Caribstudiesmodule1notes

Carib Studies Module 1 Notes
This is a relatively brief compilation of
Caribbean Studies notes for CAPE from
no less than 5 separate sources. I was
feeling quite awesome today.

Expected Learning Outcomes
1. Locate and define the Caribbean using
certain criteria
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
using different criteria:
geographical, historical, geological and
political in helping to define the Caribbean
3. Address Culture and Society as issues related
to the definition and location of a region
4. Identify territories in the Caribbean

Location of the Caribbean
• Greater Antilles: Cuba, Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic),
Jamaica, Puerto Rico
• Lesser Antilles:
• Windward islands: Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, Guadeloupe,
Dominica, Martinique
• Leeward islands: Antigua and Barbuda, St. Kitts-Nevis, Montserrat,
Anguilla, Virgin islands
• Netherland Antilles: Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao (ABC"islands); Saint
Marten,
• Saba, St. Eustatius
• Mainland Territories: Guyana, Belize, Suriname, Cayenne (French
Guyana)
• Others: Barbados, Trinidad & Tobago, Cayman Islands, Bahama
Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands

Geographical Definition
• Geographically the Caribbean is defined as the land
area which has its coastline washed by the Caribbean
Sea
• This would mean that the Greater and Lesser Antilles,
the Cayman Islands and the islands of the Netherland
Antilles all belong to the Caribbean. By this definition
Turks and Caicos Islands and the Bahamas would
however be excluded from the Caribbean. It would also
include Belize, Colombia, Venezuela, Costa Rico;
Panama, Nicaragua and Honduras and exclude the
mainland territories of Suriname, Guyana and French
Guiana

Historical Definition
• This is the area colonized by European powers
(Spanish, British, French and Dutch) and which has been
deeply affected by the brand of European Colonialism. The
Spanish through the Encomienda system and other means
exterminated the original inhabitants. The British
introduced the plantation system and with it, the
enslavement of Africans and the indentureship of the
Chinese and East Indians. The Dutch and French not only
colonized but were involved in an ongoing trade within the
region. It has become common way to identify the
Caribbean based on the experience of specific European
colonialism.
• Within this historic; context has arisen a multiracial society
with marked social stratification and racial hybridization.

Geological Definition
• The Caribbean is seen as that area of the region defined by the
Caribbean Plate and which therefore experiences the same
tectonic, seismic and volcanic features and processes. The lands of
the Caribbean are said to be formed from earth movements called
Plate Tectonics.
• The smaller Caribbean plate moved under the North American
plate to be re-melted in the earth's mantle causing volcanic
activities and consequently the formation of the Greater and Lesser
Antilles. The islands in this Caribbean chain are believed to be the
tops of submerged mountains linked to the Andean mountain
range in Central America. There is a rich variety of landscape
features in the Caribbean as a result of the structure of the islands
and mainland’s.
• All the mainland territories of the region have high mountain
ranges, large rivers and vast areas of lowland.

Geographical Definition
• With the exception of Cuba, all the continental islands of the Greater Antilles are
mountainous. Cuba has wide elevated plains (plateaus) over 1000m in altitude. In
the Greater Antilles there are also many low-lying alluvial plains and steep
limestone hills with caves. The rivers on these plains are not very large and many
disappear underground.
• The smaller volcanic islands of the Eastern Caribbean are also rugged and
mountainous. Volcanic eruptions have occurred on some of these islands in the
past (Mt Pelee). Recently there have been eruptions in St Vincent and Montserrat.
These eruptions have caused much damage to surrounding settlements. Volcanic
islands have a good water supply and deep fertile soils. The rugged
mountains, narrow valleys and swift flowing streams make beautiful scenery.
• The Limestone islands are built up from the skeletal remains of coral polyps in the
warm Caribbean Sea. These islands are flat with no large rivers and very few lakes.
Soils on limestone rock lack depth and are mostly infertile. Some of the limestone
islands like Barbados are raised high above sea level. Many small ones, as those
found in the Bahamas, are just at sea level. There is no great variety of scenery in
limestone islands.

Political Caribbean
• Three kinds of governmental systems exist: independent
states, associated states and colonial dependencies.
Several of the former colonial powers still possess
territories in the Caribbean or have very close relations
with them.
• Guadeloupe, Martinique and French Guyana are so called
"departementes d'outre-mer” and thus are part of France's
sovereign territory and part of the E.U.
• Anguilla, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Montserrat
and Turks and Caicos are still British crown colonies
• Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao, Saba, Saint Marten and St
Eustatius are dependencies of the Kingdom of the
Netherlands. Puerto Rico is an associated state of the USA.

Political Caribbean
• In terms of political arrangements, Cuba has a
communist system, Puerto Rico is annexed to the
USA, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago are
republics.
• The rest of the British W.I still hold to the British
traditional form of government, based on the
Westminster-Whitehall model.
• By and large the Caribbean has a rich post
colonial democratic tradition with a few
exceptions of Cuba, Dominican Republic and Haiti

UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY AND
CULTURE

Understanding Society and Culture
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Evaluating typical definitions of society and culture
– Explaining how the knowledge of the Social Deepens
the understanding of society
– Analysing the relationship and overlaps between
society and culture
– Appreciate the roles of the individual in the
development of society and culture
– Discuss the Various Caribbean portrayals of Society
and Culture

The Social
• The social is described by Jeniffer Mohammed as
the ‘totality of explanations describing how
people interact and make meanings from their
experiences’
• It has no existence of itself but is merely a
construct through which we represent all the
ways we make meanings in our lives
• Through the social we can explain the concepts of
society and culture more accurately

The Social
• The totality of explanations describing how
people interact and makes meanings of their
experiences include
– The variety of explanations people have for the
same thing
– The tendency to prefer order and precision and to
feel safer when definitions are used.
Understanding the social allows us to grasp the fact
that the there is no one meaning for the concepts of
society and culture.

Concepts of ‘Society’ and ‘Culture’
• Concepts of society and culture have often
been cast as definitions with a precise
meanings, which is for the most part false
– Society: a collection of people living in the same
area over time
– Culture: the ways of life of a people
These definitions only become acceptable when one
understands that they are not comprehensive
because the leave out much of what they attempt to
describe.

Society
• A Society is the largest unit or group to which
an individual belongs. To the layman society is
usually understood to mean a collection of
persons, living in the same geographical area
with which one feels a sense of belonging.
• To the sociologist however society is mainly
defined through its group structure
framework.

Society
• Each society has a social structure - that is a
network of interrelationships among
individuals and groups.
• Sociologists study these various relationships
in order to determine their effects on the
overall function of the society.

Elements of a society
• Many elements determine the general social
conditions of a society. These elements can be
classified into five major areas:
1. population characteristics
2. social behaviour
3. social institutions
4. cultural influences
5. social change

Population Characteristics
• Population characteristics determine the general social
patterns of a group of people living within a certain
geographical area.
• There are two chief kinds of population
studies, demography and human ecology.
• Demography is the systematic study of the
size, composition and distribution of human
populations.
• Demographers compile and analyze various
studies, including people's age, birth and death
rates, marriage rates, ethnic background and migration
patterns.

Population Characteristics (Cont’d)
• Human ecology on the other hand deals
mainly with the structure of urban
environments and their patterns of settlement
and growth.
• Studies in human ecology explain why and
how cities and other communities grow and
change.

Social Behaviour
• Social Behaviour is studied extensively in the field
of sociology. Social psychologists usually work
with small groups and observe attitude change,
conformity, leadership morale and other forms of
behaviour. They also study social interaction
which is the way members of a group respond to
one another and to other groups. In addition,
sociologists examine the results of conflicts
between groups such as crime, social movement
and war.

Social Behaviour (Cont’d)
• In most societies the standards of behaviour are
passed on from one generation to the next.
Sociologists and psychologists observe how
people adjust their behaviour to conform to
these standards (a process called socialization).
• Sociologists also study social roles (the function
or expected behaviour of an individual within a
group) and status (a person's importance or
rank).

Social Institutions
• Social Institutions are organized relationships
among people which tend to perform specific
actions within the society. These institutions
include business
organizations, churches, government, security
forces, hospitals, family and schools. Each
institution, has a direct effect on the society in
which it exists. For example, the attitudes and the
goals of an entire society are influenced by the
transmission of learning and knowledge in
educational institutions.

Culture
• Culture in the eyes of a sociologist can be
defined as “the accumulated store of
symbols, ideas, and material products
associated with a social system, whether it be
an entire society or a family”.
(Johnson, 1995, p.68).

Culture (Cont’d)
• The term culture has been defined in many ways
whether broadly or narrowly.
• It can be thought of in the realm of activities such as
Music, Art or Literature, in the sense of a cultured
person has a knack for the fine arts.
• Or in a broad sense culture inclusive of all areas of life
and therefore every human society has a culture.
Culture includes a society's
arts, beliefs, customs, institutions, inventions, language
, technology, norms and values. Culture produces
similar behaviour and thought among most people in a
particular society.

