiple energy sources. As stated
earlier, the focus of this research is not to learn about the desirability of a
transition, but to learn about the processes which occur during it.
Finally, SNM has so far never been used to design experiments ex-ante with
the goal of maximising the chances for a transition. Raven (2005b) indicates that
SNM can be used as a practical tool, for improving the design of experiments or
for designing future policies on niche management. However, Raven also
observes that SNM has so far been mainly used as a research tool, and that it
needs real-life experimentation in society to see if the conclusions arrived at are
borne out in reality. Thus, the application of the SNM method does not yield
hands-on recommendations on how to pull off a transition by mounting a specific
action programme. This has to be kept in mind when reading the recommend-
ations in the following section.

Recommendations
Taking account of the above limitation, some recommendations can still be made
to increase the chances of success for a transition towards Jatropha biofuels. This
section provides an answer to research question 5:
What recommendations can be made to improve the transition process?
Two types of recommendations are made, policy and methodological.

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Policy recommendations
Policy recommendations can be made for different levels:
Regulation of the sector can best be done by the government.
Production chain management should be done by organisations like NGOs or
even universities, which can act as an ‘umbrella’ and are able to set up several
experiments in specific directions, gathering and disseminating all lessons. If
possible, this should be done for multiple countries.
Niche management: the actors involved in the specific niches should focus on the
main niche processes, such as creating a wide and diverse actor network, creating
learning processes, voicing and shaping the expectations of all actors in the niche.
Local ‘niche-champions’ could lead this process; they may include, for example,
entrepreneurial farmers or foreign lead firms.

Government
Protection of the niches should be assured by financial incentives, for example by
tax reduction or sponsorship. The developments should also be facilitated by
adequate organisational structures, for example the Rural Energy Agency that the
Tanzanian Government is planning to set up. The government should also
regulate and supervise the cultivation of Jatropha. Big mono-culture plantations
should be avoided as small scale projects will create more involvement of local
actors and therefore have more chances of success.

Production chain management
The cultivation of Jatropha cannot be profitable without a market for the seeds.
This implies that it is important to stimulate production and use of Jatropha
biofuels as well. However, as the landscape level analysis showed, demand for
Jatropha oil can come from other countries as well, which can stimulate
cultivation. It is important to stimulate the other niches, too, because this will
create a more solid base for cultivation and the transition is not complete without
the utilisation of the entire production chain. The transition towards biofuels
must be driven by production and use.

Further development of the potential applications of Jatropha: attention must be
paid to create high-quality niche processes.
Awareness must be created among local people. Due to the cultural attitude
towards innovation, it is important for people to actually see the technology. This
can be done by, for example, setting up demonstration sites.
Network developments must be stimulated; as many different types of actors as
possible should be involved, from research institutes to local farmers and users.
Also, interactions between the actors should be stimulated.
More learning possibilities for each niche should be created, and increased sharing
of that knowledge should be stimulated.

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The lessons (from all actors, such as users and research institutes, etc.) should be
collected and disseminated to all actors in the network.
The expectations of the actors should be levelled, for example by organising
seminars on a regular basis to exchange experiences.
A fund should be provided to overcome the cash flow problems during the first
two years after planting, when Jatropha cannot be harvested yet. However this
protection could also be provided through trade credit from international com-
panies.

Niche management
SNM advocates close connections between all the actors in the network. This
enhances/enforces the potential of feedback loops, for example from user to
designer. It is much more a bottom-up approach than a top-down process; several
reports mention this as a necessary condition for development processes (Douth-
waite, 2002). When this strategy is followed, local people are more actively
involved and this will increase the potential benefits to them.

Experiments are important in SNM. Hoogma (2000) distinguishes four types of
experiments that may play a role in creating or enforcing niches: explorative
experiments (at a very early stage), pilot experiments (to raise public and
industrial awareness), demonstration experiments (to show potential adopters how
they may benefit) and finally replication or dissemination experiments (to
disseminate tested methods through replication). All these experiments should be
stimulated.

Some specific recommendations can be made for each niche.
Cultivation:
It is important to reduce the risk that the farmer is taking by planting a new
product. This can be done, for example, by guaranteeing a fixed price for the
product and that the whole harvest will be bought. This creates an assured market
for the farmer’s product. It has been shown that the farmer will then be very eager
to plant the new product. Of course, this is also based on trust; if the farmer is
very sceptical of the market guarantee, he will be reluctant to take the risk.
Develop a system for selling and transporting the seeds.
Learning processes for cultivation should include: the amount of water that is
necessary for a good yield, the amount and type of nutrients and how Jatropha
should be managed (pruning, weeding, etc.). It is also important to record the seed
yields under specific conditions. Other learning processes include the system of
cultivating Jatropha, what are the best crops and conditions for intercropping. The
Prof. Udipi Shrinivasa of the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore is a well-
known person in the area of biofuels. One of his suggestions is to use castor, a
sturdy four-month crop, to bridge the period between planting Jatropha and har-
vesting.

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Production:
Increase the number and type of actors for this niche.
Create an experiment where the Jatropha oil price is not fixed. This will provide
lessons on the actual costs of the facility, and on how price fluctuations induced
by market forces affect profitability and people's willingness to persevere with the
activity.
Learning processes on storage of Jatropha seeds are very minimal. Experiments in
this direction, as well as on equipment (variation in capacity of the presses) and
infrastructure (expelling in several places or in one central place) are necessary.
Expectations are still very unclear. Interviews should be conducted with user
groups to find out how the system should be set up. For example, do villagers
want to press the oil themselves, what kind of capacity for the press do they want,
etc.
Usage:
Diesel substitute
A possible path to let users get used to biofuels slowly is first to mix diesel fuel
with Jatropha oil at the pump, followed by making Jatropha biodiesel available at
the pump as this requires only marginal adaptation to the diesel engines, and
finally, when there are enough mechanics trained to modify engines, making
Jatropha oil available at the pump as well.
Involve more actors, especially users, but also mechanics and oil companies,
which could mix Jatropha oil and fossil fuel at their pumps.
An economic analysis should be carried out when more data is available.
Research institutes are involved, but they have not yet started their research. Their
activities should be linked to other research being carried out worldwide in order
to prevent duplication of executed research activities.
Many learning processes on the usage of Jatropha oil or Jatropha biodiesel as
diesel substitute are necessary. User acceptance is still very unclear. Several
experiments that include the users should be executed. Also, demonstration
projects are necessary to increase awareness. Finally, testing by, for example,
having Jatropha biodiesel available at the pump.

The niches for the application of the seed-cake should also be strengthened
and explored, as this can positively influence the profitability of an oil-expelling
facility. The same processes as for the other niches are important here as well;
that is, creation of a wide actor network, stimulation of good learning processes
(with many feedback loops) and facilitation of the voicing and shaping of
expectations.
The soap niche can be expanded through increased marketing efforts. Atten-
tion has to be paid to the price of Jatropha oil. The niche where Jatropha oil is
used in a cooking stove can only be further developed when the emissions from
the stove are reduced, and even then it will be very hard to win user acceptance.

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The niche where Jatropha is used in oil lamps can be strengthened by involving
more users in the network.

Methodological recommendations
Literature on SNM should be integrated with other literature on technological
development, for example studies like Douthwaite (2002) and Mog (2004) that
provide more detail about the actual management of learning processes at the
micro level in projects. This could help operationalise SNM as a policy tool. It
will help clarify how the niches should be stimulated.
More research is necessary on the interrelationships between the niches, how they
influence the transition process and in what way they should be stimulated.
Integration of a product chain concept in the SNM method could be one way
forward.
Real-life experimentation with SNM in society is necessary to see if the con-
clusions reached are borne out in reality.
Develop a practical guide to analyse experiments, regimes and landscape accord-
ing to SNM. Raven (2005a) has already provided a basis, but the concepts are still
vague and do not fit well with the situation in developing countries.

Appendix I
Various sources for Jatropha yield

Table A-1 Jatropha yield from several sources (Heller 1996)
Reference Location Age (years) Yield Shrub Hectare (kg)
(g)
Avila (1949) Cape Verde ? 700-900 n.d.1
Bhag Mal (pers. comm.) India 3 n.d. 1733
Foidl (pers. comm.). Nicaragua ? n.d 5000
Henning (pers. comm)2 Mali ? n.d. 2640
Ishii & Takeuchi (1987) Thailand ? n.d. 2146
Larochas (1948) Mali ? n.d. 8000
Martin & Mayeux (1984) Madagascar ? 3000-3500 n.d.
Matsuno et al. (1985) Paraguay 3 n.d. 100
Naigeon (1987) Cape Verde ? n.d. 1750
Silveira (1934) Cape Verde ? n.d. 200-800
Stienswat et al. (1986) Thailand 1 318 794
Sukarin et al. (1987) Thailand 1 63.8 n.d.
Zan (1985) Burkina Faso diff. 955 n.d.
1 n.d. = not determined.
2 Survey on hedges: 0.8 kg seeds per m hedge. Hectare yield assumes a distance of 3 m between the
hedges.

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Table A-2 Jatropha yield from several sources (Jones & Miller 1993)
Seed yield Oil yield Comments Source
4-6 kg/yr From average size Raina 1986
bush
4-6 kg/yr Mean yield for 5 yr Basabutra &
old tree in Thailand Sutiponpeibun 1982
2-4 kg/tree Mean yield for 5 yr Takeda 1982
old tree in Thailand
4.6 kg/bush Average seed yield Banerjee 1989
4-5 kg/tree 1.5-2.0 kg/tree Madagascar Martin & Mayeux
1984
638 kg/ha 1 x 1 m spacing with Sukarin, Yamada &
no fertiliser; NE Sakaguchi 1987
Thailand
2,146 kg/ha 751 kg/ha Avg. annual yield; Ishil & Akeuchi 1987
35% oil extraction
rate, Thailand
400-1200 kg/ha Commercial yield, Levingston & Zamora
Cape Verde 1983
650-2000 kg/ha 200-600 kg/ha Average yield; Cape Martin & Mayeaux
Verde 1984
5000 kg/ha (kernels) 2.5 tonnes/ha One location in Cape Martin & Mayeaux
Verde 1984
350-1000 lb/ac Wealth of India 1959
3 tonnes/ha Value assumed under World Bank 1991
rainfed conditions
after 5 yr.
4-6 tonnes/yr Minas Gerais, Brazil Srivastava 1984
(assume per ha)
5 tonnes/acre/yr Calvin 1985
1.5-2.3 tonnes/ha Established plantation Srivastava 1984
in Brazil
3-4 tonnes/ha 3m x 3m spacing; Forni-Martins &
Brazil Diniz da Cruz 1985

105

Appendix II
Actors and projects visited and interviewed in
Tanzania

1 ORGANISATIONS 106
University of Dar es Salaam 106
TaTEDO 106
Faida MaLi 108
TAF 108
KIDT 109
FINCA 110
TIRDO 111

2 COMPANIES 112
Kakute 112
Diligent 112
D1 Oils 112

3 PROJECTS 113
Kiumma Project 113
Bukaza Chachage 113
Malcolm Doherty 114
Kikuletwa Farm 116
Brotherhood of Jesus the Good Sheperd 121
Diligent Energy Systems 124
Kakute 136
Green Garden Women Group 148
KIDT 150
VUAHUMU Trust 151

106

1. Organisations
1.1 University of Dar es Salaam
Location: Dar es Salaam
Date of visit: March 28th 2005
Talked to: Mr. Temu and Mr. Kibazohi

Currently a test is being performed on Jatropha biodiesel in a diesel engine. Mr.
Temu is working on coconut oil while Mr. Kibazohi is working on the Jatropha
diesel. They are directing their attention on the chemically modified Jatropha oil
(biodiesel) because they think using the pure oil will cause too many problems in
the longer term (however, there is no proof of this statement). They are also
performing research on biofuelled cooking stoves and lamps. The problem with
the lamps, however, is that due to the high viscosity, the flame of the lamp is
getting lower as the oil gets used up. The plan is to plant 10,000 hectares
themselves with Jatropha.
September 25th: Visit of Mr. Kibazohi to the Netherlands, the test is still not
running. The test results will hopefully be available in November 2005.

Figure 28 Test chamber, University Figure 29 Test chamber, University

1.2 TaTEDO
Tanzania Traditional Energy Development and Environment Organisation

Date of Visit: March 29th 2005
Talked to: director of TaTEDO, Mr. E.N. Sawe

107

TaTEDO is a national renewable energy development NGO. They have been
involved in energy development projects and programmes in rural areas for more
than 12 years. Their goals are:40
To improve the quality of life of Tanzanians by contributing to the availability of
improved and sustainable energy services, employment and income generating
opportunities, which are essential for poverty reduction
To reduce environmental degradation resulting from increased use of wood and
fossil fuels.
To contribute to reducing the country’s dependence on imported energy.
They have several partners across Tanzania and are involved in several renew-
able energy sources such as micro-wind turbine, solar PV system installation and
biomass.
They first became aware of the possibilities of Jatropha through a connection
with the successful Jatropha project in Mali. They established a partnership with
Kakute, which was involved in a Jatropha project for Monduli women. Jatropha
is viewed as a plant with enormous potential; first of all, the plant itself can serve
as an effective fence for the farmers, and the plant will stop degradation of the
soil. The oil from Jatropha can be used for soap production, as diesel substitute
and on the household level in oil lamps and cooking stoves. Finally, it can also be
used to create an export market. TaTEDO’s main task will be to create aware-
ness, create a network with links between farmers, seed processors, oil exporters,
etc.41 Awareness will be created by publishing a brochure for the farmers with
the possibilities of Jatropha and also training private persons in, for example,
Jatropha nurseries. They have also performed research on cooking stoves; this
stove is still in development but will be a lot cheaper than the currently available
stove from Germany. Their expectation of Jatropha is that in 3-5 years’ time a lot
of Jatropha will be planted, mostly by private persons.
Other important remarks:
∗ 2-3 months ago the tax on solar panels and other forms of renewable energy was
removed, so he is expecting a great increase in these sources. However, in the end
Jatropha offers a lot more potential, esp. with income generation
∗ The government is currently busy setting up Rural Energy Agents with Rural Energy
Funds, these could provide Jatropha projects with subsidies.