Characteristics of Culture
• There are several important characteristics of
culture. The main ones are:
1. a culture satisfies human needs in a
particular way
2. a culture is acquired through learning
3. a culture is based on the use of symbols
4. a culture consists of individual traits and
groups of traits called patterns

Characteristics (Cont’d)
• 1) Meeting Human Need
• All cultures serve to meet basic needs shared by
human beings. For example, every culture has methods
of obtaining food and shelter. Every culture also has
family relationships, economic and governmental
systems, religious practices and forms of artistic
expression.
• Each culture shapes the way its members satisfy
human needs. Human beings have to eat but their
culture teaches them what, when and how to eat for
example many British people eat smoked fish for
breakfast but many Americans prefer cold cereals.

• 2) Acquired through learning
• Culture is acquired through learning not through biological
inheritance i.e. no person is born with a culture. Children
take on the culture in which they are raised through
enculturation.
• Children learn much of their culture through imitation and
experience. They also acquire culture through observation,
paying attention to what goes on around them and seeing
examples of what their society considers right and wrong.
Children may also absorb certain aspects of culture
unconsciously. For example, Arabic people tend to stand
closer together when speaking to one another than most
Europeans do. No one instructs them to do so, but they
learn the behaviour as part of their culture.

• Individual members of a particular culture also
share many beliefs, values, expectations and
ways of thinking. In fact, most cultural
learning results from verbal communication.
Culture is passed from generation to
generation chiefly through language.

• 3) Based on the use of symbols
• Cultural learning is based on the ability to use
symbols. A symbol is something that stands for
something else. The most important types of
symbols are the words of a language. There is no
obvious or necessary connection between a
symbol and what it stands for. The English word
“dog” is a symbol for a specific animal that barks.
But other cultures have a different word that
stands for the same animal, “mbwa”
(Swahili), “perro” (Spanish) “dawg” (Jamaican).

• 3) Consists of individual traits and groups of
traits called patterns.
• Cultures are made up of individual elements
called cultural traits. A group of related traits
or elements is a cultural pattern. Cultural
traits may be divided into material culture or
nonmaterial culture.

Material and Non-Material Culture
• Material culture consists of all the tangible things that
are made by the members of a society. It includes such
objects as (architectural styles)
buildings, jewelry, machines, cuisine, forms of
technology, economic organization, paintings and
artistic creations.
• Nonmaterial culture refers to a society's
norms, beliefs, superstitions and values that guide their
behaviour. A handshake, a marriage ceremony and a
system of justice are examples of nonmaterial culture.
Cultural patterns may include numerous traits (both
material and non material).

Culture as Subculture
• Social scientists sometimes use the term
subculture to describe variations within a
culture. Social groups often develop some
cultural patterns of their own that set them
apart from the larger society of which they are
a part. Subcultures may develop in
businesses, ethnic groups, occupational
groups, regional groups, religious groups and
other groups within a larger culture e.g.
Maroons in Jamaica.

Pluralism and Ethnocentrism
• Pluralism: A society where two or more racial
or ethnic groups live together but where there
is limited mixing of cultures or intermarriage.
Each culture has maintained its own social
institutions ex. Religion, family
• Ethnocentrism: an idea and policy derived
from a first world country and imposed on a
third world country with the belief of
superiority

SOCIETY AND CULTURE – WHERE DO
THEY OVERLAP?
• We have seen that society and culture have
separate meanings. However, in common
everyday use the terms are often used as
synonyms because they are linked very closely.
• While the syllabus requires you to know the
differences in meaning between the two terms, it
expects that when they are written like that, you
will treat them as linked closely together.

THEY OVERLAP?
• There is only one area of overlap between the
terms ‘society’ and ‘culture’.
• Re-read the sections, you may find out what it
is…

THEY OVERLAP?
• Okay no trolling…
• We know society to have structure. The largest units or
groups within society were called social institutions.
Yet these were intangibles: ideas, beliefs, and values.
From these, tangible organizations were created. So,
too, we should be aware that the material products of
a society are derived from the dominant underlying
values and beliefs of that society. Thus, the overlap
between the two terms occurs at the level of the
importance of values. A society and its culture are
rooted in the same values.

THEY OVERLAP?
• Our values represent ‘how strongly we feel about
certain qualities and how we rank the importance of
these qualities’.
• In most societies, values are cultural values, meaning
that they are collectively held by people in that society.
For instance, there are dominant ideas in a society
about what should count as physical beauty. The
members of that society come to value these
attributes, that is, they rank them highly
(and, consequently devalue others). Having these
values will, thus, influence how we behave, whom we
admire and what qualities we look for in a mate.

• This section dealt with society and culture, how
they differ and where they overlap. It may be
helpful to think of society as a group of people
occupying a certain defined geographic space
continuously who feel a sense of belongingness
because they have developed a common culture.
Culture here refers to underlying values and
beliefs. It can also be described as “… the way of
life of a people”. In the Caribbean Studies
syllabus, the term „society and culture‟ is
preferred to show how closely the concepts are
related.

The roles of the individual in the
• Society and culture are group
phenomena, both produced by groups of
people. Both concepts can be understood best
by studying the behaviours of people in those
groups. Underlying those behaviours may be a
set of intangibles - ideas, beliefs, or values.

The roles of the individual in the
• We will focus on how invisible qualities such
as values can give rise to equally invisible
norms which in turn are realized through the
behaviours of people in groups

Norms, Values and Behaviours
• Norms spring from the values that are
cherished in society and culture. Values
represent a ranking of certain qualities which
we feel strongly about. Thus, if society regards
highly the use of internationally accepted
English as spoken language, then it will
devalue other forms of language.

• The norm which will then arise in that
society, with regard to language, will be the
expectation that persons will prefer
internationally accepted English. To support this
expectation, rewards and punishments
(sanctions) are deemed necessary. Rewards will
include acceptance, praise, and possibly paths to
advancement. Persons who habitually use
dialects or patois will then find themselves
disadvantaged, excluded, and open to criticism
and ridicule. Punishments
are, therefore, associated with actions which go
against norms.

• Many of us choose behaviours from a range of
options that conform to what society or our
social groups will allow us to do. While
conforming behaviours help to maintain order
and cohesion in society and helps to avoid
sanctions, they also sometimes help to
perpetuate undesirable or inequitable
practices.

Characteristic Caribbean Behaviours
• making fun of others,
• camaraderie,
• celebrations,
• insularity,
• religion,
• preference for white, western culture,
• kinship bonds/family ties
• informality

How do values originate
• They spring from the common experiences
shared by a group. Caribbean people share a
common history and geography and these
factors are undoubtedly important in fostering
some of the values that have come to shape
society and culture in the Caribbean.
• Our norms (rules for living) are shaped by our
values

How has geography shaped the values
important in the Caribbean?
• Its archipelagic nature – islands strung out in a chain as the Greater and
Lesser Antilles. This has helped to foster some degree of insularity and a
sense of separateness.
• Mainland territories – the inclusion of Guyana, Suriname, Cayenne and
Belize, in the Caribbean Region, adds even greater variety among
Caribbean peoples.
• Problems of definition – the label, „Caribbean‟, is also applied to some
countries without a Caribbean coastline; such as
Guyana, Suriname, Cayenne, and the Bahamas.
• Mountainous terrain – the inhospitable interior (for example, the
Windwards) has encouraged an outward-looking culture, developing
strong ties with people of the coasts in nearby islands through inter-
marriage and commerce, helping to foster kinship across national
boundaries.
• Human activity – agriculture, settlement patterns, fishing - springs out of a
common physical environment with similar natural resources.

How has history shaped the values
important in the Caribbean?
• We have had a relatively short recorded history in the Caribbean so it is fairly easy
to isolate some of the main events and processes that have shaped our values. For
example,
• - slavery, an experience of both the indigenous inhabitants and Africans who were
forcibly brought to the Caribbean. One value that is thought to have come out of
this experience is an emphasis on resistance, for example, much of Caribbean
music, in different ways, reflects themes that deal with liberation.
• - colonialism, an extended period of European rule, experienced throughout the
Caribbean. A value that is attributed to colonial rule is a preference for foreign
products, ways of governing, technology, clothes and lifestyles, as these are
generally believed to be superior to their local counterparts.
• - indentureship, the importation of East Indians and Chinese in large numbers
mainly into Guyana, Trinidad and Suriname, as labourers. Many of the descendants
of these labourers continue to value their oriental origins, customs, language and
religions.
• You should note that several values can stem from any one of the above factors.
Other historical factors you could have mentioned are –

Cont’d
• independence,
• chronic economic depression,
• the development of plural societies,
• globalization.