40
TaTEDO annual report 2003/2004
41
interview with Mr. E. Sawe, Executive director of TaTEDO, March 29th 2005

108

1.3 Faida MaLi
Location: Arusha
Date of visit: April 15th 2005
Talked to: Agri-Business Officer, Stephen Kijazi

Faida Market Linkages is a small NGO set up for Tanzanian farmers. They link
the farmers with local and international markets through traders and exporters.
All linkages are on a contract basis; this creates security for the farmers, who will
have assured markets for their products. So far the sectors that Faida is active in
include: oil crops, horticultural crops, staple crops, non-timber forest products
and flower seeds. Their activities include: Market linkage facilitation, farmer
producer group’s formation and empowerment, market research/market chain
analysis, contract farming arrangements, business awareness training, farmers’
exchange visits and trade fairs/exhibition promotion.42 They are sponsored by
Cordaid and Heifer.
They were involved in the beginning of Kakute’s Jatropha activities. They
provided the training of the farmers and Kakute used their network of farmers to
promote Jatropha.

1.4 TAF
Tanzania Association of Foresters

Location: Moshi
Date of visit: May 12th 2005
Talked to: Jon-Erik Rehn and Philipina

TAF was originally a Swedish NGO formed in 1976. Their goal is to become the
best institution of forestry professional practices and advisory services in Africa.
Their organisation is built through membership; there are currently about 700
members (mostly in Tanzania, some in Sweden), who pay a contribution fee or
give an extra donation. There are also four full-time officers, based in Moshi.
TAF is supporting several field activities which all have an environment con-
servation component, for example promoting tree-planting in Karatu to prevent
soil erosion. The Association derives its finance from members’ annual contri-

42
http://www.netherlands-embassy.go.tz/organizations.htm

109

butions, grants and donations from well-wishers.43 Membership is open to all
practising professional foresters holding a certificate in forestry, diploma and/or
degree.
About one year ago they started working together with Kakute. (the vice
president of TAF is a friend of Mr. Manyaga of Kakute) As Kakute is a private
company and therefore cannot receive funds directly, TAF agreed to cooperate to
support a Jatropha project in the ARUMERU district.

1.5 KIDT
Kilimanjaro Industrial Development Trust

Location: Moshi
Date of Visit: May 13th 2005
Talked to: manager, Frank A Elise

KIDT is an autonomous organisation which offers training and production opera-
tions. The Japanese Government has sponsored this organisation through
UNIDO’s Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) development project. The
training programmes include: building construction, computer courses, welding
and fabrication, etc.
The vocational training centre currently has about 20 full-time students. At the
location in Moshi there is also a small briquette factory, producing 50-60 tonnes
of briquettes each month. The briquettes are made from sawdust, waste material.
They also have other programmes; for example they designed a fuel-efficient
cooking stove, which they have delivered free to all primary schools around
Moshi (funded by Danido, a Danish NGO). The cooking stoves use briquettes.
They also produce and sell efficient charcoal stoves and they can maintain and
repair all kinds of other technical equipment. (they can also produce charcoal
briquettes, which do not smoke when burned; the briquettes are much cheaper
than normal charcoal or other fuel sources)

43
Document “What is TAF” 17-11-2004

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1.6 FINCA
Foundation for International Community Assistance

Date of attending workshop ‘Renewable Energy for Poverty Reduction’ facilita-
ted by TASEA (Tanzania Solar Energy Association):April 28th 2005
Speaker: Felistas Coutinho
Date of Visit head office: May 18th 2005
Talked to: Felistas Coutinho (Managing Director) and Mary

FINCA is a microcredit organisation which is providing credit and loans to
individual persons. They are the second largest credit provider of Tanzania and
are currently the fastest growing. They have 41,000 clients (at this moment
44,000) in Tanzania, of whom 99% are women. They have 1,281 village banking
groups, and a total of USD 4,899,613 in outstanding loans.44 So far they are only
active around Dar es Salaam, Morogoro, Iringa and Mwanza. Their focus is
mainly on rural areas and women.
Their approach is different than that of other microcredit organisations. Be-
cause many rural people do not know how to write or read, they don’t require a
business plan; instead they pay a visit to the group/individual (so the women do
not have to come to Dar es Salaam). They make their own analysis of the
business, and the collateral of the individual persons. When they think the
business is good enough to provide credit to, they also provide training. This
training consists of business planning, cost calculations, etc., to give an under-
standing of the implications of a loan (for example, why invest instead of eating).
The loan size varies between US$ 500 and US$ 5000, depending on the scale
of the business and the collateral. Average repayment time is 12-18 months. The
repayment can be done at a commercial bank branch at the village.
There are three conditions for the credit:
There has to be a business
The asset is transferred to FINCA’s name; after repayment, the asset is returned to
the names of those who received the credits
There have to be assets to serve as collateral (for a $500 credit, for example, a
fridge and a TV could serve as collateral)

44
Webpage FINCA international: http://www.villagebanking.org/work-afr_tan.htm accessed May 17th
2005, data is from February 28th 2005

111

They worked together with Umeme Jua (a commercial solar panel company) to
finance womens groups who wanted to buy a solar panel. They would be very
interested in providing credit to women who want to buy the Jatropha equipment.

Remarks:
- Most women are shy, so they are afraid to enter a micro-credit organisation or
a bank; therefore it is important for FINCA to go to them.
- If you ask people to write out a business plan they ask someone to write
something that looks good but is not necessarily the truth.
- Normally the costs for rural people to go to the bank to make the repayments
are very high.

1.7 TIRDO
Tanzania Industrial Research and Development Organisation

Date of Visit: May 18th 2005
Talked to: Senior Research and Development officer, Eng. Daniel Makundi

TIRDO is a non-profit organisation under the Ministry of Industry and Trade.
They carry out applied research and provide technical services to industries.
They concentrate on several core areas, for example: agrotechnology, industrial
chemistry, energy and environment, etc.45
Daniel Makundi was very interested in biodiesel; he thinks it can become very
big because the oil prices are rising very high. TIRDO has done some research on
biofuels, but because their library is at the moment not ‘indexed’ it is very
difficult to find information. TIRDO can develop, design or test several techno-
logies and equipment.

45
Website TIRDO: http://www.sdnp.undp.org/tirdo/ accessed September 2005.

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2 Companies
2.1 Kakute
This company (NGO) is listed under projects.

2.2 Diligent
This company is listed under projects.

2.3 D1 oils
It is very unclear whether they are active in Tanzania. They are active in a lot of
countries with very large plantations. With Doherty Malcolm (interviewed in Dar
es Salaam, see projects) they wanted to start in Tanzania three years ago. A field
officer from Kakute mentioned that they were involved in a sugar estate near
Arusha; however, this could not be confirmed.

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3. Projects
3.1 Kiumma Project
Kituo cha Elimu na Maendeleo Matemanga

Location: Matemanga near Tunduru, at the border with Mozambique.
Information through website and e-mail contact.

Description:46 Private development project around Matemanga hospital. The main
energy supply will be derived from Jatropha oil (which is now diesel), Solar
panels (photovoltaic) will be used as back-up. They will plant Jatropha them-
selves, but as they don’t think they will be able to cover the full demand them-
selves, they will also motivate local farmers to produce the oil, which they can
sell to others as well. A German company on solar and alternative energies
(Energiebau Koeln, Bernd Wolff) was the one who told them about the possi-
bilities of Jatropha.
An old 30 kW gen-set will be replaced by a new 20 kW one,which will also
run on Jatropha oil. The first batch of seeds was bought in Arusha. The gen-set
was adapted to run on Jatropha oil by a German company. Planting started in
December 2003.47 From contact with Mr. Fred Heimbach, it appeared that the
project is still in the starting-up phase. The seeds are planted but need more time
to mature, and the diesel engine is still under construction in Europe.(March 23,
2005) According to mr. Albert Mshanga the plan is to plant 1000ha.

3.2 Bukaza Chachage
Location Dar es Salaam
Date of meeting: April 5th 2005

Bukaza Chachage has done his Master’s thesis on Jatropha oil in Tanzania, at the
Lund University of Sweden. In his thesis he has described several Jatropha
projects in Tanzania, such as Kikuletwa Farm.

46
http://www.jatropha.de/tanzania/kiuma/kiumma-project.htm accessed on March 22, 2005
47
http://www.jatropha.de/news/jcl-news.htm accessed on March 23, 2005

114

Kakute is a private company. They worked together with NGOs like Faida to
get a subsidy from the UNDP. D1 oils activity stopped because the government
wanted a bribe.
Activities of farmers should not be solely Jatropha, but as a hedge it can create
extra income. The employees of Kakute provide far better (and more accurate)
information than the manager himself. He has bought seeds in Iringa and wants
to plant them in his hometown to make people aware of the potential. He has
planted one hectare of Jatropha and is going to keep a record of all necessary
information on soil, seeds, seedlings, costs, employment and all other related
information such as amount of water and weather in general, etc. They want to
have complete information on these subjects. On another hectare they are
planning to mix with other crops to see their reactions.

3.3 Malcolm Doherty
Date of meeting: May 23th 2005

Malcolm is an Englishman who has been living in Tanzania for the past three
years. His background is mechanical engineering and later he specialised in
environmental issues.
Malcolm has been trying to get Jatropha projects going for a long time,
however not successfully. He was once the director of D1 oils when they wanted
to start activities in Tanzania. Even at this moment he could get a plot of 100,000
acres (or hectares) in total around Dar es Salaam with the back-up support of an
Austrian company Gapco, but nobody wants to actually do it. (Bukaza, for
example, did not do what he promised, as is the case with all other Tanzanians,
so Malcom says)
Malcolm is of the opinion that you should never plant Jatropha alone. It is
much better to plant, for example, Moringe with it (see Figure 30). Moringe is an
edible plant; it has so many nutrients (when you dry and grind the Moringe
leaves, a baby could survive on just that). So Moringe could be used as feed-
stock.
In the Kisarawe region he worked with pyrethrum, a plant whose oil has
insect-repellent with no chemicals added. In the UK they did not like it; can’t you
add chemicals, they said.

115

Moringe

Jatropha
Storage

Figure 30 Example of farmer’s plot

If you were to take Jatropha oil, pyrethrum oil and avocado oil you would
have a very good insect repellent (pyrethrum alone decays with UV radiation).

Barriers:
The problems arise when it is done on a large scale: the logistics. How are you
going to get into the middle of a 1000 ha plot? Do you want people to walk in
there and pick the seeds, or do you want big and heavy equipment? (Most of the
time they want to drive with their tractor 5 miles straight turn 90 degrees and
drive another 5 miles straight;, that would destroy the landscape)
Another barrier is the amount of information that is still lacking on growing
Jatropha.

Lessons:
There were farmers who used to grow cashewnuts and switched to Jatropha. They
did not treat the soil properly; the top layer was ploughed but the old roots from
the cashew were still deep in the soil. The Jatropha was choking and after 2 years
all Jatropha had died at that spot.
For the pesticide, a large company bought it, in tonnes at the same time. The
farmers formed cooperatives, it was transported altogether to Dar es Salaam,
where the big company weighed the material and said, for example, that the
quality was not good so the price was very low (the driver does not care that they
pay so little, the driver gets his money), the cooperative takes money for the
building and other equipment and finally the farmer is left with almost nothing.
According to Malcolm, an expeller designed for sunflower seeds will never give a
good yield on Jatropha seeds, the pressure for a sunflower seed expeller is much
lower. At one place they said they had an oil yield of 80% (groundnuts); when he
went there, they did not even have a weighing scale, so they were just guessing.
When they expelled another batch, the yield was only 15%.

116

When Jatropha cuttings are used, the roots will not go as deep as the roots of
seedlings. In the end cuttings will thus not help to stop soil erosion.
About three years ago he had everything ready to start a large-scale Jatropha and
Moringe project with D1 oils. He was promised 1 million ha around Dodoma. But
the authorities wanted a title deed (guaranteed use of the land for over 99 years,
instead of the normal 10 years), for 20 million pound sterling. Malcolm did not
want this and walked away. A title deed is never good for a country, the govern-
ment should not do this.
If Jatropha is grown without fertiliser, the yield will get less over the years.
A Canadian firm has planted 100,000 ha with wheat. This monoculture is not
good for the environment of Tanzania, it caused desertification of the entire area.
D1 oils is at the moment active in, among other countries, Egypt, with a Jatropha
plantation of over 5000 ha. Although the website on the Internet shows promising
figures, the actual payback period is very long, about 15 years. This is due to the
fact that, for example, they used heavy equipment like bulldozers to cultivate the
land. They are working on far too big a scale, it is destroying the landscape.
Optima was a company that has been doing something that Malcolm calls
‘robbery’. They have given Jatropha and Moringe a bad name. They do not seem
to have morals, only money is what they are interested in. They bought Jatropha
and Moringe seeds for TZS 300 from the farmers and let them buy them back for
TZS 4000.
Jatropha storage is important; because of the high humidity in Tanzania the seeds
would germinate; a normal silo would do, but could get too warm.