HOW DO PEOPLE LEARN VALUES?
• Socialization is the process through which we
learn the values, norms and behaviours that are
acceptable in our society and culture. We „learn‟
through various means – sometimes things are
„caught‟, sometimes taught –
formally, informally, by imitation, or reflection.
Socialization begins in the home, where through
primary socialization we learn
language, relationships and concepts, and about
ourselves in relation to others. When we begin
schooling, secondary socialization starts and
goes on all our lives. We are being socialized
every day.

Active Socialization
• Variations in attitudes, dispositions, and convictions produce a
range of behaviours, and come about because individuals do not
passively adopt values and norms, and the circumstances of their
socialization are varied. Socialization is an active process where an
individual brings his or her own dispositions and attitudes to bear
on decision making – sometimes deliberately, sometimes
unconsciously.
• Learning a set of values through socialization - from home, the
media, school, peer group, and the church, does not necessarily
mean that these values will remain intact throughout one's life.
Persons can re-socialize themselves and learn other values. This is
an example of active socialization.

Hierarchy of Values
• Another variation apparent in society and culture is the
different ways in which individuals rank values. Patriotism,
for example, may be very highly valued, but for some
individuals or groups other values may be ranked higher.
For example:
• Uppermost in other people's hierarchy of values will be the
development of an overall national consciousness where
patriotism becomes more important than small group
affiliation.
• Others value the personal highly.
• Directly opposite to such a value position, will be a Gandhi,
a Mandela, or a Martin Luther King, where what is good for
mankind takes precedence

Latent and Manifest Acts
• According to the sociologist there is a myriad
of possible effects to each action in the society
and culture
• Latent functions refer to the unintended,
hidden or unexpected consequences of an act.
• Manifest functions, on the other hand, refer
to the anticipated, open or stated goals of an
act.

Status and Roles
• All members of society occupy a number of social
positions known as statuses. In society an individual
may have several statuses -
occupational, family, gender. Statuses are culturally
defined despite the fact that they may be based on
biological factors such as sex.
• Each status in society is accompanied by a number of
norms that defines how an individual occupying a
particular status is expected to act. This group of norms
is known as role. Social roles regulate and organize
behaviour. In particular they provide means for
accomplishing certain tasks.

Cultural Renewal, Retention and
Erasure as a part of values
• @Cultural Erasure
• The erasure of cultural practices is often a gradual
process and usually stems from an on-going
conflict between traditional ways of
accomplishing tasks in the society and newer
methods. The latter may be more efficient and
cost-effective and may save time and energy. The
adoption of appliances such as
refrigerators, washing
machines, dishwashers, and microwaves, has
contributed to the loss of cultural practices.

• Cultural retention results from a deliberate
desire to keep traditions alive so that some
groups would be able to preserve their sense
of identity. Small groups especially, within
larger communities, tend to feel alienated.
You may be able to think of distinct social
groups in your country where retention of
cultural practices is emphasized because it is
thought that the very existence of the group
depends on these practices.

• Cultural renewal refers to efforts to salvage parts of
our past by fashioning new practices based on the
old. Such efforts stem from a feeling that there is
much value in what we have neglected. Also, in
incorporating new values and norms into our society
and culture we find that traditional practices are re-
cast and appear in different forms. In many Caribbean
countries traditional food preparations which are time
consuming and labour intensive are now speeded up
and made easier to produce for the tourist market
and working persons using modern techniques such
as refrigeration and food processing.

FEATURES OF CARIBBEAN SOCIETY
AND CULTURE

Investigating features of Caribbean
Society and Culture
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Explain terms such as cultural
diversity, hybridization, social stratification and
social mobility
– Examine diversity and commonality in the
Caribbean
– Analyse the phenomenon of cultural change
– Discuss the issue of identity and cultural diversity

Cultural Diversity
• Culture is diverse, meaning, people interpret
their culture however they want and act from
their social location i.e. their context.
• Therefore even if the society seems racially or
ethnically homogenous the culture isn’t
necessarily uniform, i.e. we don’t experience
culture the same way (remember the social?)

Cultural Diversity
• People will differ because of ethnic categories
such as religion, traditions and customs and
even if these are all the same we don’t all
experience them the same way.
• We all have different beliefs and value systems
which influence our perceptions and not only
that each of us has a unique way of expressing
them

Commonalities and differences
• Culture therefore is a diverse phenomenon
despite our habit of limiting it in a static way.
• When we then speak of diversity in the
Caribbean region we mean we acknowledge
that there are similarities and commonalities
amongst Caribbean cultures

Historical Context of Caribbean
Diversity
• All main Caribbean cultural groups were forcibly
uprooted or coerced into leaving their homelands.
• The indigenous populations were then later decimated
by European Conflict.
• Groups were imported for the purpose of manual
labour and all interacted within the context of
European dominance.
• Historians are studiers of time give chronological
narratives of significant time periods and compare
them with like events, to understand better what is
general or common. To learn more about cultural
retention, renewal and erasure.

Sociological Context of Caribbean
Diversity
• The groups who came to the Caribbean varied in terms
of cultural orientations and posed problems to the
society due to differences in religion, language and
customs which lead to distinct Caribbean cultures.
• Colonization then lead to the cultural control and
transformation of these relationships due to the
plantation system and assimilatory laws.
• Sociology therefore focuses on the relationships among
social groups through social stratification, status with
social groups and in current eras the means of
acquiring social mobility.

Anthropological Context of Caribbean
Diversity
• Anthropologists study how people at a particular time
and space come to learn what they stand for or
represent.
• For example the perceptions of an individual based on
the transplanting process the societies of the
Caribbean differed i.e. Indians were brought as labour
to set up completion; Africans, etc. had other options
and as such were relegated to the bottom of the social
hierarchy due to their different customs
• Occupation of the same space meant special
accommodations had to be made.

Cont’d
• These included:
• Places where different groups were brought as
labour ex. Guyana. Pluralism existed as a
result.
• Hybridization of races for example between
the Europeans and the First Peoples
• Maroonage – running away in attempt to
build a different society and culture

The ‘us’ and ‘them’ syndrome
• This refers to the group of social constructions
which we as Caribbean people have inherited
to keep people of different ethnic groups
apart.
• This is a main feature of Caribbean society &
culture and has developed not because the
Caribbean is diverse but because we have
been socialized to behave in this ‘us vs. them’
way.

Cultural Pluralism
• This is the term associated with the cultural
diversity as a result of European colonization,
when different groups were brought here
either forcibly or under contract.
• In a plural society there age two or more
ethnic groups who share the same space but
do not mix to a significant extent ex. Mingling
at School or workplace.

The ‘us’ and ‘them’ syndrome
• In the Caribbean, societies that seem similar
such as Guyana, Suriname and Trinidad and
Tobago are polarized as a result of relations
between those of Indian and African descent
and there have been incidents of violence in
the past. T&T teeters on the brink of this from
time to time.

Positive and Negative effects of
Cultural Diversity
• Positive Impacts of diversity Negative effects of
diversity
• add richness to region's society √ creates insularity/narrow
mindedness
• exposure to multiculturalism √ ethnocentrism arises
• recognition and appreciation of other √ impedes
communication – different people's lifestyles languages
and dialects
• basis for growth into tourism product√ animosity .
• creates strong patriotism
• learn to do things differently √ dominant culture displaces cultural
traits
• gives awareness of cultural heritage of smaller nations

Hybridization
• This refers to the processes of cultural and
ethnic mixing to produce new or ‘creole’
forms.
• For example prior to Columbus’ arrival the
Kalinagos and Tainos adopted each others’
languages and customs.

Racial and Ethnic Hybridization
• Amerindian, African and to a lesser extent Indian
women were forced to cohabit and have children for
European oppressors
• This went on for centuries resulting in a mixed or
coloured race of people. Sexual relations resulting in
children of mixed race is called miscegenation.
• Children of such unions with predominantly white
features according to the prevalent racial ideologies
asserted that these lighter skinned children were
somehow better than their maternal ancestors and
were treated more leniently

Racial and Ethnic hybridization
• A pigmentocracy evolved where people of
fairer complexions wielded more prestige and
power in the society than others.
• Thus skin colour, facial features and even hair
texture are important in the discourse of
culture and identity in the Caribbean, a social
construct based on biological characteristics

• From the very beginning indigenous populations and later
on the enslaved and indentured have been considered
subhuman.
• Racial and ethnic hybridization then underscored and
emphasized the prevailing ideologies in the society
, equating skin colour with social constructions of inferiority
and superiority
• A continuum of colour and shade therefore came to
characterize Caribbean people with each colour and shade
with a different connotation. Those almost white ones had
higher prospects. This respect for colour has extended into
all walks of life even to the acquirement of European
physical features or even alliances with white or lighter
skinned persons as means of social betterment

• Persons of mixed race have such a diversity of
features it is often difficult for them to identify a
sense of cultural belonging. Some countries may
have a larger ‘coloured’ population i.e. Trinidad or
St. Lucia or with two larger populations which
make the coloured populace i.e. Jamaica or
Antigua.
• The combos are innumerable and are found at all
socio-economic aspects of the society however
there is an alignment of these people more with
affluent groups in society

• Various terms have been coined to define these groups:
• Europeans encountered the Amerindians in the 15th
century and during the violent impact the race of mestizos
were born. Hispanic scholars use this term o label all mixed
race Caribbean people i.e. Afro-mestizo, European-Indian
mestizo
• In the British Caribbean scholars the race produced through
the interactions between the enslaved Africans and the
Europeans as mulattoes. Due to use of lightness as a
marker on the social hierarchy finer distinctions emerged
such as the sambo (mulatto x African), quadroon (mulatto x
European).