Expectations:
A lot more research has to be done on several aspects (like growing/cultivation)
of Jatropha (and Moringe). The ecosystem is fragile and unstable, there can be
huge effects which work up all the way through the food-chain. The influence of
Jatropha plantations has to be researched first. They should make test plots to
measure, for example, how deep the root of cuttings and seedlings actually go,
the amount of fertiliser (nitrate) that works best, and so on. When it goes wrong,
the reputation of Jatropha will be destroyed.

3.4 Kikuletwa Farm
Location: TPC near Moshi
Date of visit and interview: April 12th 2005
Talked to: Peter Burland

117

Introduction
Peter Burland is an English farmer who owns
1000 acres of land in the West Kilimanjaro re-
gion. His main crops are Aloë vera and Jatropha.
He started planting Jatropha about 3 years ago
after he had visited a demonstration on the possi-
bilities of Jatropha by Kakute Ltd., at an agricul-
tural exhibition in Arusha. His main goal is to
establish a large plantation of Jatropha with
expelling equipment to produce Straight Vege-
table Oil (until this equipment is installed, the
seeds are pressed in Arusha). This oil can be sold
Figure 31 Intercropping at
to villagers and they can use it in oil lamps and Kikuletwa farm
cooking stoves. He also sells seedlings and cut-
tings. He started by planting one acre of seeds which where bought from Kakute
(this species can be harvested twice a year if irrigated) and from the first harvest
of seeds and cuttings (the Jatropha is pruned at about 1.5 meters) the plantation
has expanded. He wants to establish about 200 hectares with Jatropha plants from
different age groups (18 months, 3 years and a nursery) aprox. 1000 seedlings.48
He uses a system of intercropping with involvement of local villagers (see Figure
31); villagers are given half an acre of land49 on which Jatropha is planted with
2x2m distance. They can plant crops in between the Jatropha rows and they
irrigate and weed their area. By doing this they are looking after the Jatropha too.
They have to return the Jatropha seeds but they can keep the crops. The crops
that they can use for intercropping vary; they are mostly beans and onions, maize
was planted, too, but became too big and was disturbing the Jatropha. The farm is
located near two rivers from where the villagers can take the water they need.

Actors
Initially the first batch of seeds was bought from Kakute, but now Kakute goes to
him for information on the Jatropha plant; for example, how it should be
irrigated. Kakute is also sending other people to Kikuletwa Farm for information,
for example a women’s group from Mto Mwa Mbu and also people from
Germany, Switzerland and other countries. Kakute now wants cooperation with
him, but so far they have not really contributed anything but the seeds. Nego-
tiations with Diligent have now started as well.
Missing actors: so far no other initiative is implemented on a large scale, only
pilot projects. This should be done on large scale, according to Mr. Burland.

48
In a recent visit 2007, he has increased his aloe vera acreage and has 20 acres Jatropha.
49
≈0.20 hectare

118

Economic analysis
Peter Burland is growing Jatropha as well as Aloë vera. The latter crop will not
be taken into account. He is selling the Jatropha seeds as well as Jatropha
seedlings. So far Mr. Burland has only marginally sold the Jatropha seeds;
however, for the calculations the assumption is made that all seeds can be sold to
Diligent. The expenses are listed in Table A-3. The initial seeds were bought
from Kakute for TZS 150/kg. Globally Mr. Burland has indicated that until he
could harvest the seeds he spent about $100 per hectare (Chachage 2003).
Because at that time he was employing the villagers to look after the Jatropha (as
well as planting a little bit for themselves) the expenses for the years after the
first harvest are much lower.

Table A-3 Expenses of Jatropha at Kikuletwa Farm
Expenses first 2 years TZS
$100 per hectare (110,000 TZS) 22,000,000
Per year 11,000,000
TZS
Expenses later years
Water 0
Labour for weeding and irrigation 0
Supervision 100,000 /month(1person)
Other costs like insecticide, diesel fuel etc. ±100,000 / year
Total 3rd to nth year 1,300,000

Assumptions in calculation:
1000 seedlings, all sold as trees, revenue: 150,000 TZS ($136)
2500 trees per hectare, 200 hectares of Jatropha is about 3-5 tons/ha is about 600
to 1000 tons of seeds per year.
All seeds sold to Diligent for TZS 80per kg
First two years without yield, in 3rd year 50% yield, 75% in 4th year and 100%50 in
5th year.
Real discount rate (r): 9.8%, calculated by using inflation (p) of 4.4% and the
average interest rate (i) on medium- and long-term loans in 2003 which was
14.6%,51 in the formula: r=(1+i)/(1+p)-1.
Project running time: 5 years
No loan necessary to get start-up capital (no loan repayment costs).

50
Mr. Burland was able to harvest the first seeds after only 8 months. However, while the exact figures
are not known the calculation is made with the same estimates as for the other projects with Jatropha.
51
This is the medium- and long-term interest rate charged by commercial banks. Source:
http://www.tanzania.go.tz/economicsurvey1/2003/part1/financeinstitutions.htm accessed on August
30th 2005.

119

Table A-4 Economic analysis, Jatropha at Kikuletwa Farm (8 kg/plant to 10
kg/plant), current prices
Year Expenses (TZS) Revenue Profit US Dollars Discounted US
(cash outflow) (TZS) (TZS) (USD) cash flows Dollars52
(cash inflow) (non finan. cash (TZS) (USD)
inflow)
0 11,000,000 0 - 11,000,000 -$10,000 -11,000,000 -$10,000
1 11,000,000 0 - 11,000,000 -$10,000 -10,020,942 -$9,110
2 1,300,000 60,150,000 58,850,000 $53,500 48,840,289 $44,400
to to to to to
100,150,000 98,850,000 $89,864 82,036,748 $74,579
3 1,300,000 90,150,000 88,850,000 $80,773 67,174,598 $61,068
to to to to to
150,000,000 148,850,000 $135,318 112,537,298 $102,307
4 1,300,000 120,150,000 118,850,000 $108,045 81,858,298 $74,417
to to to to to
200,150,000 198,850,000 $180,7731 136,958,541 $124,508

The following economic parameters are derived from the table:
NPV, Net Present Value: between 176,852,243 ($160,775)
(sum of discounted cash flows) and 310,511,644 ($282,283)
IRR, Internal Rate of Return: between 168% and 236%
BCR, Benefit/Cost Ratio: between 8 and 14
PBP, Payback Period: between 2 and 3 years.

Barriers
The main barrier is a cultural one, according to Mr. Burland. People in the region are
from the Chagga tribe53 and seem to lack any incentive whatsoever. You will have
to charge them for e.g., land to push them to do something with it. When given
seeds free, they will not use them. When Peter Burland was still working with
other crops they used to steal as much as they could (from 8 acres of maize, 7
were stolen), not only crops but also diesel fuel, insecticide, etc. Getting them to
understand why this Jatropha is important is difficult, although Peter Burland
suggested he could pay them in vegetable oil, which they will then have to use in
cooking stoves, etc. At the moment they are too poor to pay for kerosene or
charcoal (which costs TZS 200) so letting them pay for something they can cook
on will not be easy. (According to Peter Burland, this could also be due to
property being nationalised during the Ujamaa socialist reforms; nationalising it

52
1 US Dollar = TZS 1100 (May 2005)
53
This tribe was strongly influenced by Christian missionary work and Western education and are
therefore often disproportionably represented in government and business circles on the main-
land.(Source: LonleyPlanet) Most Chagga people will go to urban areas and the ‘less-developed’ ones
are staying behind (Source: Fons Nijenhuis).

120

could have made them somewhat used to ‘stealing’. They don’t even consider it to
be wrong (only from Wazungu – westerners – and the government)
Possible barrier: the government; the only importance is to keep the oil from
being taxed, otherwise it will be too expensive.
Transportation is really expensive; transporting a lorry-load from Dar es Salaam
to Kilimanjaro region costs $1000.

Lessons
Water is very important; the plants which received a lot of water were growing
very fast and with a high yield. The plants which received less water (for example,
at the end of a row) were growing much slower.
The Jatropha tree is cut at about 1,5 meter; these cuttings were used to grow new
plants. A plant from a cutting will establish much faster than one from a seed
(seedling). However, some reports mention that the root will not establish
properly in the long term.
Jatropha was planted and then left idle for 18 months (no water); the plants did
not grow at all even after they were properly watered again. Also, at places where
not much water was given to the plants (e.g. at the end of a row, see picture) the
Jatropha plants were much smaller than the ones which received lots of water. So
water is extremely important.
Not many people want to press Jatropha seeds because they are poisonous.
The government does not seem to be interested in extra employment creation for
hundreds of people (on his farm). ‘What’s in it for me?’ is their only concern.
Intercropping is a useful way to get villagers to look after Jatropha well.

Expectations
When Mr. Burland started he did not think much money would be generated by it
(a barrel of oil was then $30) but now with oil prices of nearly $50 a barrel it is
getting much more interesting.
Mobile expellers could be used, which are placed, for example, on a lorry.
They can come to your farm twice a year to press the seeds on the spot.

Other remarks
- Jatropha soap will not be suitable for export due to low quality; however, for local usage it is
fine.
- There was a project a while ago on Moringe (which has about the same properties as
Jatropha). It was heavily sponsored with UNDP money. They lived in big houses and flew in
private jets; there was absolutely no community commitment and therefore the project ended
in a complete failure. The project leaders ran away with the money and have not been seen
again!
- No tax has to be paid for diesel for agricultural purposes; however, this is very hard to
control/supervise.

121

3.5 Brotherhood of Jesus the Good Shepherd
Location: Hedaru (Pare Region, near Same, Kilimanjaro)
Date of visit: April 17th – April 20th

Introduction
Seven Brothers are starting a new facility at
Mabilione, which is close to Hedaru. They
formerly stayed at Chanjale, which is close to
Same and there they established a Vocational
Training Centre with biogas facilities. Harry
Kuijpers, who lives in Eindhoven, was in-
volved in that project and told them about the
potential of Jatropha. In their new compound
they want to build a house for themselves as Figure 32 Jatropha nursery at
well as another Vocational Training Centre. Mabilione
Their compound is 2 hectares and part of this land will be reserved for Jatropha.
This will be partly sponsored and guided by Harry Kuijpers and Mark van den
Bosch, who started an organisation called Washiriki. The Brothers want to
demonstrate the technology for Jatropha and try to convince the villagers to plant
Jatropha to prevent soil erosion. The area in Mabilione, which is assigned to
them by the government, is not cultivated yet. They have cleared a small plot
near a river where they have started a small Jatropha nursery( see Figure 32) with
1 kg of seeds bought from Kakute (in total they bought three kg). All 7 Brothers
visited Kakute, were they were given a demonstration of the techniques for
nurseries (one seed per small black plastic bag filled with a mixture of cow dung
and soil) and pressing of oil. The seeds were planted March 1st; so far about 1000
seedlings have developed (about one month old) and they have replanted 500
seedlings. The replanted seedlings are planted 1 meter x 2 feet from each other.
Their plan is to expand to 3000 plants and even more after experience is gained.
They employed one villager, who is busy full-time with the Jatropha plants. His
activities range from setting up the nursery to watering the plants, clearing the
area and replanting the plants from the nursery.

Actors
Brother Moses is the one who is in charge of the Jatropha project, although the
other Brothers are very interested, too. Harry Kuijpers and Mark van den Bosch
are the project leaders of Washiriki. However, since they live in the Netherlands
contact with the Brothers is difficult. Kakute was the supplier of the seeds and

122

they also demonstrated the technology for the nusery. There has also been con-
tact with Diligent. The seeds might be sold to Diligent or Kakute.
One person is employed full-time for the Jatropha activities. In the first month
he prepared the plastic bagss for the nursery, cleared the area and made the cow
dung/soil mixture for the nursery. There are some one-time fixed costs (see Table
A-5) and some running costs which will be incurred during the whole project.
Table lists the expenses for the Jatropha plantation, as anticipated by the Brothers
themselves. A water pump with water tank will probably be installed at a later
stage; some of the costs are already listed in the table, but in the calculations this
pump will not be taken into account.

Table A-5 Expenses for Jatropha plantation of the Brotherhood
Fixed costs TZS
Seeds TZS 1,500/kg x 3 kg= 4,500
Clearing land 15,000 per acre (tractor+labour+fuel) (only
necessary once, including driver of tractor
TZS 1,000/day)

Installation of water tank TZS 8,500/bag cement, detailed estimate
will be made by the brothers later
Plastic bags for seedlings in nursery 6,000 (enough for 3 kg of seeds)
Total (without water tank) 25,500

Running costs
Labour (irrigation, weeding etc) 30,000/month; 360,000/year
Diesel fuel for water pump (1 liter/hour) 3000/week; 156,000/year
Diesel fuel for 4x4n jeep to check activities 8000/week; 416,000/year (brothers
in the field mentioned 15,000/week)
Total (without water pump) 776,000

Assumptions in calculation:
Yield: 3-5 tons/ha54
First two years without yield, in 3rd year 50% yield, 75% in 4th year and 100%55 in 5th
year.
After one year, the remaining 2000 plants will be planted, according to the same
yield prospect.
Seeds sold to Diligent at TZS 80/kg for the low estimate and seeds are sold to
Kakute at TZS 150/kg which is used for the higer estimate

54
From best estimates made by experts in Tanzanai a good estimate for the yield is 3-5 tons/ha/year.
55
Mr. Burland was able to harvest the first seeds after only 8 months; however, while the exact figures
are not known, the calculation is made with the same estimates as for the other projects with Jatropha.

123

Interest rate: 14%56
No loan necessary to get start-up capital (no loan repayment costs).