• Other unions took place between maroon Africans and
Amerindians, forming the Afro-Amerindian mestizo
type for example the Misquito Indians of Belize and
Nicaragua. The Belize Garifuna which relocated to St
Vincent were descendants of Black Carib rebels and
local Africans and Amerindians.
• Their Arawakian language persists as well as the
religious and kinship networks. This hybridized culture
is a remarkable example of cultural retention.
• The Caribbean is a rich showcase of racial and ethnic
diversity from hybridization and as such can be defined
as a polyglot society.

Cultural Hybridization
• Cultural hybridization is defined as the development of
new cultural forms out of existing ones through a
period of contact and interaction.
• Creolization is used instead if this process took place
within the context if European colonization. Thus in the
Caribbean the two are interchangeable
• The greatest effect of this is cultural diversity, manifest
through the hybrid forms created when two or more
ethnic groups meet and interact. These hybrids can be
any mixture of the original forms.

The processes of Cultural Hybridization
• To understand this process we must have a
fundamental understanding of the terms
cultural erasure, cultural retention and
cultural renewal.

Cultural Erasure
• This refers to practices which have died out or are currently
dying.
• There is a debate as to whether culture can truly dies.
• Due to the definitions of culture as material and non-
material previously a culture can survive through the
artefacts it has left behind.
• Non material culture is harder to define as the language of
the Taino can still survive through place names or local
dialects to a small extent.
• The hybridity also due to the intermingling between
Europeans and the Amerindian populations during
conquest could mean that Taino practices may exist today
through some Caribbean practices.

Cultural Retention
• This refers to practices which have survived even
when most other forms and symbols of a culture
are no longer existent.
• Traditional Carib basketry designs and technology
still continue in Dominica and elsewhere though
these populations continuously change and adapt
to modernity.
• A cultural retention usually refers to a specific
aspect of culture for example religion or language

Cultural Renewal
• This occurs when a group goes through a
conscious rejuvenation process and returns to
some elements of its culture which it believes
have been ignored or suppressed.
• It normally via a change in consciousness brought
on by radical historical change.
• For example the advent of Garveyism & the
Harlem Renaissance in the early 20th century
catalysed a development of black consciousness
in the Caribbean and the US.

Examples of Cultural Hybridization
• Religion
• World Religions which met in the Caribbean underwent a
large amount of hybridization or syncretism into creolized
formats. These could be small differences or radical ones
from the original.
• Christian and African religions have undergone a larger
process of syncretism than other ones since Conquest and
later Missionary activity
• Africans tried to fill in the vacuum left in their cultural life
due to removal from their homelands and as such created a
large amount of syncretic religions which often
incorporated elements of the dominant religion inclusive of
the belief in the creator and cosmology.

Religion
• Myal is an early creolized religion developed
in Jamaica where Christian elements were
blended with African World views.
• US Baptists fleeing the American revolution
settled in Jamaica bringing their views to Myal
believers who often incorporated actively
Christian doctrine into the Myal world view
• Revivalism, Pukumania and Kumina were all
derived from Myal

Religion
• The Shouter Baptists also developed similarly to Myal where US
Baptists who settled in Trinidad & Tobago and St Vincent in the 19th
Century had their beliefs syncretized into the existing African beliefs
of Rada, Shango and Obeah; migration between the countries also
served to strengthen the faith though persecuted by Britain.
• African Elements such as drumming and dancing to music is
important to worship with an emotional ceremony.
• Rastafari believe that all members of the black race belong to one
of the twelve tribes of Israel and that one incarnation of Jah is
Christ.
• Santeria in Cuba survives with a host of Roman Catholic saints
renamed in Yoruba. In these afro-centric religions a greater
emphasis is placed on spiritual possession and occult practices.

Religion
• Syncretism is a complex process whether African or
Christian beliefs are dominant. The beliefs are better
described as integrated as practitioners have melded
both European and African elements which are very
hard to deconstruct and explain.
• The beliefs aren’t merely just retentions but are
hybrids formed under subjugation and resilience to for
an identity.
• Not surprisingly major Christian denominations such as
Catholicism and Anglicanism are currently being
creolized. Clapping, dancing and drumming are a
mainstay in worship today

Language
• Caribbean languages are extremely hybridized mainly of the
dominant European language as well as words sprinkled from
other languages and expressed through oral culture
• African languages from the enslaved were not usually written
languages and were mixed to form creole languages which
differed immensely from the European master tongue.
• These are referred to as creole or patois. Each country has
their own type which has emerged due to immense
hybridization.
• Each language has a specific structure and lexicon which
tremendously differs from the standard, either created or
adopted from other languages

Language
• Each type whether English, French or Dutch creole is
considered a fully developed language as it meets the
needs of those in the society. It is usually the mother
tongue of all residents in a specific Caribbean country.
• Creole, especially in the Anglophone Caribbean is
expressed as a continuum, where one end is the
extreme of creole (basilect) and the other Standard
English. In between includes language used for all
different situations. Mesolect tends to be used by most
creole speakers and it is easier to shift between creole
and the standard language.

Language
• Since the words used in English creole for example in Jamaican
creole or Trinidadian creole are similar to the standard the social
construction that these languages are corrupt has developed.
• This has arisen due to ideologies of European culture as superior
and Hybridized cultural forms as inferior.
• French creoles are found in the patois of Dominica, St Lucia and
all the French Territories and Haiti.
• It Haiti creole is called kweyol. The French lexicon creoles in the
Anglo-Caribbean are not widely spoken but are extremely similar
to the Franco-Caribbean.
• Haitian creole is different due to the Haitian revolution’s removal
of French influence in 1804 the language structure differs
immensely from others and is often debated as Ewe language
with French vocab

Cultural Change
• The terms
enculturation, acculturation, assimilation, tra
nsculturation and interculturation are
accurately used to describe cultural change.

Enculturation
• This is a process of socialization where a person
becomes part of another’s culture.
• This can occur through assimilation or
acculturation.
• This has been tried by European Colonists. One
has to note however of the view that one’s
culture can be erased while being enculturated.
• Once the practice still lives in one’s memory and
can be practiced by others it isn't erased.
• Enculturation alerts us to the possibility of
cultural erasure.

Acculturation
• Acculturation was used as the means for the colonies to develop
an appreciation of British culture during colonization.
• For example the adoption of English as an official language,
English curriculum even institutions of laws and governance.
• The belief was that subjects would be socialized into a deep
appreciation of British culture, following its customs and
practices; without the expectation of becoming British but
encultured to produce a hybrid culture with English values
• Acculturation meant the erasure of some aspects of African and
Amerindian culture however a unique culture was formed where
there was reverence to British values and an embrace of Afro-
centric and other cultural forms (religion/language)
• Retentions also existed through African herbal medicine and
cooking i.e. Garifuna and the Maroons.

Assimilation
• This occurs when a dominant group makes a bid to
enculturate another by attempting to supplant all aspects
of its culture and make it over into the image of the
dominant group.
• For example the French assimilation policy where the
French intended to convert her colonized people into
French people, culturally speaking ignoring indigenous
customs and values.
• The colonies of Martinique and Guadeloupe are
acknowledged as part of France however both ambivalently
identify with their Caribbean Identity and their French
citizenship showing that despite pressures Caribbean
people have only been enculturated to a certain extent as
hybridized Franco-Caribbean culture exists.

Transculturation
• This describes the process whereby a culture changes
drastically, actually overcoming itself and translating
into something new.
• For instance Cuba before and after the revolution
where cultures of pre-revolutionary Cuba has been
transformed into a more rigid socialist perspective
after 1962. However despite social change and
collectivist economy many cultural beliefs remained
• Another is the experience of ‘seasoning’ to slavery of
newly arrived Africans by creole Africans. Despite many
attempts at cultural erasure some elements of identity
remained.

Interculturation
• This refers to the mixing of cultures that goes
on between groups who share a space. The
groups do not necessarily give up their own
culture but participates in various ways in
each others lives.
• For example the meeting of Africans and other
groups in a Culturally plural society such as
Trinidad & Tobago at schools or at the
workplace.

Social Stratification
• This is another characteristic through which Caribbean
society can be identified.
• It refers to the ranking of social groups according to
one or more criteria deemed important in society.
• The ranking usually indicates the money, power or
prestige of a specified group.
• Different positions on the hierarchy are called social
strata and status is a rank or position in the hierarchy.
• This system indicates that groups in society are
unequal and this condition persist across generations.

Social Stratification
• Ranking society may differ for example in closed
systems of social stratification like the Caribbean
society during slavery the criteria determining
ones status was race and colour.
• Therefore the system was closed to mobility as
race was the determining factor.
• Similarly for caste systems which are also closed
one can only interact within one’s caste.
• Closed system like these are based on ascribed or
hereditary status.

Social inequality
• Stratified ranking systems of social groups are forms of
institutional inequality meaning people have proportional
access to privileges based on their position in the hierarchy.
• Thus even a poor person with qualifications may lose a job
to a wealthy not as qualified applicant.
• In the Caribbean where colour is held in high regard it often
happens that lighter coloured individuals obtain better jobs
and better marriage prospects and opportunities than
those ranked lower on these traits
• This is an example of social stratification maintains
inequality where groups with more money obstruct other
groups from moving upwards in society and are called
gatekeepers.

Social Stratification Under Slavery
• Plantation society in the Caribbean in the 17th, 18th and 19th
centuries was a closed system of stratification based on
ascribed criteria of race and colour.
• Race and colour were tied to ones occupation in the
society. Black people to a could only be slaves or free
people of colour. White people were never of low social
status though white indentured labours strained on the
borders.
• One could not escape this system unless one had
bargaining power. Persons of mixed descent were fortunate
in this regard and got lighter work as a result (that was a
pun LOL). Many were also freed by their white fathers and
even educated, so had better prospects. Coloureds were an
efficient buffer group in the society.

Social Stratification Under Slavery
• However under closer inspection the three levels were
also rigidly subdivided.
• Among whites those born in Europe were usually of
higher standing but were often absentee so the creole
whites were at the top of the hierarchy. Poorer whites
(overseers etc.) were somewhat removed but still
ranked above the free coloureds via race.
• Among free coloureds there were divisions based
further on hue, degree of education, a protection from
a white person while among the enslaved distinction
only existed based on labour type i.e. house & field.

Social class and Social stratification
• In the Caribbean today social class is mainly used to
distinguish among the different social strata based on social
and economic resources.
• The Caribbean is defined using the ‘class structure’,
stratification under upper, middle and lower social classes.
• Social class in modern society is perceived as based on
achieved criteria referring to one’s performance in being
able to earn what the society values (wealth, power,
prestige). There is however unequal opportunity in getting
rewards.
• It is important to note though the Caribbean is stratified
according to social class, that situation has evolved
gradually from plantation society.

Social Mobility
• This is the movement of individuals from one
social class to another, either up or down the
hierarchy.
• In closed systems like in Plantation society
social mobility was impossible or very limited.
Now in the Caribbean it is possible now due to
what one has achieved. A society where one
can advance socially based on achievements is
called a meritocracy.

Social Mobility
• The main ways of advancement are:
1. Marrying up
2. Acquiring the necessary educational credentials.
3. Owning a successful business and investing
wisely
• In many cases mobility is intergenerational
meaning that a family can move up the socio-
economic bracket due to the foresight of one of
the elders in the family

TRACING HISTORY IN THE
CARIBBEAN SOCIETY AND CULTURE

1. Describe the main historical events processes in
Caribbean history
2. Relate historical events and processes in
Caribbean society and culture
3. Critically analyse traditional accounts of
Caribbean history
4. Apply historical knowledge in describing
diversity and complexity in Caribbean society
and culture
5. Appreciate how a knowledge of history deepens
an understanding of Caribbean social life.

Migrations
• This is the movement of people from place to
place meaning the movement of society and
culture as well as their meeting and mixing
with other societies and countries.
• The Caribbean has experienced significant
migrations, each impacting social life. The
main focus of this is immigration into the
region

Earliest Caribbean migrations
• The idea that Caribbean history is new is an
ethnocentric one where emphasis is given to
Columbus since his voyage in 1492
• The more accurate representation dates from
over 10,000 years before the common era.

Challenges to these ethnocentric
assumptions
• The fact that the earliest remains of habitation are found in both Trinidad
and Cuba suggests that migrations into the Caribbean were not just from
south to north but also people who came into the region from Central
America and Florida
• These earliest peoples of the Archaic and pre-Ceramic period spread out
and lived in the Greater and Lesser Antilles over 5000 years before other
groups migrated into the region
• From about 2400 years BCE different cultural groups distinguished by
distinctive pottery styles and lifestyles began to migrate from S. America
into the Lesser Antilles. They didn’t settle chronologically from north to
south but skipped some altogether. These people were acculturated into
the Saladoid, Barrancoid and Ostionoid cultures showing hybridization
has been happening for millenia.
• These people enjoyed remarkable access to mobility through for example
the Carib Canoe. Trade was also significant as they were in constant
communication.
• Also DNA evidence has proved that the Taino genes are present to link
them with current Caribbean gene pools

Challenges to these ethnocentric
assumptions
• Amerindians are not a uniform group as hybridization has
developed differently in various parts in the Caribbean as these
hybrid groups coexisted with Archaic people for example the
Ciboneys.
• European labels for the Indigenous were proved to be wrong for
example as people of the Greater Antilles were called the
Arawaks (the language) rather than their true name the Taino.
• The Taino were acknowledged to have a peaceful nature by the
Spanish and the Caribs a very belligerent and even Cannibalistic
one which has confirmed to not be completely accurate. The
Taino were initially peaceful but readily attempted to defend
themselves against extermination. Likewise the Caribs were by
no means Cannibals this was only an assumption made by
Spaniards like Las Casas. It can be assumed the true warmongers
were the Spanish.

European Migration
• Columbus may not have been the first European to visit the New
World but he was the first one to bring tangible evidence of its
existence.
• With his return to Europe with gold a new spirit of conquest was
stirred up to seek fortunes… conquistadors to plunder and priests
to convert ‘heathens’
• A society was therefore organized to facilitate the export of
precious metals to Spain.
• The Caribbean was the springboard for all this activity which was
launched mainly aimed at C. and S. America. As gold was discovered
on Hispanola it was decided the local Taino populations were
suitable for labour. Through greed for power, wealth Spanish
settlers enslaved, exploited them, and killed many…eventually
leading to their genocide.

European Migration
• The migrants who continued to come from
Spain after the initial rush came to
settle, become ranch owners and establish
ventures on the new colonies
• Eventually the vast area of their new territory
became too large to solely monopolize and
other countries such as England, France, the
Netherlands and Portugal started to contest
the Spanish claims.

European Migration
• People often treated Europe as a unit however there were large
differences among the territories in the New World.
• For over 100 years after Spanish claims no other country was able
to settle permanently in the Caribbean.
• Britain and France in the 16th and 17th century came to pillage and
steal Spanish galleons carrying Gold to Spain and lay siege to their
territories through buccaneers, privateers and pirates.
• According to the Treaty of Tordisillas Spain was not awarded Africa
and such they had to rely on Portugal for a supply of slaves granted
by an asiento (licence) as times changed the asiento went to the
Dutch, British and French. This incited rivalry as the major
commodity wasn’t gold but human cargo.
• Smuggling was another means countries used to encroach on the
Spanish. The British and to larger extent the Dutch hindered trade
as they smuggled goods and slaves.
• Once the British and French permanently settled in St Kitts in 1624
it set the stage for migrants to settle on the other island of the
Lesser Antilles which were virtually ignored by the Spanish

European Migration
• Many of the 17th century French and British colonies were
proprietorships meaning that the monarch would great
nobles, favoured persons or even companies the sole right to settle
and develop territory with the expectation of getting taxes from the
colonists
• The Dutch settled on Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao and Suriname, St
Maarten, Saba and St Eustatius. They were less interested in
agriculture but more so in salt mining on the Guiana coastline and
trading in slaves and other goods.
• Unlike the Spanish, other settlers did not enslave local populations
but instead initially obtained European indentured labour for
tobacco before sugar became widespread.
• Denmark settled St Thomas in 1672 later St Croix and St John while
Sweden obtained St Barth’s from France and later resold them in
1878.