Table A-6 gives the economic analysis of the Brotherhood. The low estimate is
made with a yield of 3 tons/ha and a seed price of TZS 80/kg, the higher estimate
is made with a yield of 5 tons/ha and a selling price of TZS 150/kg for the seeds.

Table A-6 Economic analysis for Brotherhood, without water pump
Year Expenses Revenu Profit Discounted cash US Dollars57
(TZS) (TZS) (TZS) flow (USD)
0 801,500 0 -801,500 -801,500 -$729
1 776,000 0 -776,000 -706,932 -$643
2 776,000 49,200 to -726,800 to -603,180 to -$548 to -$469
153,750 -622,250 -516,412
3 776,000 75,050 to -700,950 to -529,950 to -$482 to -$161
541,875 -234,125 -177,009
4 776,000 248,400 to -527,600 to -363,386 to -$330 to -$1
774,375 -1,625 -1,119

The following economic parameters can be derived:
NPV: from -3,004,947 to -2,202,973 (-$2,732 to -$2,003)
IRR: ## to ##
BCR: from 0.1 to 0.3
PBP: more than 15 years

Barriers
Currently the area suffers heavily from soil erosion. If people need a piece of
land for agricultural purposes they just chop down the trees. The people will have
to become aware that trees are necessary for fertile land.

56
This is the medium- long-term interest rate charged by commercial banks. Source:
30th 2005.
57
1 US Dollar = TZS 1100 (May 2005)

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Lessons
As the project is only 2 months old, few lessons have been learnt so far. The
mixture of cowdung/soil seems to work fine, although almost 40% of the seeds in
the nursery did not germinate.
For their next replanting of 500 seedlings, they will dig trenches in the land
and plant the seedlings on the elevated soil (see Figure 33). When the water
pump is installed, it will be much easier to water the plants automatically.

Expectations
The expectation of the Brothers is that the Jatropha
activities will be self-sufficient in the end. Some villagers
will be employed and these costs will have to be borne
from the sale of Jatropha seeds (or at a later stage, from
selling soap or oil).
In the beginning they will only sell the seeds, but in the
longer term, if they can finance it, they would like the
equipment for pressing oil and soap-making.
Mr. Manyanga of Kakute told them they could sell the
seeds to them. They also are willing to sell to Diligent,
but they would like to get the highest price possible. Figure 33 Replanted
Jatropha at
Mabilione
Other remarks:
1 bag of charcoal is TZS 2500; it will last for 1 to 2 weeks (depending on family
size). Soap bought from Kakute costs TZS 500/ piece.

3.6 Diligent Energy Systems
Future location of the factory: Moshi, Tanzania
Dutch ‘headquarters’: Technical University Eindhoven campus
Talked to: Ruud van Eck (director), Thijs Adriaans58 and partners in Tanzania

Introduction
Diligent Energy Systems is a Dutch company based in Eindhoven. They want to
become a large player in the biofuel market as a supplier of Jatropha oil from
Tanzania. They are also active in research. As the company is located on the
TU/e campus, they have a lot of linkages with students from the university as
well as research in other institutions. They are also involved in several organi-
sations (international as well as national).

58
Also an interview by Wouter v.d. Laak, March 11th 2005, with Thijs Adriaans has provided input.

125

They started their activities in 2004 and have started a joint venture with a
Tanzanian partner. They have contracted local farmers (small farmers as well as
bigger ones) to plant the Jatropha for them. They guarantee the farmers that they
will buy the seeds (or oil) from them, so the farmer has a guaranteed market for
his seeds. They will export the Jatropha oil back to the Netherlands or other
countries in Europe, although they will probably also try to sell the oil locally.
Whether this will be the Straight Vegetable Oil (SVO) or chemically modified oil
is not clear yet.
Diligent is using the outgrowers network from the flower/vegetable seed com-
panies Multiflower, Arushacuttings and Vasso-agro (Dutch-owned) to contact
farmers and make them aware of the potential of the plant.
Tjerk Scheltema is the one who is going to push farmers in the region around
Arusha (as far as the Ngorongoro Crater, Arusha National Park), while Fons
Nijenhuis is going to try to push farmers in the region around Moshi. Extra field
officers will/can be employed as well. As soon as a lot of Jatropha is planted in
the regions and the first seeds are harvested, they will start building a factory in
Moshi which will press the Jatropha seeds to extract oil. Whether they will also
modify the oil in Tanzania is not clear yet; perhaps this will be done in the
Netherlands. Also, they are currently thinking about the structure of the com-
pany; while transportation of the seeds is quite expensive, it is possible that
smaller extraction units will be set up, from which the oil can be transported to
the factory in Moshi.
They will pay farmers TZS 80 per kg of Jatropha seeds. Although this is less
than what Kakute pays (TZS 120-150) the farmers are assured that all seeds will
be bought, no matter what quantity. The strategy seems successful, with several
farmers already asking for more seeds and at least one farmer starting a big
plantation of Jatropha (80 acres, see Ismael Manang).
The location of the factory will probably be next to the railway line; the oil
can then be transported to Tanga by rail, from where it will be shipped in
containers (which are lined with plastic bags) to Europe.

Actors
Diligent
Tanzanian partner, flower companies in Tanzania
Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs (subsidy),
SenterNovem (they support the research activities with a subsidy)
Several cooperative activities with Technical University Eindhoven (TU/e) and
Technical University Twente
Contacts with several other actors, like companies which are active in the chemi-
cal conversion of oil.

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Economic analysis
A substantial part of the investment is paid through a subsidy from the Dutch
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (in collaboration with Economic Affairs?). (The
responsible persons from this ministry have paid a visit to farmer Ismael
Manang.) This subsidy is meant for entrepreneurs who have a good idea for an
export product in a developing country.
The TZS 80/kg price is based on the maximum selling price of the oil in the
Netherlands. With the oil content of Jatropha seeds being about 33%, you need at
least 3 kg of oil (TZS 240); transportation costs and refinery costs (filtering,
modifying) will have to be added to this. In the Netherlands diesel fuel is now
about €1 (TZS 1400); the price of Jatropha oil will have to be lower than this. In
Tanzania the diesel price is currently fluctuating around TZS 900-990 (March-
April 2005); if you want to sell Jatropha oil in Tanzania the price should be lower
than TZS 900.
Exact figures will not be made public, but for Diligent it is clear that the larger
the quantity of seeds that can be obtained, the better the results for the company
will be.

Barriers
The tax on fuels in the Netherlands is currently the largest barrier; the government
is taking a long time to set up a longterm plan for biofuels and it is still not clear
whether biofuels will get a tax reduction. Currently the tax in the Netherlands is
€0,37/l for every product that is put in a tank. This will make the biofuel from
Jatropha too expensive. However, the expectation is that the Dutch government
will reduce this tax by the start of next year.
The quality of African equipment; for example, you will probably need spare
parts every 2-3 weeks.
Cultural barriers like not trying anything new before other people in your
neighbourhood have tried it.
No idea yet how much oil will be transported to the Netherlands in bulk, for
example by ship; to negotiate with chemical modifiers, this has to be known.
No idea whether or not the poisonous content remains in the glycerine (which is
created by chemical modification).
Time; due to the rainy season, the best time for planting is from February till
April. You have to have some oil available already to start building your customer
network.

Lessons
There is no use asking questions about press temperature and so on to producers
of the presses; when the press is working, it’s working.
Because Jatropha is poisonous, it is hard to find people who want to press the
seeds. It’s better to tell them the seeds are not for human consumption than tell
them they are poisonous because they get scared.

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We lack knowledge about processing oil from the Jatropha seeds and the
marketing aspects of the oil, as well as knowledge about emissions, CDM, etc.
Further research is necessary.
It is taking a lot of time to have large-scale production of Jatropha seeds.
Several spin-offs have occurred already, more initiatives with Jatropha since
Diligent has started.

Expectations
By the end of next year we should be able to have planted 1000 hectare.
1500 litres/hectare, 4.5 tonnes of seed/hectare. So with 1000 ha about 1500 tonnes
of oil.
The seed-cake will be used as fertiliser.
SVO (straight vegetable oil) will have a transitional role in Europe.
Jatropha has several advantages over rapeseed oil; Jatropha can be grown on
degraded land, so it is not grown on expensive and scarce land. It cannot be eaten,
we would not want to export a food crop from a country where some people do
not have enough food themselves. And thirdly, the energy balance for Jatropha is
better than the one for rapeseed oil (which is used in the Netherlands); it is not
planted mechanically, the seeds are picked by hand, the plant can be productive
for over 50 years, not much fertiliser and not much water is needed and you don’t
need a lot of insecticide; all these aspects are worse with rapeseed oil.
It is possible to obtain even more energy from Jatropha when you use the eed-
cake as well; for example as fertiliser, detoxify, or burning. Using for biogas when
composted and using the sludge as fertiliser.
Most farmers will not transfer to Jatropha completely; to survive the 2 years
without harvest they maintain other activities.
The oil will be used by people who want to have a ‘green’ image. Not for people
who just want to have the cheapest fuel.

3.6.1 ArushaCuttings-Multiflower-Greenstar

Location: Arusha
Date of visit: April 14th, April 26th
Talked to: director; Tjerk Scheltema; field officer, Julius

Introduction
Multiflower is a flower company which has been active in the region for over 10
years. It is directed by Tjerk Scheltema, who is also the director of Arusha-
Cuttings and Greenstar. The companies have several departments: flower seeds,
vegetable seeds and now Jatropha. Another company which is closely linked is
Combifleur, directed by Hans Baart. All the companies are located in the same
compound. Their outgrowers network consists of about 300 outgrowers. The

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outgrowers (small or medium farmers in several areas) are given flower or vege-
table seeds, and after the plants have developed, the flowers or vegetables are
bought back from the growers.
The Jatropha activities of Tjerk Scheltema vary from paying visits to farmers
(about once a week, often in remote areas) and talking with farmers to giving
seminars to village groups. He also arranges meetings in the field to discuss the
growing method. The farmers are not asked to sign a contract, so there is a risk
that at a later stage, when there is a lot of Jatropha in the region, other buyers will
appear and Diligent will be left with nothing. Still, they are willing to try to
convince farmers. He also tried to interest the Kilimanjaro International Airport
(KIA); the area there is very dry and Jatropha is one of the few plants that could
be established there. However, so far they have not responded positively.

Actors
According to Tjerk Scheltema, all organisations (TAF, Kakute etc.), private
persons and the government should be involved at the same time. Organise
seminars together, do the promotion together and just be open to the farmers. So
tell them that with Kakute they will get more money for the seeds but Kakute
cannot buy everything and the Dutch company can and will buy everything.

Barriers
Transportation is going to be the big problem: how can all the seeds be
transported, the amounts for the factory are tonnes of seeds a day. Perhaps small
expellers and refine the oil in one place.
Kakute was already active in this area. He does not want a clash of interests with
this organisation, so he hopes they can work together on the promotion and let the
farmers decide to whom they sell their seeds, Diligent will tell them Kakute will
pay more but will not be able to buy everything.

Lessons
One farmer had already picked a bag full of Jatropha seeds to sell to Kakute.
While Kakute’s the field officer was there, the farmer was (in the end) willing to
sell the seeds to Diligent for TZS 80/kg. He said, who comes first will get the
seeds (in other words, the farmer needed the money). Tjerk paid extra, he paid the
Kakute price to create goodwill, but next time he will pay the 80 shillings.

Expectations
Tjerk Scheltema expects a yield of 2 kg a plant.
Tanzanians will not pay money to convert their cars, so the oil will have to be
converted.
Rapeseed oil is currently pushed by the European governments to provide the
countries with the biodiesel which is required by the European guidelines. It is
only a success because the government is putting money into it; if the government

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stopped doing this, it would become too expensive. Jatropha oil from Tanzania
should be able to compete with this type of oil.
Planting Jatropha will provide a lot of possibilities: hedges, nursery, cuttings, it
will help to stop erosion.
In Tanzania you will not get a good price for the ‘funny’ soap which is made from
Jatropha, but in Europe you can get a good price for such soap.
Perhaps at a later stage, also involve the government, which can profit because of
less soil erosion and could perhaps provide women with subsidies for this.
Kakute is planting 2x3 m and we are 2x2, so 1600 trees/hectare for Kakute and
2700 trees/hectare for Diligent.
At a later stage the seed-cake which is left after pressing the Jatropha seeds could
be used to fill flower pots; currently, the material for this (coconut fibre) is
imported from Thailand/Sri Lanka (?).
Suppose 300 acre, 1000 trees per acre; 300,000 trees, yield of 2 tonnes / acre (2 kg
per tree) will give 6 tonnes 6000 kg, which will give the farmer TZS 480,000. Oil
content is 30%, so 2000 litres of oil. The farmer can grow 300 acres of Jatropha,
he will give the seeds to us and will get some diesel in return.
Jatropha can grow in very dry areas. This can be seen throughout the country, so it
would be a waste to use valuable irrigated land for Jatropha, that land is better
used for food crops. (note from author: however the yield can be significantly
higher if irrigated).
Tjerk Scheltema thinks it is much better to modify the oil in Tanzania itself so the
local people can profit from the technology and buy fuel for their car, etc.. This is
in contrast with the view of Hans Baart, who wants to export the oil and modify it
in the Netherlands.

3.6.2 CombiFleur

Location: Arusha
Talked to: director; Hans Baart

Introduction
CombiFleur is a flower company. The Jatropha activities with Ruud van Eck
started in April 2004. In December 2004 they got a subsidy from the Ministry of
Economic Affairs of the Netherlands. The conditions for this kind of subsidy
were:
* being innovative
* creating an economic impulse for the region
* creating employment

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Expectations
At first the idea (with Ruud van Eck from Diligent) was to plant 10,000 ha with
Jatropha themselves, but at a later stage they agreed it was better to invest in
knowledge instead of in capacity. So now they leave the planting to their
outgrowers with whom they were working already. When farmers ask for more
money, they will just have to wait and eventually they will sell them for 80 or 85
shillings anyway. Demand for diesel will always be there. The modified oil is
better.