Forced migration of Africans
• It is speculated by some especially Ivan van Sertima that the African may have
come to the Caribbean before Columbus. However it is known that Africans
travelled alongside Spaniards as free men. Slavery existed in Spain for centuries
inclusive of all creeds and races. Slavery also existed in Africa before the Atlantic
slave trade.
• It was a truly capitalist system which involved tremendous brutality between
master and slave – which changed slave relations forever.
• In Europe and Africa people were enslaved for various reasons inclusive of
religious persecution, captives of war, payments of loans, dowries etc., or could
involved kidnapping and trading.
• There was little difference in ethnicity between master and slave and no society’s
economy depended fully on slavery – even those who captured and distributed.
• What made the triangular trade unique was forced migration of millions into a
lifetime of captivity and servitude for centuries, whose foundation was based
solely on race emerging with a full blown racist ideology overtime.
• Enslaved Africans were imported into the Caribbean in small numbers since 1503
but by 1520 the Crown gave permission to import more as a supplement to the
dwindling Taino population. The Portuguese had the asiento for African trade as
said before, which eventually went to the Dutch, French then British.

Slave Trade
• European merchants, banks, etc. invested capital for ventures and
governments had an active role in the commercial aspects of the
Trade founding by charter Joint Stock Companies ex. The Royal
African Company, the Company of Senegal and the Dutch West
India Company which were given a monopoly to trade slaves for
goods for specific periods. The were responsible for defending slave
forts in Africa and could capture rival powers’ merchandise.
• West Africa was integral, as such each power built different forts
along the coast ex. Elmina. These were used to store goods from
Europe for trading purposes and to house African future slaves.
These forts were also responsible for negotiating with chiefs and
emissaries acting on behalf of their states.
• Estimates put the amount of Africans kidnapped at 15 million.
Portuguese were active mainly the Gold Coast and eventually to
Angola. The Dutch in the Slave, Ivory and Gold Coasts with smaller
settlements. France in Benin and Senegal. Wherever a country
settled it had its own relations within the existing system to
safeguard their respective interests.

Slave Trade
• Initially the Europeans slave raided to get Africans. Later
they had to go deeper inland and form alliances with
African groups willing to capture and sell fellow Africans.
They inevitably became involved into domestic matters of
Kingdoms providing guns and ammunition to their allies.
• Once slave ships left the African Coast they began the
Middle Passage across the Atlantic to the Caribbean and N.
America. The conditions on the slaver were so bad that
many died from suffocation due to lack of space per
captive. The more a slaver could carry the higher the profit
and if there was a cap on fatalities per trip more slaves
were simple carried to cancel it out.
• When Africans were sold they were sold in exchange of
sugar, rum and molasses and headed back to ports in
Europe such as London, Amsterdam and Bordeaux. This
was the final leg of the complex triangular trade.

Effects of the Slave Trade
• The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade was the single
most important process which impacted the
Caribbean. It changed pre-existing Caribbean
societies into slave societies and had a myriad
of other effects:

1. The slave trade was directly tied to the need for labour therefore
large plantation economies tended to have large African
populations ex. English, French and Dutch
2. The Spanish however slowly introduced slaves to plantations in
Cuba, Puerto Rico and Santo Domingo so less Africans initially
resided. However in the late 19th century Africans were being
imported after British, Dutch and French slavery & its trade were
abolished.
3. The trades in Britain ended in 1804, The Netherlands in 1814 and
France in 1818. Slavery itself was abolished in 1834 for the
British, in France in 1848 and in Holland in 1863. Cuba abolished
finally in 1886.
4. Though slavery ended in 1886 in Latin America Black populations
are no majority and only comprise 12% in most countries. In
Puerto Rico however most are mixed race or mullato.

4. This forced migration formed a
diaspora, immigrants with a common
homeland to which they share an emotional
attachment.
5. We must not forget that the Caribbean’s
African diaspora had distinct ethnic
differences. The French traded a lot of
Dahomey, the Cubans Bantu and the eatern
Caribbean many Ibo and Koromanti.

Migration of Indentured Labourers
• After slavery was abolished in 1834 many of the
smaller territories such as Antigua became free
overnight while others went through a compulsory
period of Apprenticeship until 1838. The new issue of
prices of labour became major and influenced
indentureship.
• Indentureship was an old concept reintroduced to
solve labour problems in the Caribbean where
indentured servants agreed to enter into a contract to
work in the Caribbean for a period of 5-7 or 10 years
for minimum wages, their passage would be paid for
with the option to return to their country of origin
once the period of time was over or receiving a grant
of land in the new territory.

• India proved to be the most satisfactory labour
source and in 1845 both Trinidad and
Jamaica, following British Guiana began
importing indentured labour.
• While immigrants came essentially to all
Caribbean countries in small numbers in Trinidad
and British Guiana were sustained & large where
by 1917 239,000 had gone to British
Guiana, 144,000 to Trinidad and 36,000 to
Jamaica.

• The migrants came from mainly Northern
India, Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and other parts of
India and were willing to work for the small
wages offered.
• Africans did not trust people who were willing
to work for such small wages which hindered
efforts at wage bargaining.

Effects of Immigration
• IMPACT OF IMMIGRATION INTO THE REGION
• Opened the Caribbean to Europe, Africa and Asia
• Introduction of new technologies- processing of sugar cane
• New systems of government
• New architectural style using different building materials: Spanish
wall, Georgian
• New languages: Spanish, English, Dutch, French
• New crops/dishes: sugar cane, bananas, citrus, rice, mangos, curry
dishes, pak choi, tamarind, mango, Chinese dishes, buns, etc
• New religious beliefs: Christianity, Hinduism, Muslim
• Adequate and reliable (although inefficient) use of labour force
which maintain monoculture production

• New system of production - (slavery & indentureship)
• Created a multi-racial society with diverse culture
• Caused a loss of identity for migrants and threatened family
structure
• Stimulated growth "of social services especially medical care
• • Contributed to growth of peasant farming, huckstering, shop
keeping
• • New skills introduced into the region : metal, leather, irrigation
• • Movement from plantations by ex-slaves: free villages; growth
of peasant farms
• Movement westwards / SW to Central America: Cuba (sugar,
domestic, dress making, Costa Rica, Nicaragua (banana), Panama
(railway >canal banana), Venezuela (oilfields)
• Movement northwards to USA (WWII- war time jobs)
• Eastwards to England, France (WWII- war time jobs; reconstruction
after WWII ii transport, construction, postal, service nursing)
• Northwards to North America - economic as well as political ( Cuba,
Haiti, Dominican Republic

Diversity of Indentureship
• Despite the pluralism of Caribbean society, the influx of
immigrants from Guyana, Trinidad and Suriname have
created significant groups and sub-groups with
unresolved tensions.
• After 1848 France brought Indian Immigrants from
Pondicherry, a French colony in India, to work in Cane
fields and have examples of Tamil or Madrasi culture
found in Guadeloupe today.
• The Dutch brought labour from the island of Java to
their colonies to their country of Dutch Guiana. They
also imported Indians from British India.
• Suriname, Guyana & Trinidad Indian populations are
larger than other ethnic groups today.
• Chinese in comparison to India, immigrants assimilated
into the region marrying African women and becoming
Christian

Development of Systems of Production
• This refers to the ways an economy is
organised to produce commodities to sustain
society.

Encomienda
• Spanish monarchs decided that native population
should be divided up amongst Spaniards, who had the
right to exact from them some form of tribute –
produce, gold or personal service. In return, the
Spaniards would guarantee religious instruction in the
Roman Catholic Faith.
• In reality however the Amerindians were treated as
slaves and many died due to hunger, overwork, harsh
punishments and European disease.
• Many committed suicide and infanticide as their
precious metals, freedom and even food were taken to
increase Spain’s power and prestige in Europe

Slavery
• This was introduced throughout the Americas
and was primarily concerned with a system of
production bound up with the cultivation of
sugar and the economic organization of the
plantation.

Slavery as a total institution
• Slavery was a total institution meaning that it
determines all aspects of the lives of African people, as
well as the social and economic arrangements of the
plantation and by extension the society and formed the
basis of plantation society
• Slavery shaped the lives of Africans primarily by the
attempts it made to dehumanize the African.
• Africans were regarded as ‘chattel’ or property owned
by the Europeans who had paid for them.
• This attempt at dehumanization was done by
suppressing the social and cultural ties which helped
them to form an identity and sense of belonging.

Slavery as a total institution
For example:
• Choosing Africans from different racial groups for the plantation
to minimize communication and bonds of kinship between
them based on fear of Africans being together.
• Giving them European names and forbidding them from
practicing their religions and customs so any semblance of
family life as well as solidarity and identity was discouraged.
• Meeting out harsh physical punishment including torture and
death as to submit them to will of the Europeans.
• Playing out different groups of Africans against each other to
prevent a common identity and to promote European values
and ways of life.
• Rigidly stratifying the society based on pigment, relegating
blacks to the bottom and whites at the top; dehumanizing as
racial characteristics were the ones identifying them as property

The Plantation System
• A system of production Europeans used in their
colonial empires where they brought different ethnic
groups to live and work on plantations far from their
homelands.
• Groups were encouraged to distrust each other and
were encouraged to look on the Europeans as superior.
• Labour was coloured and when coupled with slavery as
a total institution the plantation became a
sophisticated economic mechanism which dominated
the culture and society of the Caribbean integrating it
into European economy.

• Relied on the Atlantic trade for its labour supply
and provided the raw materials for the third leg
of the triangular trade – sugar, rum, and molasses
for the port cities of England, France and Holland.
• Provided the basis for the growing manufacturing
and industrial strength of Europe (plantations
were formed through invested European capital)
• Was so valuable that in 1651 Britain instituted
the Navigation Laws whereby only English ships
could trade with English colonies – preventing
other nations from getting a share of trade arsing
from Her Caribbean plantations. France followed
in 1664 with similar laws

• European imported systems of production to the
Caribbean that began to take the shape of
Capitalist enterprises with an emphasis on
amassing huge profits repatriated to the
metropolitan country. The basis of such wealth
depended on the enslavement of people who for
the profit motive were regarded as subhuman.
• Values stressing exploitation of the people and
environment and people for economic gain and
an ideology of European superiority became
parts of the system of production

Plantation Society
Chief characteristics:
• Monocropping • Export oriented
• Foreign owned • Bureaucratically organized
• reliance on metropolitan countries • Vertical integration
• Patterned relationship of people to • Classified people into different the
land and determined how the land statuses together with formal people
live on definition of the
with one between them relationship another
• Gave rise to peasantry we • It was both a social and an
experience in the region today. economic system
The advantages of the plantation system:
• regular and efficient production, • planning for depreciation
• uniformly high quality products, • scientific research and

Indentureship
• Indentureship has been described as a ‘new slavery
although the Indian and Chinese immigrants weren't
defined as chattel and could practice their own customs
and religions.
• They were paid extremely low wages and were always in
debt to the company store where they were coerced to buy
goods with substandard living and sanitation facilities.
• They were not allowed to move around freely and if caught
some distance from the plantation they could be
flogged, charged with vagrancy and jailed. If they
attempted to run away they were hunted down charged
with breach of contract and returned to work. They were
charged with exorbitant fines & many died from
malnutrition and suffered from malaria, yaws and
dysentery.

Indentureship
• As a system of production, indentureship was very much
related to African plantation society.
• The socio-economic influences of the plantation pervaded
the society though some Africans moved away.
• They now occupied the lowest social stratum and were also
discouraged from interacting with the Africans to continue
disunity among labourers.
• However, times had changed. Towards the end of the 19th
century Caribbean plantations were no longer as important
to Europe had global empires and the sugar was under
competition from other larger sugar producers such as
Brazil and Cuba. Eventually the nationalist Indian
movement brought pressure on the British to discontinue
immigration due to dissatisfaction of the treatment of
Indians so the British ended Indian indentureship in 1917 (a
similar situation happened in China were it ended in 1885)

Resistance
• Caribbean people have always sought ways and
means of resisting the harsh conditions under
which they existed.
• They resisted in two ways
• 1) active resistance 2) passive resistance
• Active resistance included;
riots, rebellions, revolutions, development of
peasant groups.
• Passive resistance involved pretense (deaf, lack
of understanding of oppressors language, fake
illnesses, malingering , satirize /mimic European
lifestyle, suicide, infanticide,)

Amerindian Resistance
• The threat of the Spanish to the to Tainos aroused in
them a spirit of warfare. Although the Spanish had
superior weapons of warfare they still put up
resistance.
• The Tainos resisted oppression by running away and by
committing individual and group suicide and
infanticide,
• They refused to work and starved out the Spanish by
burning their food stores.
• The effort of the Spaniards to Christianize the
Amerindians was met with much resistance. The
Spaniards sought to save the souls of the abused
Indians but were forced to unite even from the first
year of invasion and present some form of military
opposition to European Invasion.

The African Resistance
• African were kept in subjugation for nearly
three centuries. This was mainly done through
the threat of physical violence and
brainwashing.
• African resistance was persistent, powerful
and successful. It was either active or passive.
• Africans resisted passively through
suicide, sabotage (damaging tools and
property)
vendetta, malingering, apathy, escape
marronage, revolt, rebellion and revolution

The African Resistance
• Resistance occurred despite the efforts of the planters to ‘break the
spirit’ of the strong and intimidate the weak. Planters applied the
system of divide and rule as well as confusion where they mixed the
slaves of different languages to avoid communication.
• Maroonage was one of the most successful forms of slave
resistance. It was a system which started with the freed blacks who
fled the plantations to the mountains during Spanish colonization.
• It was prominent in mountainous larger territories such as Jamaica
(Blue Mountains & Cockpit Country) and Cuba (Hammerhead
Mountains)
• It proved successful because the Europeans found it difficult to deal
with the guerilla warfare use by the Maroons to protect their
freedom.
• Maroons would also raid plantations and encourage other slaves to
runaway
• Slaves not only resisted slavery, sometimes their response to
oppression took on organized forms such as rebellions, which were
more organized and larger. E.g., the Tacky Rebellion in 1760, and
the Sam Sharpe Rebellion in 1831.

Revolution and Rebellion
• The largest and most successful slave revolution was
the Haitian Revolution of the 1790s.
• The Haitian revolution is argued to have , ignited the
flame of liberation for all slaves throughout the
Caribbean and the New World.
• The success of the Haitian revolution inspired other
slaves to fight for their freedom.
• It inspired other revolts of the 1830s e.g. Barbados
1816, British Guiana 1823, Jamaica 1831.
• These slave revolts contributed to the abolition
movement in England and finally the abolition of
slavery in 1838

Peasantry
• After Emancipation many ex-slaves left their plantation
to escape forced and unpaid labour. Once they were
freed, many moved away for the plantations into deep
rural areas.
• Ex-slaves developed new forms of labour. The skilled
slaves moved into towns.
• The acquisition of land was a means of independence
for the slaves. Many sought to buy land which was
blocked by the planters and the government .
• The planters used different tactics to block the
peasants form owing land. They would charge high
rents for land and evict them. They also refused to sell
them land and block their means of acquiring credit to
do so.
• However the peasants found means of acquiring land.
They pooled their resources together and bought
land, the received help from the missionaries and
many resorted to squatting.

Effects of Peasantry
• The peasants helped to diversify the economy in the post-
emancipation period and the decline of sugar.
• The peasants turned to developing cash crops for export.
They grew crops such as Cocoa, bananas, coffee, ginger
cotton, arrowroot and coconuts on their smallholdings.
They also grew food crops and reared animals
• This new found independence made the peasants self-
sufficient and resilient in the face of economic hardships.
• The peasants received little support form the colonial
government.
• The peasantry could have been more successful had they
received more help form the government.

Effects of Peasantry
• The planters were determined to do everything
keep the slaves dependent on the plantations.
• Ex-slaves found refuge in the ‘free villages ‘ which
were set up by the missionaries.
• The free villages helped the development of the
peasantry. This peasantry transformed the
Caribbean from a predominantly mono-cropping
of sugar cane to small farming of mixed crops
which created economic independence for the
ex-slaves.

Significance of Resistance
• This desire of the slaves to be independent from
the hegemony of the Plantocracy developed a
spirit of cooperation and caring among rural
communities. This close bond has evolved as part
of the rural culture of the Caribbean.
• The experience of slavery has been profound in
shaping the modern Caribbean. It has changed
the systems of land tenure, agricultural practices
and population: size, race, ethnicity and structure

Significance of Resistance
• The descendants of slaves continue to experience
erasure of their traditional culture, language
dress and religion etc. They have remained
largely poor.
• The history of the Caribbean is filled with struggle
against colonialism, oppression and social
injustice. E.g. in the politics of Jamaica, Haiti,
Trinidad and Guyana may have its roots in the
experience of slavery and a the practice of
planters to prevent unity and prevent another
Haitian Revolution. It also manifested again with
the practice of creating disunity amongst the
blacks and the Indians.

Movements towards Independence
• By the dawn of the 20th Century Caribbean
people were beginning to understand what
freedom meant were beginning to challenge
the very basis of colonialism, particularly in
the aftermath of two World Wars.
• This happened in two major ways through
Economic Enfranchisement & Political
Enfranchisement

Economic Enfranchisement
• The Condition whereby a country or nation achieves the
right to determine how it will develop its systems of
production.
• Despite the European control of the Caribbean economy
here was resistance from people who wanted to develop
their own means of making a living.
• Plantation economies were typically based on large
quantities of cheap unskilled labour based on monoculture.
Almost all of the harvest was to be manufactured in
Europe.
• Food produce was haphazard and it was normally left to
the ex-slaves to grow their own vegetables and fruits for
domestic sale

• The downturn of sugar revenue in the 19th century
indicated that plantation economies would decline.
• Small and peasant farmers as result began to produce
new crops as a result to diversify the markets for
export.
• Cocoa, bananas, coffee, ginger, cotton, coconuts and
arrowroot were grown by peasant farmers on
smallholdings. Animals were also reared.
• This strategy of economic diversification attempted to
make small farmers more independent of the planter
and the small wages offered on the plantation and
introduced them to self organization for the export
market and develop new trade sophistication for the
wider world

• They received little economic support from colonial who
would prefer a subservient peasantry.
• They were often the source of discriminatory practices
from the planters often refusing to sell them land and
often sabotaged them in the process. However they also
banded together to buy out plantations for impoverished
planters. Baptist missionaries sometimes helped in these
purchases forming in cases free villages. Others with little
alternatives just squatted on crown lands for example
Trinidad and Guyana
• It must be remembered that effort to establish an
economic basis for independence was done in colonial
rule; it would have been more successful if the planters
weren’t so obstructionist.