3.6.3 VassoAgro

Location: near Moshi

Date of Visit: April 13th 2005
Talked to: Fons Nijenhuis

Introduction
VassoAgro is a flower company owned by a Dutchman named Fons Nijenhuis.
The farm consists of 100 ha of land in the Moshi region. They mainly export
flower seeds and cuttings to the Netherlands. Also, the government requires 40%
of the land to be planted with coffee. There are some large greenhouses on the
plot. The plot is surrounded by other plots, mainly owned by a cooperative of
villagers. Eight months ago they were given some seeds (9kg) by Tjerk
Scheltema of ArushaCuttings to gain some experience with Jatropha. The seeds
were derived from farmers in the region where ArushaCuttings was active (e.g.
near Arusha National Park). It is not clear what kind of variety of Jatropha this
was. Fons Nijenhuis has much land available, therefore Tjerk came to him. The
idea is to plant Jatropha as a hedge and on some marginally used plots of land
(e.g. on a slope near the river), Jatropha will remain a by-product for VassoAgro.
The surrounding land is owned by cooperatives; they will have to be pushed
somewhat to start planting too. Fons Nijenhuis himself will lead the new project
to establish company Diligent Tanzania in Moshi, which will use the seeds for oil
production.

Actors
Ruud van Eck from Diligent and Hans Baart from Combifleur got into contact
with each other. Hans Baart is in Tanzania 10 days a month on average and
already knew Tjerk Scheltema from ArushaCuttings and Fons Nijenhuis from
VassoAgro. If Ruud van Eck did not plan to set up a factory in Moshi, they

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would never have started planting Jatropha. The employees are from the Chagga
tribe (but some are mixed with Masaai). There is another partner involved, a
Tanzanian who has been a friend of Fons Nijenhuis for a long time. He knows
his way around at the government level and knows who to go to for licences, etc.

Economic Analysis
Inputs: Seeds were free
Land is rented for a minimum period of 30 years
Labour costs for planting, irrigating and harvesting; unknown
Outputs: 85 shilling per kg will be paid by Diligent

Barriers
The Chagga people think they already know all there is to know and are very
reserved in trying out new things. You cannot push them too hard, they slowly
have to get used to it.
Enough land has to be available. Most land in this region is owned by
cooperatives. All members then have to agree on Jatropha. These cooperatives
consist of large groups which, for example, all help one day to harvest or to weed.
Water has to be available.

Lessons
Lessons so far are mainly on the ‘growing’ of Jatropha.
After 6-8 months the seedlings in the nursery should be replanted to their
permanent spot. If this is done later, the taproot will be destroyed and the plant
will not establish properly. This was learned because plants were replanted after a
longer time and they did not grow properly, remaining very small (although this
could also be caused by marginal soil or the fact that those plants were also given
fertilisers; it is unclear whether they need this).
Jatropha planted in marginal soil does not establish properly. It was planted on a
slope, could be that the temperature at night is too low (this area is under the
influence of Mount Kilimanjaro, which creates a somewhat colder atmosphere at
night/in the early morning).
You have to have someone involved who knows his way around at the govern-
ment level.

Expectations
Predicted yield is reported at 1500 kg/acre, but this seems to be on the positive
side.
Big money can be made by exporting the oil to the Netherlands; if this was not the
case they would not have thought about it.

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3.6.4 Farmer Ismael Manang

Location: one hour from Arusha
Date of Interview: April 27th 2005

Introduction
Ismael Manang is working a farm of 1500 acres, Multiflower already had contact
with this farmer. On this farm they grow maize and beans and keep cattle and
goats. About two months ago (March 2005) they started the activities for planting
80 acres with Jatropha. The funding for this was given by Multiflower/Diligent
(Tjerk Scheltema) who pre-financed the farmer with TZS 400,00059 (a barrel of
200 litres of diesel and some money for other expenses). Six weeks ago 75 acres
were planted by just sowing seeds, and 5 acres by planting cuttings. Trenches of
2x2 m were made by a tractor with a plough, pegs with ropes were used to mark
a straight line for the tractor driver. The Jatropha seeds (two per hole) were
planted at the junctions of the trenches. A small nursery (now 8 weeks old) will
provide seedlings for the places were the Jatropha seeds did not germinate.

Actors
Ismael Manang, the farmer (he is well-educated; formerly he worked for an
NGO)
Tjerk Scheltema on behalf of Diligent.

Economic analysis
Ismael Manang has provided a detailed list with all expenses for one acre of
Jatropha, see Table A-7. As the farmer is currently in the first year of planting, he
has made an estimate for the expenses for later years.
These are the minimal expenses based on a positive scenario; there is always a
possibility that they will have to do more weeding or so on, which would cause
the expenses to rise. Also, it might turn out to be necessary to have an irrigation
system; of course this would increase the expenses heavily.
So far the seeds (245 kg) have been obtained free. Tjerk Scheltema provided
him with 200 kg (which he bought from several villagers for TZS 80/kg, total
TZS 16,000 (€12), and 45 kg were given to him by other villagers. He has been
given about TZS 400,000 in advance by Tjerk Scheltema to cover some ex-
penses, like two times a barrel of 200 litres of diesel. The other means of finance
are the profits from other products of this (big) farm. No loan was necessary.

59
≈ € 285,-

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Table A-7 Jatropha expenses, Ismael Manang
Expenses per acre,60 first year TZS
* Pegs 140 pieces (costs are for labour, pegs are made of wood) 1,000
* Paint (for the pegs) ½ litre 450
* Painting of pegs, labour charge 1,000
* Seed sowing 1,000
* Seeds 35x35=1225 (2 per hole) x2=2450 no charges yet
* Diesel for tractor 6,5 litres, to make trenches 6,500
* Survey team, 1 supervisor + 4 people TZS 3200+1000 4,200
* weeding 3 times a year (2 times spot-weeding, 1time complete)
TZS 4000 for complete weeding, 2500 for spot-weeding x2=5000 9,000
* Equipment; brush (1000,-), tape measure (6000,-), hammer (5000,-),
sisal rope (2500,-), panga (machete to clear the area) (3000,-), total:
17,600 for 80 acres, per acre: 220
Total per acre 23,370
Total 80 acres 1,869,600

Expenses for 2nd year
Weeding 9,000

Expenses for 3rd year to η year
Weeding 9000
Picking seeds 4500
Total 13,500

To make an economic analysis, several assumptions are necessary:
Yield: 3-5 tons/ha61
The seeds will be sold for TZS 80, so this will generate TZS 240,000 -400,000 per
hectare. For the whole 33 ha plot, this means revenue of TZS 7,920,000 –
13,200,000.
First two years without yield, in 3rd year 50% yield, 75% in 4th year and 100% in
5th year.
Interest rate: 14%62

Table A-8 presents an economic analysis is made for 80 acres of Jatropha during
five years.

60
2.4 acre = 1 hectare
61
From best estimates made by experts in Tanzania a good estimate for the yield is 3-5 tons/ha/year.
62
This is the medium- and long-term interest rate charged by commercial banks. Source:
30th 2005.

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Table A-8 Economic analysis for 80 acres of Jatropha
Year Expenses Revenue Profit Discounted US Dollars63
(TZS) (TZS) (TZS) cash flow (USD)
0 1,869.500 0 -1,869,500 -1,869,500 -$1,700
1 9000 0 -9,000 -8,199 -$7
2 13,200 3,960,000 to 3,946,800 to 3,275,495 to $2,978 to $4,970
6,600,000 6,586,800 5,466,461
3 13,200 5,940,000 to 5,926,800 to 4,480,927 to $4,074 to $6,795
9,900,000 9,886,800 7,474,866
4 13,200 7,920,000 to 7,906,800 5,445,832 to $4,951 to $8,257
13,200,000 to 13,186,800 9,082,448

The following economic parameters can be derived:
NPV: 11,324,556 to 20,146,076 ($10,295 to $18,315)
IRR: 113% to 157%
BCR: 7 to 12 PBP: between 2 and 3 years

Conclusion: large profits, all parameters are positive.

Barriers
Money for the farmer:, it will take some time before the Jatropha starts to make
some money, in the meantime the farmer has some expenses.

Lessons
30% of seeds did not germinate (because they were not sorted, normally seeds for
sowing have to be sorted)
spot-weeding is enough for the moment, but before drought it is necessary to
weed completely because Maasai herders will come to the field to graze their
cattle.
Lessons in future on: pruning (when and at what height is the best), fertiliser,
water, weeding. Some of the land will receive irrigation, some not, thereby les-
sons can be learnt on how to deal exactly with this plant.

Expectations
Many things will have to be learnt in the future: is fertiliser necessary, is pruning
necessary, is irrigation necessary?

Expectation is that irrigation is not necessary. The rains were good this year so
they already received a lot of water.

63
1 USDollar = TZS 1100 (May 2005)

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3.6.5. Farmers around Arusha National Park

Location: near Arusha National Park.

René Geelhoed and Bianca van Haperen are working on the Tanzanian Vegetable
Seed Programme (TVSP). They are trying to raise the income of Tanzanian
farmers by spreading adapted and tested varieties of vegetables and teaching
them new technologies. They travel in the Arusha region to demonstrate and train
the farmers. While travelling, René Geelhoed crosses a region where the Jatropha
plant is traditionally used as a hedge. When he passes the farmers he shows them
which kind of seeds he wants and after one hour the farmers deliver their seeds to
him. He pays them TZS 80per kg. The seeds are for ArushaCuttings/Diligent.
About one year ago Kakute also passed through this area and asked the farmers
to collect seeds for them. They told them they would pay 200 shilling per kg, but
never returned. When René was passing through this area again, the farmers
began to ask for more money for their seeds.

Lessons
You have to show up regularly and keep promises, otherwise the people will not
trust you any more.
There is a chance that people will start to ask for more money for the seeds

3.6.6 Farmers around Dar-es-Salaam

A group of 11 farmer-leaders from the Pwani region have come to the office of
Multiflower/Diligent. They were very enthusiastic about starting to plant
Jatropha and selling the seeds to Diligent. Each farmer-leader represents about 30
farmers and each has about 5-10 acres available for Jatropha. Their main crop
until now was cashewnuts, but the price for this crop has fallen and they were
looking for another crop. In total they will have 330*5=1650-3300 acres
available for Jatropha plantations. According to Julius (employee of Diligent/-
Multiflower responsible for the Jatropha activities) Jatropha grows very well
where cassava and cashew grow well; this is because they are drought-resistant
crops.

Lesson
Local people are positive about the potential of Jatropha.

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3.7. Kakute
Location: Arusha
Date of visit and interview with Ms Edith April 15th 2005
Date of visit and interview with Mr. Albert Mshanga April 26th 2005

Introduction
Kakute Ltd. is a private company, with Mr. Manyanga as the director. It was
established in 1995 and has been engaged in a variety of activities in the field of
rural technologies. Some of their services include oil-seed processing, low-cost
housing, new and renewable energies, etc. There is close collaboration with
several NGOs, such as Heifer. Subsidies are only given to NGOs, not to private
companies. They support several women’s groups in the region, 32 in total, as
well as several schools. The activities in the schools and women’s groups vary
from starting nurseries or Jatropha plantations to oil-expelling and soap-making
activities. Kakute is sponsored by the McKnight Foundation. Mr. Albert is a field
officer who has been working for Kakute for three years and is responsible for 17
women’s groups in the Monduli district. Kakute is involved in promotion of
Jatropha by organising seminars, providing training, designing/researching and
selling cooking stoves, oil lamps and ram-presses. They are the leading company
in the Jatropha sector in Tanzania at the moment; most projects run through them
and an increasing network of interested persons and NGOs enables them to
disseminate the Jatropha knowledge. For example, they got an order for 3 tonnes
of seeds from Malawi; D1 oils Ltd, 2 German companies and Americans have
also shown interest. As Kakute is a private company, they are also trying to make
a profit. What they do currently is buy seeds from one group and sell them to
others, according to Bukaza Chachage.
Karanga Suger Estate is currently planting Jatropha, 20 ha, D1 oils is involved
here.

Actors
Mr. Manyanga is the director of Kakute as well as the director of Heifer. Several
other NGOs, such as TaTEDO, Faida-MaLi, UNDP cross-border project, etc., are
partners of Kakute. The Jatropha activities are sponsored by the McKnight
Foundation, this is why women’s groups are supported (condition by McKnight).
Oil lamps are sold for TZS 1700 each. The factory only produces on demand,
and has a capacity of about 1000 lamps/year. They are made from small Africafe
tins.

137

3.7.1 Monduli women’s group

Location: Monduli

Introduction
16 women are working together to maintain a nursery in Monduli (which is
located at an altitude of 1700 m). Even before Kakute got into contact with them
they were selling seedlings of ‘cash trees’ like fruit trees and wood trees.
Because Kakute is now involved, they have also started selling Jatropha
seedlings. They sell Jatropha seedlings for about 100 TZS each. Kakute can buy
them for TZS 50 each. Most seedlings are bought by Kakute, not many local
people buy them. They sell about 10,000 seedlings a year. The group also owns
2.5 acres of land, which they hedged off with Jatropha about 3 years ago. The
plants are about 1.5 m high and are starting to produce now; so far they have not
been able to yield, also because the plants were disturbed by Masaai cows. They
buy the Jatropha seeds for the nursery from Kakute. Another NGO, TaTEDO,
has funded a biogas project at the women’s house. A floating drum system was
installed in which they use cow dung as well as Jatropha seed-cake (in mixture of
75/25). The biogas obtained from the system is enough to provide them with fuel
for warming water for tea at breakfast, for lunch and dinner. The Jatropha seed-
cake produces much more biogas than cow dung; the system uses 20 kg of cow
dung a day, which could also be covered by 2 kg of Jatropha cake.

Actors
16 women in the women’s group, Kakute (Mr. Albert Mshanga is field officer for
this district), TaTEDO, which funded the biogas project. TaTEDO also provided
the women’s group with a fuel-efficient stove (which uses firewood).

Economic analysis
Trees sold for TZS 100 (or 50) a tree, 10 thousand a year: 500,000-1,000,000
TZS/year.

Input: Jatropha seeds bought from Kakute: TZS 200/kg
Biogas cooker: TZS 10,000
(Jatropha cooker from Kakute would cost TZS 50,000)

Lessons
The Jatropha seedlings in the nursery were now 6 months old but appeared very
small (see Fugure 34). The women’s group has cut the tap-root because it was
growing too deep into the soil. The women think this will harden the plant and

138

perhaps create more lateral roots. The plants do establish properly, according to
what the women said. Tjerk Scheltema bought some of these seedlings and will
plant them to see if this is true; so far they thought the taproot should not be
destroyed.
Although the women have biogas available, they were cooking with firewood.
When asked why they did not use the biogas cooker they said that they only use it
during rainy season when firewood is not easy to find. Also, when the biogas
cooker was demonstrated, the pressure of the gas seemed quite low; therefore,
cooking water takes a long time. The women said they would be willing even to
pay for the Jatropha cake as it produces much more biogas.
While the altitude in this area is quite high (1700m) and the area is quite dry,
plants will not establish easily and therefore it is better to buy seedligs from a
nursery.
The women wanted a seminar organised for them to explain more about Jatropha.
This seems to be a wish of many people, not only women’s groups but also
farmers; they would rather have a day of lectures in a classroom than actually go
to the field to see what is happening.

3.7.2 Teachers’ College

Location: Monduli

Figure 34 Nursery at Monduli,
Jatropha 6 months old

Introduction
This college gives teacher training to several hundred students, for posting some-
where in the country. Kakute thought this is an excellent way to disseminate the

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Jatropha knowledge (the teachers will spread knowledge of the technology all
throughout the country) and there were environmental groups at this college; so,
they started a Jatropha plantation here. The plantation is about 1 ha, but will be
expanded in the near future. The Jatropha was planted and left without any
management, no weeding and no irrigation. Although the plants were not really
big, they did establish; however, the yield would probably be bigger with proper
management. So far they have not collected seeds. Kakute will show them the
technology for expelling the oil.

Lessons
Weeding and irrigation is not necessary, although it could increase yield.
Around termite hills the soil is more fertile; the termites seem to bring nutrients up
(research on this topic was done by Mr. Albert Mshanga).
Other lessons from Kakute (and Mr. Albert Mshanga)
Maasai women form a special group and are more difficult to persuade to grow
Jatropha. This is because they don’t own the land (owned by men). With mixed
tribes this cultural problem is much less.
A small tight hedge of Jatropha cuttings is necessary to prevent Maasai cows from
damaging small saplings.
In Engaruka, Kakute trained the youth to make oil lamps, but after this knowledge
was passed on, the youth did not do anything with it.
Kakute has a link with a microcredit facility; in Engaruka some farmers got credit
of TZS 50,000 to 100,000 or TZS 500,000.
Recently they installed a screw expeller from China; its capacity is 20 bags x 60
kg/day, 8 hours a day (150 kg/hour).
Swahili name for Jatropha is Mbono Kaburi (graveyard tree)
To modify the engine of a car costs about TZS 600,000, Elsbett, a 2-tank system
with a pre-heater.
A German in Arusha has converted his car; he uses sunflower oil in his engine.
TIRDO in Arusha is now doing research on the Jatropha cooking stove; while the
oil is poisonous, the emissions exhausted while cooking could possibly be
dangerous to health.

3.7.3. Selela Village

Location: 30 km from Mto Mwa Mbu and 30 km from Engaruka (near
Ngorogoro Crater area)
Date of visit: April 26th 2005, May 11th 2005

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Introduction
Kakute’s field officer, Albert, started creating awareness amongst farmers in this
Masaai-village to grow Jatropha here as well. This village is close to Engaruka,
so the villagers here have an example and see it is profitable. Some Jatropha is
traditionally used as a hedge; those trees are already quite big and the villagers
also started to plant Jatropha cuttings along their agricultural fields about 2
months ago. The cuttings came from neighbours with large Jatropha trees. We
had an interview with the assistant village head. He thinks Jatropha will be big in
the future and is going to push his villagers to grow more of it. There are 13
farmer-leaders in this village and they would like to be given a seminar. In the
beginning they will only sell seeds, but perhaps at a later stage they will also try
to expel the oil themselves, as they are doing in Engaruka. He himself owns an
oil lamp; he buys the oil for this lamp in Engaruka village for TZS 2000/litre.
The land in this area is irrigated, so they can start planting Jatropha any time they
want (not necessarily just before the rainy season).
Next time, at the seminar, they will establish a test plot of 1 acre, and hedge
this off with cuttings which they will buy in the neighbourhood.
During another visit, on May 11th, the village ward himself was also very
enthusiastic. Because one of the employers of Multiflower originally comes from
this village, he had already asked the villagers to collect seeds; by this time they
had 6 bags of 60 kg ready. They took into account the transportation costs for
these seeds as they were collected near Engaruka; therefore, this time they did
not agree to the price of 80 TZS, but next time they will.

Economic analysis
The farmer and his wife were picking seeds for the last 1,5 weeks (not con-
stantly). They now have a bag of 20 kg (actually it was probably less, but there
were no scales to weigh them). Diligent will pay him 20x 80= TZS 1600, Kakute
will pay 20 x 150= TZS 3000 (however, because it was the first time Diligent
also paid TZS 3000) This is additional income for the farmer of, on average, 1,5
to 3 days.

Expectations
The village heads and farmer were very enthusiastic and are willing to plant a lot
of Jatropha. The farmer has already started planting 8 acres because he thinks it
will be very profitable.

141

Figure 35 Weighing the seeds

3.7.4 Women’s group, Engaruka

Location: Engaruka
Spoken to: Village head + assistant village head (Simon Solomon)

Introduction
Around Engaruka village a lot of Jatropha has been planted, mostly as a hedge.
Kakute has been active in this village for a long time. They are working with a
women’s group. The group has a ram-press and they make oil (for oil lamps) and
soap. Soon Kakute will install a biogas unit in which the Jatropha seed-cake,
material left after pressing the seeds, can be used. Another possibility for this oil-
cake (it still has a small quantity of oil in it) is pressing the material into bricks.
The bricks can be used for cooking. According to Barriki (employee of Multi-
flower) they are already practising this technique in Engaruka.

Actors
Women’s group, Kakute. During the visit, there were only men busy with press-
ing the oil, so presumably there are also men involved.

Economic analysis
There are two activities in Engaruka, soap-making and seed-picking. (and oil
selling).

142

Soap-making
There are three different ways to get the oil for the process:
Picking seeds and pressing them in a press
Buying seeds and pressing them in a press
Buying Jatropha oil
In Engaruka, a press is available and they are making oil; however, according to
data from Albert (and Henning) they are buying the oil for the soap-making
process. The oil is currently bought from Kakute. Five litres of oil are needed for
60/70 tablets of soap. Other expenses are listed in Table A-9.

Table A-9 Expenses of soap-making, Engaruka
Expenses TZS
Oil (19 litres) TZS 2000 /l 38,000
Caustic soda 5,000/65 pcs 18,500
Wrapping Polythene (3,000/65pcs) 11,000
Labour, 26 hours (soap-making and various -
(16+10) jobs)
Rent for space (for 8 square feet (≈2 m2) 2,000
laying out the soap) TZS 1,000 /day
Total 69,500 ($63)
Source: Henning, 2004

The soap is sold for TZS 500 per piece. They sell about 20 pcs a month to the
villagers and to Kakute, on a yearly basis this is 240 pieces. An economic
analysis is made in Table A-10 for a project lifetime of 5 years and a real interest
rate of 9.8% (see other calculations).
The profit is not really high, but still about one-and-a-half times the average
monthly wage over a year. For 26 hours of work, the profit is TZS 50,500; this is
about TZS 1,950 per hour (almost twice the normal daily payment on average in
Tanzania). The NPV for a project lifetime of 5 years is TZS 211,378 ($192) and
the Benefit/Cost Ratio is 1.73.

Table A-10 Economic analysis of soap-making, oil bought
0 69,500 120,000 50,500 50,500 $46
1 69,500 120,000 50,500 46,005 $42
2 69,500 120,000 50,500 41,911 $38
3 69,500 120,000 50,500 38,180 $35
4 69,500 120,000 50,500 34,782 $32

64

143

They can also press the seeds themselves to obtain the oil. A ram-press (hand-
press) can be bought from Kakute for $250. The ram-press can press 10 litres/-
day; they work 5 hours a day, so 2 litres per hour according to A. Mshanga. The
data from Kakute 2003 (Henning, 2004) mentions 1 litre/hour, so calculations
will be made with 1.5 l/hour.
You need 5 litres for 65 pcs, so about 19 litres of oil per year for 240 pcs. 1
litre can be obtained from about 5 kg of seeds (Henning, 2004) (a ram-press does
not have a good efficiency) so 95 kg of seeds are needed yearly. They can be
obtained from 12 to 24 trees (4-8 kg/tree). For other expenses, see Table A-11.

Table A-11 Expenses of soap-making, including press
Expenses TZS
Seeds 95 kg 0
Labour seed picking (95kg) 2 kg/hour* 48 hour
Ram press Lifetime 5 years 275,000
Labour for pressing (19 l) 1.5 l/hour 13 hour
Labour for filtering the oil 2 l/hour* 10 hour
Other yearly expenses See Table A-9 31,500 26 hour
Total first year 306,500 97 hour
th
Total η year 31,500 97 hour
Source: Henning 2004

The economic analysis is given in Table A-12. The difference with Table A-11 is
the extra investment cost of a ram-press (275,000 TZS) and the lower expenses
because the oil (TZS 38,000) does not have to be bought any more.

Table A-12 Economic analysis of soap-making by pressing seeds
0 306,500 120,000 -186,500 -186,500 -$170
1 31,500 120,000 88,500 807,623 $73
2 31,500 120,000 88,500 73,447 $67
3 31,500 120,000 88,500 66,910 $61
4 31,500 120,000 88,500 60,955 $55
The economic parameters are positive for this project; the NPV is 95,435 TZS ($87), the IRR is
32% and the BCR is 1.23 (>1). The Pay back period is between 3 and 4 years.

65

144

The third option for soap-making is to buy the seeds instead of picking them
yourself. The only change from the last two tables is that the expenses will rise
by (95kg*TZS 80) TZS 7,600 ($7). This will create more chances for ‘seed-
pickers’ to obtain an income. The NPV is TZS 63,623 ($58), the IRR 24%, the
BCR is 1.15 and the Payback Period is 3-4 years, which is the same as when the
seeds are picked free.

Conclusion
All projects make a profit in 5 years’ time. Especially when you look at the
number of hours compared with the profits made, the labour is very profitable.
However, the market is currently too small; with a quantity of 20pcs a month the
additional income and BCR is very low. It is important to try to find ways to
increase the market.
With the selling quantity of 240 pcs it is more profitable to buy oil instead of
buying a press. However, the profits made by pressing your own seeds are higher,
so if quantity of the sold pieces of soap rises, having a press would be the best
option.
The Jatropha cake which is left after the seeds are pressed can be used as a
fertiliser. Cuurently there is insufficient material to sell it as fertiliser to farmers,
but when production increases they will probably ask a price for this material (or
for the biogas sludge). So, instead of only obtaining revenue from selling soap, the
by-products could create extra revenue as well.
Largest share of costs is due to the ram-press; if this press were available through
a subsidy, the profits from soap-making could be substantial. (BCR of 3.8)

Comparison with alternatives:
Price of charcoal: TZS 3000 for a bag which can last for 2 weeks, however, the
majority in this village are using fuelwood, which is collected free.
The price of other soap in this village is TZS 250-350; however, because of
the medicinal properties, people are willing to pay a higher price for this soap.

Seed-picking
The village ward expects a harvest of 300 bags of Jatropha each season; the
Jatropha is growing indigenously but they are currently planting cuttings as a
hedge. The labour for picking the seeds is not included as costs in Table A-13.

Table A-13 Economic analysis of Jatropha seeds, Engaruka (expectations of village
ward)
Jatropha seeds Revenue
300 bags of 60 kg per bag, 2 36,000 kg/year *80=2,880,000
Jatropha each harvests per year TZS/year ($2,618)
season

145

Barriers
Kakute is paying a higher price for the seeds, so in the beginning the villagers
think they are getting paid too little. However, when it is explained to them that
Kakute can only buy a limited amount of seeds and Diligent will pay for any
amount of seeds, whether it is 1 kg or 10,000 kg, they agree.
The problem with Kakute was that they don’t buy seeds on a regular basis; at
some places they told farmers to collect seeds but then never returned, so some
people might be a little sceptical about this foreign company.

Lessons
When passing through Engaruka village, we saw that some of the Jatropha plants
had been pruned. This is not the right season to do this, as the plant can be
harvested in a month’s time. When asked why they were doing this, the village
head said they were not really stimulated to increase production as Kakute has
limited resources. However, the village head said he would right away start telling
people they should not prune the Jatropha now.
At one place near Engaruka, several Jatropha plants, about 30 years old, were
growing. Insects/termites had clearly been affecting one stem of the Jatropha; the
termites had completely eaten the stem at one particular spot and the stem had
broken off (Figure 36). The villagers said they had once tried to trap these
termites and they would try again. In this group of about 5 Jatropha bushes, only
one stem was affected.

Figure 36 Insect damage on Jatropha
stem at Engaruka

Expectations
The villagers and village heads seemed to be really enthusiastic about the idea of
selling Jatropha seeds to Diligent. They really think they can make a lot of money.
Because the rains were not so good during the last years, they now want to plant
Jatropha instead of maize and beans. This indicates that they have a great trust in
the future of Jatropha.
The village ward was not happy with the low capacity of the ram-press; he wants
bigger (electrical) equipment for the expelling process.

146

The village ward said they can harvest 300 bags of Jatropha each season; each bag
contains about 60 kg, so 18,000 kg of Jatropha seeds twice a year if sold to
Diligent would bring a profit of TZS 2,880,000 a year.

3.7.5 AruMeru disctrict with TAF

Location: Moshi
Date of Visit TAF: May 12th 2005
Talked to: Jon-Erik Rehn, Philipina (also see TAF description under
Organisations)

Introduction
The set-up is almost equal to that of the ARI-Monduli project, already executed
by Kakute in the Monduli region. The Jatropha will be grown by women’s
groups (required by McKnight) and the Jatropha seeds will be used to produce
soap and fuel oil; the seed-cake will be used as fertiliser. The goal is to improve
the villagers’ income. McKnight is sponsors this project with 60% of the finance,
Kakute will carry out the fieldwork (implementing, organising, giving training,
etc.), while TAF will be the monitoring organisation. They started in October
2004. Most activities so far have involved writing the proposal for the McKnight
foundation. After the AruMeru district, TAF also wants to work on a similar
project for the Moshi region.
TAF first started promoting Jatropha as a support for vanilla vines. Vanilla
was promoted because they wanted to provide the traditional ‘coffee’ district
with an alternative. Jatropha is often used as a support for this vine; for example,
in Machame. Possibly this is because Jatropha can be established easily. They
gave away 2000 seedlings free in three villages, although not all villagers
accepted the offer. Jatropha does not like shadow; where Jatropha was planted
under banana trees, it did not grow well. So the villagers would have to have a
somewhat open space to plant the Jatropha.

Actors
Kakute and TAF had so far never worked together, so it took some time to
establish a contract which described how the cooperation was going to be worked
out.

147

Economic analysis
The project is 60% funded by the McKnight Foundation; for three years the costs
are USD 238,61366

Comparison with other regimes:
Normal yield for maize is 4-5 bags of 100 kg/acre; this would be enough for one
family for own consumption (3 bags per acre also, depending on season and soil).
The price of maize fluctuates widely, between TZS 6000 and 30,000/bag; cur-
rently, it is TZS 20,000 (so per acre: TZS 80,000-100,000 as profit if maize was
sold)

Lessons
Jon-Erik himself has planted some Jatropha seeds as a test; he planted them just
after the rainy season, so at the start of the dry season. The saplings that were not
given water did not survive. The ones that were
given a small amount of water did survive
(about 80-90% of the total).
Jon-Erik has planted some Jatropha in his
garden as well; it seems to grow well in some
places and not so well in others. Plants as close
as 2 metres from each other planted at the same
time can vary widely in size.
We visited a place where Jatropha was used as
a support for vanilla (see Figure 37); this was a
demonstration site. There were 4 Jatropha
plants, 2 of them were quite big and entwined
by vanilla, but the other two were very small,
with a large vanilla vine around them. It is not
clear whether the vanilla caused the plants to be
smaller than normal. Figure 37 Jatropha used as sup-
Jatropha does not like shadow. port for vanilla vine
Not all people are willing to try something new,
so not all villagers would accept free Jatropha seedlings.

Other remarks:
In the Monduli region a lot of trees were chopped down because the tse-tse fly
was active in this region and people believed they were hiding in the trees.
He price of coffee (which is traditionally grown in the Moshi region) has de-
creased dramatically on the world market, therefore people are looking for new
crops.

66
Word document on 'What is TAF’, 17-11-2004.

148

Jatropha curcas is an indigenous plant, this is very helpful for the adoption
process. What TAF/Kakute is telling people (to plant Jatropha) is not completely
new for them, so they are less sceptical.
In the Harya language (Victoria Lake) Jatropha is called: Mwitankoba or
‘thunder-killer tree’ Every house was supposed to have at least one Jatropha tree
to prevent it from being damaged during a thunder-storm.
In the Jita language (also near Victoria Lake) Jatropha is called Mkarekare.
The traditional use for Jatropha, planting it on a grave, is probably because
Jatropha can establish in any season, so when a person dies Jatropha cuttings are
planted on the grave. Another use for Jatropha is a medicinal one. They break the
leaves at the stem and the milky sap can be rubbed on the skin when there is a cut;
the cut will heal quickly.

3.8 Green Garden Women Group
Location: Moshi
Date of visit: May 12th
Talked to: Mama Leema (Chair of the group)

Introduction
In 1995 the UNDP sponsored a project with the Green Garden Women Group.
They created an energy farm, with timber, woodfuel and fuel-efficient stoves.
The Green Garden Women Group consists of 17 women and together they own 7
acres of land in Machame, a small village near Moshi.
In 2003 they started Jatropha activities after someone from the UNDP told
them about its possibilities. They started a nursery in Machame (there is another
small demonstration nursery in Moshi) and planted two acres, with 800 plants in
total, distance 5x5feet. This plot is irrigated by a constant stream of water
through trenches; the water is derived from a spring. Last January they harvested
for the first time, although the harvest was small. They have a ram-press and
pressed the Jatropha seeds. They have all been to Kakute in Arusha to make soap
at the Kakute factory. The soap is sold to people within the community and small
shops in Moshi. They also sell Jatropha cooking stoves.

Actors
- 17 women of the Green Garden Women Group
- UNDP
- Kakute: the group can use Kakute’s factory to make the soap, but Kakute is not
subsidising them in any other way because Kakute is subsidised itself and does
not have a lot of money (according to Mama Leema).

149

Economic analysis
1 gallon of oil can give 500 pcs of soap
(not correct; data from Kakute and literature mentions something else)
soap is sold for TZS 500.
In the nursery the Jatropha seedlings are sold for TZS 500each.
800 plants on the 2 acres could yield: 800 x 4= 3200 kg to 800x8=6400 kg per
harvest.
So far 2 cooking stoves have been sold, for TZS 12,000 each.The women buy the
stoves from KIDT (says Mama Leema).

Barriers
Mama Leema is not using the Jatropha cooking stove herself, she is afraid that the
smoke might cause health problems. She also does not know anybody who is
using the cooking stove at the moment, although they have sold 2 of them so far.
(one in West Kili and one in Uhuru)
The Swahili name for Jatropha, Mbono Kaburi (graveyard tree) is causing some
scepticism because it is used in graveyards and people have associations with that.

Lessons
The women also planted Jatropha on a 5-acre plot;, there was no supervision, so
this turned out to be a failure. Cows came and destroyed the plants. They did not
use a fence.
The Jatropha soap is a very good medicinal soap. It is used for the body as well as
the face. It has anti-fungal properties. Mama Leema is using it herself a lot;
according to her, Jatropha soap is better than Neem soap and Aloë vera soap.

One of the sale points for the Jatropha soap is the small gift shop at the Kinderoko
Hotel in Moshi. Here they also sell the Neem soap and the Jatropha soap, both for
TZS 1500. According to the shop assistant, not many soap tablets are sold; this
could be due to the fact that the wrapping of the Jatropha soap was of much lower
quality than the ones of the other soaps.

Expectations
Their original plan was to plant 5 acres with Jatropha and 2 acres with Aloë vera.
Money is the problem currently. If they obtained some monetary support, they
would try to plant the 5 acres with Jatropha again, this time with a fence.
If they had the money and proper equipment for soap-making, they would
want to make the soap in Moshi, but until that time they will keep going to
Kakute in Arusha. The Jatropha soap is a really good product, according to
Mama Leema.

150

Figure 38 Nursery for several types of trees, Moshi

Similar regimes
- Charcoal, kerosene and woodfuel are used instead of Jatropha oil as fuel for cooking
stoves.
- Similar to Jatropha soap is Neem soap and Aloë vera soap, although the Jatropha soap
has the strongest medicinal properties. Normal soap in Moshi costs about TZS 250, the
Jatropha soap is twice this price but people are willing to pay that. Neem soap and Aloë
vera soap have the same price as Jatropha soap.
- A lot of sisal is growing in this region, it is often used as a hedge. Because even
Jatropha cuttings take some time to establish, sisal could be planted to keep the cows
away from the Jatropha saplings.

3.9 KIDT
Location: Moshi
Talked to: Frank A. Elise

Introduction
For a description of KIDT, see section on organi-
sations. The women of the Green Garden Women
Group brought a prototype of their Jatropha cook-
ing stove to KIDT (see Figure 39). It was not Figure 39 Jatropha cooking
working properly. KIDT increased the air intake, stove at KIDT
but it still did not work properly, due to the high

151

viscosity of the oil. KIDT was not able to continue the tests because no more
Jatropha oil was available.

Actors
- Green Garden Women Group
- KIDT
- UNIDO

Economic analysis
The Jatropha cooking stove will cost TZS 20,000.

Alternative:
A charcoal stove: TZS 15,000
Charcoal: US$ 0.16/kg (data from KIDT)
Kerosene: US$ 0.75/kg
Briquettes: US$ 0.08/kg

Barriers
Viscosity of the oil
Availability of Jatropha oil

Lessons/expectations
According to Mr. Frank A. Elise, the viscosity of the pure Jatropha oil is too high
to make good burning in stoves possible. The oil is like raw natural oil. It would
be better to modify the oil into biodiesel.

3.10 YAHUMU Trust
Location: Morogoro
Talked to: Mary Elfasi

This is a company subsidised and set up in 1999 by FAKT, a German company.
They developed a press, The Sayari oil-expeller (see Figure 41), which can press
a variety of seeds. They sell machinery and spare parts, and they also have a
press at their factory where you can get your seeds pressed for a fee. The aim of
Vyahumu trust is not to make a lot of money but to meet the needs of the
farmers.

152

They support individuals and groups to establish and operate oil mills and
provide oil-expelling services to farmers to improve the economic returns of
small oil-seed farmers.67
The machine was designed in Germany and Vyahumu has the licence. The
manufacturing is done in several workshops all over the country.
They do not make a lot of profit on sales of the machine, since the manu-
facturers get the lion’s share. Building one machine took about one week when
they had a lot of orders, now that it is much more quiet it takes about one month.

Figure 40 Examples of different Figure 41 Sayari oil-expeller
seeds at Vyahumu

They have had Jatropha orders from Iringa, Mbeya and Malawi.
They had samples in the office of several varieties of seeds and oil (see Figure
40), for example: Neem, safflower, sunflower, groundnut, moringe and castor.
The castor seeds are very much like Jatropha seeds.
The seeds that are not for consumption (Neem, castor, Jatropha) are pressed
separately from the edible seeds.
The machine can use either electricity or diesel fuel, depending on what the
customer wants.
In July last year FAKT stopped subsidising Vyahumu. Now money is a
problem. Before this, 9 people were working at Vyahumu, now 7. The director
lives in Arusha, only when there are problems does he come to Morogoro.
You first have to filter the oil before it can be used.
At the time of this visit, it was the rainy season and therefore it was very quiet in
the- factory; but Mrs Elfasi said that after harvest time it would be very busy.
So far nobody has bought the expeller with the purpose of expelling Jatropha
seeds. Someone (a white man) came a few months ago to get 5kg of Jatropha
seeds pressed.

67
This information is derived from the website http://www.Jatropha.de

153

Economic analysis
Price of the machine: TZS 3.5 million.
Pressing sunflower seeds: TZS 60/kg (quicker than other seeds, so less electricity
or diesel).
Pressing of other seeds: TZS 90/kg.
Lifetime of the machine: according to Peter, who built the machine, for
planning purposes it is safe to take 5 years. However, Ms. Mary said the first
machines they built 6 years ago are still working very well and the lifetime can
be more than 10 years, if properly managed.

Table A-14 Test result of the Sayari expeller with Jatropha seeds
Cone (mm) Seed quantity Time taken Oil yield (kg) Seed quantity/ Oil seedcake
(kg) (min) Oil yield (%) (kg)
90 59 45 15 0.25 41
96 71 43 12 0.17 59
98 193 150 60 0.31 148

From the test results in Table A-14, it appears that the expeller has a capacity
of about 75-100 kg seeds/hour or 17-24 litres/hour. A larger cone seems to give a
higher oil yield.

Barriers
Money, currently Vyahumu is looking for new funds.

Lessons
The hulls of Jatropha seeds are quite hard, but pressing in the Sayari oil expeller
went very well; cone adjustment is necessary.
Most people are very satisfied with the machine; if the machine breaks down, it is
mostly because it was used improperly.
The quality of the seeds is very important; when the seeds are old, they yield less
oil, but if you use fresh seeds the yield is quite high. Drying and maturity are
important.
To test the assumption of Jatropha oil as a diesel fuel, they tried the Jatropha oil in
their own machine; it worked well.

154

Appendix III
Contact addresses

University of Dar es Salaam
P.O. Box 35091, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Tel: +255 (022) 2410500/p
Website: www.udsm.ac.tz
Mr. Kibazohi
Mob: ##
Email: kibazohi@yahoo.com

TaTEDO
P.O. Box 32794
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Tel: +255-22-2700771/2700438
Website: www.tatedo.org
Executive director: Mr. E.N. Sawe
Email: energy@tatedo.org

Faida Market Link Co. Ltd.
Off. Barabara ya Afrika Mashariki
P.O. Box 13869
Arusha, Tanzania
Tel: 027-2503549
Agri-Business Officer: Mr Stephen Kijazi
Email: Stevenkijazi@yahoo.com

TAF
Tanzania Association of Foresters
P.O. Box 1925
Moshi
Tel/Fax: 027-2754033
Email: tafinfo@kilinet.co.tz
Jon-Erik Rehn
Mob: ##
Email: ##
KIDT
P.O. Box 7322, Moshi-Tanzania
Tel: 255-27-2752401
Email: kidt@kilinet.co.tz
Mr. Frank A Elise
Mob: ##

FINCA

155

P.O. Box 78783
Ali Hassan Mwinyi Road, Upanga
Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania
Managing Director: Felistas Coutinho
Tel: +255-22-2131092/3
Email: cfelistas@hotmail.com

TIRDO
Kimweri Avenue, Msasani
P.O. Box 23235
Website: http://www.sdnp.undp.org/tirdo/
Eng. Daniel Makundi
Senior Research and Development officer
Email: makundi@gmail.com
Phone office: +255-22-2668822

KIUMMA project
Fred Heimbach
Website: http://www.jatropha.de/tanzania/kiuma/kiumma-project.htm
Email: fred.heimbach@t-online.de

Bukaza Chachage
P.O. Box 31668
Tel home: ##
Mobile: ##
Email: bukaza@avu.org
Malcolm Doherty
Tel: ##
Email: Malcolm@thegreenpages.ca

Kikuletwa Farm
TPC, Tanzania
Peter Burland
Tel: ##
burland@supanet.com

Washiriki
Website: http://www.washiriki.org
Contact persons: Harry Kuijpers, Mark van den Bosch
Email: Harry@washiriki.org and Mark@washiriki.org
Brotherhood of Jesus the Good Shepherd (contact Washiriki)
Email: ##
Contactperson; brother Moses: Tel: ##

Diligent Energy Systems
Director: Ruud van Eck
Email: Ruud.van.eck@diligent.nl
Tel: 0031-40-2364322
Website: www.diligent.nl
Tjerk Scheltema

156

Email: ##
Tel: ##
Fons Nijenhuis
Email: ##
Tel: ##
Julius Nambua
Email: nambua@arushacutting.com
Tel: (+255)0744918929

Farmer Ismael Manang
Arusha district, Tanzania
Tel: ##
Email: ismanang@yahoo.com

Kakute
Mr. Manyanga, Director
Tel: (+255)0744-662646
Email: Kakute@tz200.com

Albert S. Mshanga, Field officer
Tel: +255-27-2544549
Mob: ##
Email: albao2000us@yahoo.com

VYAHUMU Trust
P.O. Box 189
Tel: 255-23-2600391
Kihonda Industrial Area
Morogoro, Tanzania
Email: vyahumu@hotmail.com

Other addresses:

Tanzania Werkgroep Tilburg
Jos Peeters
Marga Geenemans
Email: tanzania@coswmbrabant.nl

Government of Tanzania
Mr. Mwihava, Assistant Commissioner
Tel: 0744-464037

Prof. Udipi Shrinivasa
SuTRA
Indian Institute of Science
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bangalore 560 012
Email: udipi@mecheng.iisc.ernet.in

157

Appendix IV
Interview questions

Project
- What is the main goal of the project?
- What are the activities of the project?
- When did you start your activities?
- Have the activities expanded over time? Try to indicate production / sales trend.
- Who are involved, & who is/are the leading actor(s)? (groups, persons,
institutions). Who took the initiative to start this project (is it mainly a top-down
initiative or initiated by the local people themselves?
- How did you get to know about the possibilities of Jatropha?
- With whom did you get in contact to access more information on Jatropha, the
seeds etc.?
- For which purposes will you be using Jatropha, as diesel substitution, like soap
production, oil lamps etc.?

Economic
- What did you pay for the seeds, to establish the first round of Jatropha?
- What other expenses did you have for the first batch (labour, pressing equip-
ment, transport, land rent, other costs).
- What do you expect the costs will be for the next batch (when the first batch has
generated enough seeds to expand).
- How much earnings, sales revenue, from selling Jatropha products (specify per
batch, or month, or year, as well as possible seasonal fluctuations)? (or if for own
use, how much cost reduction (idem))
- Did you require any loan/credit in order to start your project? If yes, how much,
and appr. how long will you need before you can repay?

Actors
- Were there other actors involved during the lifetime of the project? (Maybe
some disappeared > if so pl. indicate why they left or some entered at a later
point in time)
- Could you describe the actors involved as being part of a network?
- Do you still miss some important actors in your project (car producers, govern-
ment, customers? etc).

158

- How did the network between the actors develop? Did they know each other
before entering this project? Where there, or are there still, problems during the
project between them?

Barriers
- What are or were the barriers throughout the project (at start-up, and later on)?
For example:
- lack of markets
- problems with technology
- problems with seed supply
- financing problems
- labour problems
- cultural problems (lack of risk-taking entrepreneurs)
- regime: to strong lobby from oil companies or agricultural organisations
- lack of adequate government support etc. etc.
- How do other actors regard your activities?
- Did you notice a resistance, or critical questions from persons or groups?

Lessons
- What are the most important lessons so far?
- In technical areas
- On infrastructure/ logistics
- On social impact
- On policies
- Organisational & institutional issues in the project itself (incl. networking).
- On how to develop a market / compete with established products.

Expectations
- Did the expectations you had at the beginning of the project come out right? Or
where they changed (slightly) during the process? If so, were actions taken to
improve things or change project activities?
- Did your project generate a discussion, are more people talking about it? And
will the project create a spin-off? Or competition?
- How do you think the future for Jatropha in Tanzania will develop? And how
do you see the role played by your project in this?

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economy, accessed July 2005
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August 2005

ASC BOOK PUBLICATIONS

Copies of all the publications listed below in the new African Studies Collection and the
earlier Research Reports Series may be ordered from:

Email: asc@ascleiden.nl
Tel: +31 (0)71 527 3490
Fax: +31 (0)71 527 3344

Check the ASC website [www.ascleiden.nl] under Publications for prices.

African Studies Collection
Volumes to date:

1 World and experiences of AIDS orphans in north central Namibia
Mienke van der Brug (2007)
2 “Ask and you shall be given”: Pentecostalism and the economic crisis in
Cameroon
Robert Mbe Akoko (2007)
3. Transition towards Jatropha biofuels in Tanzania? An analysis with Strategic
Niche Management
Janske van Eijck (2007)

Publications still available in the Research Reports Series
85 Microfinance, rural livelihoods, and women’s empowerment in Uganda
Alfred Lakwo (2006)
84 Trade liberalization and financial compensation. The BLNS states in the wake of
the EU-South African trade and development agreement
Sam van der Staak (2006)
83 The rock art of Mwana wa Chentcherere II rock shelter, Malaŵi. A site-specific
study of girls’ initiation rock art
Leslie F. Zubieta (2006)
82 Bibliography on Islam in contemporary Sub-Saharan Africa
Paul Schrijver (2006)
81 Bridging the urban-rural divide: Multi-spatial livelihoods in Nakuru town, Kenya
Samuel Ouma Owuor (2006)
80 Bleak prospects: Young men, sexuality and HIV/AIDS in an Ethiopian town
Getnet Tadele (2006)
79 “The angel of death has descended violently among them.” Concentration camps
and prisoners-of-war in Namibia, 1904-08
Casper Erichsen (2005)

164

78 Sahelian pathways. Climate and society in Central and South Mali
Mirjam de Bruijn, Han van Dijk, Mayke Kaag & Kiky van Til (eds) (2005)
77 Gacaca: Grassroots justice after genocide. The key to reconciliation in Rwanda?
Arthur Molenaar (2005)
76 The assertion of rights to agro-pastoral land in North Cameroon: A cascade to
violence?
Ruth Noorduyn (2005)
75 Urban agriculture in Tanzania: Issues of sustainability
Dick Foeken, Michael Sofer & Malongo Mlozi (2004)
74 “We’re managing!” Climate change and livelihood vulnerability in Northwest
Ghana
Kees van der Geest (2004)
73 Community-based conservation in an entitlement perspective. Wildlife and forest
conservation in Taita, Kenya
James Gichiah Njogu (2004)
72 Witchcraft and policing. South Africa Police Service attitudes towards witchcraft
and witchcraft-related crime in the Northern Province
Riekje Pelgrim (2003)
71 The solidarity of self-interest. Social and cultural feasibility of rural health
insurance in Ghana
Daniel K. Arhinful (2003)
70 Recent advances in coastal ecology. Studies from Kenya
Jan Hoorweg & Nyawira Muthiga (eds) (2003)
69 Structural adjustment: Source of structural adversity. Socio-economic stress,
health and child nutritional status in Zimbabwe
Leon Bijlmakers (2003)
68 Resisting reforms. A resource-based perspective of collective action in the
distribution of agricultural input and primary health services in the Couffo region,
Benin
Houinsou Dedehouanou (2003)
67 Women striving for self-reliance. The diversity of female-headed households in
Tanzania and the livelihood strategies they employ
Anke van Vuuren (2003)
66 Démocratisation en Afrique au sud du Sahara: Transitions et virage. Un bilan de
la littérature (1995-1996)
Klaas van Walraven & Céline Thiriot (2002)
65 Democratization in sub-Saharan Africa: Transitions and turning points. An
overview of the literature (1995-1996)
Klaas van Walraven & Céline Thiriot (2002)
64 Sharing a valley. The changing relations between agriculturalists and pastoralists
in the Niger Valley of Benin
Antje van Driel (2001)
63 Pathways to negotiate climate variability. Land use and institutional change in the
Kaya region, Burkina Faso
Mark Breusers (2001)

165

62 “We think of them.” How Ghanaian migrants in Amsterdam assist relatives at
home
Daniel K. Arhinful (2001)
61 Pastoralists and markets. Livestock commercialization and food security in north-
eastern Kenya
Abdirizak A. Nunow (2000)
60 Rural development and agricultural policy in central western Zambia. The case of
Kaoma-Nkeyema tobacco scheme
K. Hailu (2000)
59 Secrecy and ambiguity. Home care for people living with HIV/AIDS in Ghana
Maud Radstake (2000)
58 Urban agriculture in Africa: A bibliographical survey
R.A. Obudho & Dick Foeken (1999)
57 Changing security. Livelihood in the Mandara Mountains in North Cameroon
Annette van Andel (1998)
56 Catholic mission, colonial government and indigenous response in Kom
(Cameroon
Jacqueline de Vries (1998)
55 Eritreo-Ethiopian studies in society and history: 1960-1995.
A supplementary bibliography
Jan Abbink (1996)
54 Commodity auctions in Tropical Africa. A survey of the African tea, tobacco and
coffee auctions
John Houtkamp & Laurens van der Laan (1993)
53 Land and labour in Myjikenda agriculture, Kenya, 1850-1985
Henk Waaijenberg (1993)
52 Democratisation en Afrique au Sud du Sahara. Un aperçu de la litterature
Rob Buijtenhuijs & Elly Rijnierse (1993)
51 Democratization in Sub-Saharan Africa. An overview of literature
Rob Buijtenhuijs & Elly Rijnierse (1993)
50 Women in Bamenda. Survival strategies and acces to land
Adri van den Berg (1993)
49 Pratiques foncières à l’ombre du droit. L’application du droit foncier urbain à
Ziguinchor, Sénégal
Gerti Hesseling (1992)
48 Power and privilege in the administration of law. Land law reforms and social
differentiation in Cameroon
Cyprien Fisiy (1992)
47 Staatsvorming, rurale ontwikkeling en boeren in Guiné-Bissau
H. Schoenmaker (1991)
44 Popular Islam in Tunisia
Kees Schilder (1991)
43 Seasons, food supply and nutrition in Africa
Dick W.J. Foeken & Adel P. den Hartog (eds) (1990)

166

42 Socio-economic development of women in Zambia
A. Touwen (1990)
41 Enduring crisis, refugee problems in Eastern Sudan
Henk Tieleman & Tom Kuhlman (1990)
40 Marketing policies and economic interests in the cotton sector of Kenya
Tjalling Dijkstra (1990)
39 The IMF-World Bank's stabilisation and structural adjustment policies and the
Uganda economy, 1981-1989
D.W. Nabudere (1990)
38 Economic management in neo-colonial states: A case study of Cameroon
N. Jua (1990)
34 Aspects of the Apartheid state. A bibliographical survey
Ineke van Kessel (1989/91)
33 Scenes of change: Visions on developments in Swaziland
Henk Tieleman (ed.) (1988)
32 State formation, religion and land tenure in Cameroon.
A bibliographical survey
Kees Schilder (1988)
30 Irriguer pour subsister
Geert Diemer & E. van der Laan (1987)
29 Economic management in Cameroon: Policies and performance
W.A. Ndongko (1987)
28 Leven en werken in een Nyakyusa dorp
Nel van Hekken (1986)
27 Muslims in Mango
Emile van Rouveroy van Nieuwaal (1986)
25 West African colonial civil servants in the nineteenth century
Kwame Arhin (1985)
24 Staatsvorming in Guiné-Bissau
J.H. Schoenmakers (1986)
23 Producer prices in Tropical Africa
Paul Hesp (1985)

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