Political Enfranchisement
• This refers to the right of a people or nation to
determine their own affairs. The Caribbean
colonies were under the control of European
powers.
• However after emancipation it was only
inevitable that Caribbean people would
develop the ability to challenge this rule.

• The many migrations of Caribbean people inclusive the Panama
Canal, South America and the Dutch Antilles the modern sugar
plantations of Cuba, Puerto Rico and Santo Domingo and other
migrations into Europe due to the World Wars helped to develop a
consciousness of political and economic conditions in these
countries and exposed workers and soldiers to new and different
ideas.
• These individuals were unwilling to resume to lowly status in the
social hierarchy due to exposure to different political ideologies.
• Moreover due to Marcus Garvey black nationalist sentiment began
to spread enabling resistance.
• In the 1930’s economic conditions had deteriorated to such levels
that the region was wracked by labour riots, strikes and social
unrest.
• This period saw the rise of labour leaders who eventually rose as
political leaders, including Uriah ‘Buzz’ Butler, Adrian Cola Rienzi &
Captain A. A. Cipriani of T&T, Alexander Bustamante and Norman
Manley of Jamaica, Grantley Adams of Barbados and Nathaniel
Crichlow of Guyana all of whom developed Trade Union
movements in the Caribbean.

• While creole whites were involved initially it quickly
developed into a working class struggle dedicated to
improve the social conditions of the poor.
• The trade labour unions naturally became the birthplaces
of Caribbean party politics
• To Union leaders it was clear the interests of labour had to
be represented in the government so that laws can be
passed to protect their activities as well as workers rights.
• Eventually Trade leaders began to comprise the legislature
instead of the planter classes forming a lobby for self
government and eventually independence.
• Once Indian and African Caribbean individuals got elected
to office the writing was on the wall for Colonialism in the
region.

DEVELOPING GEOGRAPHIC
AWARENESS

1. Evaluate various perspectives on the relationship between
Caribbean peoples and their environment
2. Show how human activity determines whether and
environmental hazard becomes a natural disaster
3. Discuss soil erosion, drought and the destruction of coral
reefs as examples of environmental degradation
4. Describe the nature, occurrence, and the social and
economic consequences of hurricanes, earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions
5. Explain the theory of plate tectonics with reference to the
Caribbean
6. Suggest mitigation strategies to control or reduce the
adverse effects of environmental disasters on Caribbean
society and culture

Geographical Perspectives on
Environment, Society and Culture
• Traditional physical geography has for a long time
asserted the dominant role the landscape plays in
influencing society and culture. While human and
social geography stresses the importance humans have
to shape the landscape through breakthroughs.
• Recently however the new postmodern perspective
asserts that ‘people’ is not a simple term to just define
• Aboriginal people often have a perspective of
geography which is different from let’s say a urban one.
• The postmodern outlook also emphasises that the
environment is not a fixed entity meaning that it
changes overtime through its relationship between
humans and the space around it

Caribbean Perspectives on
Environment
• The colonial experience has left us with the perspective that
humans should control and dominate the environment.
• Pre-Columbian perspectives differed immensely as it was the belief
that the environment was sacred, devoted to worship and should
be left virtually untouched.
• With the Europeans came a new perspective – as conquerors with
new technological advances they became better at controlling
nature to produce tools, medicine and food hence the idea of the
environment as something to control became entrenched through
colonization.
• Through capitalism plantations, mines and ranches became an
organized backdrop for the activities of the wealthy and a source of
raw materials.
• Therefore environmental perspectives solely depend on how
directly related people are to the importance of the Earth to their
existence whether economically or spiritually

Environmental Hazards
• Natural events are termed Environmental
Hazards when they have the potential to
destroy human life and property.
• Natural Events are when such environmental
occurrences occur away from human
habitation.
• Only when people and their property is
harmed we label them as environmental
disasters

Environmental Degradation
• This is defined as the general way of
describing loss of some degree of quality in
the land, air or waters around us. For instance
infertile soil or polluted rivers.
• Pollution is a more specific term referring to
the ways in which human beings have caused
the contamination of the environment through
adding pollutants that harm human, plant and
animal life.

Natural processes of Environmental
Change
• The environment constantly changes
especially through natural events.
• These changes are cyclical for example the
theory of plate tectonics states that
continents have been moving for millions of
years causing volcanic activity and
earthquakes.
• Hurricanes also continue to wreak havoc on
the landscape

Environmental Disasters: Soil Erosion
• Soil is formed by the breakdown of rocks over
hundreds of years.
• The rocks decompose into their inorganic
materials which combine with
vegetation, water, air and humus to form soil.
• Soil Erosion is defined as the removal of soil by
wind, water or moving ice.
• It is a natural process but human activity has
served to accelerate this process.
• It is a creeping hazard meaning that its
occurrence is often not dramatic and may go
undetected as soil is hardly likely to be reused or
recovered.

Social and Cultural Practices which
Accelerate soil erosion: Deforestation
• Since plant roots and vegetation hold soil together and
leaves and branches often slow rainfall when plants are
removed soil is often left bare and is easily washed or
blown away.
• This can happen through:
• Slash and Burn: practice to remove undergrowth which increases
fertility because of the ash but leaves the land bare leading to
erosion
• Overgrazing: occurs when animal numbers exceed the land’s
‘carrying capacity’; increasing the likelihood that they will remove
vegetation leaving soil bare.
• Bulldozing: clearing lands like hillsides for development projects
leaves land unprotected with construction is in progress
• The making of charcoal: common practice in places where fuel is
expensive wee large expanses of wooded landed is burnt to
convert to charcoal.

Social and Cultural Practices which
Accelerate soil erosion: Farming
• Shifting cultivation: where plots are cleared
and cultivated for a few years and left fallow
while another one is cleared for use. Since this
is continuous land loses it fertility and its
ability to withstand erosion
• Ploughing up and down hillsides as well as in
neat rows helps to create channels which flow
from the top of a hill downwards or provides a
path for the wind to blow away soil.

Effects of Soil Erosion
1. Removal of topsoil leaves immature subsoils which
cannot sustain previous crop production so land
productivity decreases
2. Land may become useless; overgrown will secondary
vegetation i.e. bush or carved into gullies or ravines
3. Soil erosion near rivers from hillsides may increase
sediment build-up on riverbeds reducing river
capacity.
4. When coupled with hurricanes, earthquakes or any
other natural disaster eroded hillsides are more prone
to create landslides or mudslides

Soil Conservation
• This is meant to prevent erosion and restore
eroded land to pre-erosion conditions
1. Afforestation: Vegetation or topsoil is brought to
an eroded area to produce a dense network of
roots to bind the soil together, prevent water and
wind erosion and create new organic matter to
make new soils.
2. Landscaping: An entire area may have to be re-
sculpted into an undulated land before
afforestation

Soil Conservation
3. Agricultural Practices:
• Contour Ploughing: Tilling land across hillsides rather than down
breaks potential natural channels of water downslope
• Planting shelter belts: Lines of trees are planted at intervals along
flat land expanses to break the force of wind
• Intercropping/strip cropping: Neat rows between crops are avoided
when different crops are planted together at different angles
• Agroforestry: Crops such as Coffee, Cocoa, fruit trees and bananas
are growing in the forest co-existing with existing vegetation.
• Crop rotation: Each crop depletes different nutrients in the soil so
different crops are planted in succession rather than continuously so
nutrients will regenerate naturally
• Terraces: Building small walls or ridges around sloping land to
prevent rainfall from freely running downwards reducing the
probability of soil erosion.
• Stubble mulching: Leaving stubble residues after harvesting on the
field as long as possible helps to reduce evaporation while covering
the soil

Soil erosion and poverty
• While soil erosion is natural accelerated soil erosion in
Caribbean countries today is a tremendous social and cultural
phenomenon
• In countries that are very poor i.e. Haiti people are mostly
driven by their need to survive and fulfil basic needs and have
no realization of the long term effects associated with that.
• Deforestation from making charcoal and cutting forests to
make farm land reduces soil fertility over time.
• Reduction of yields, resultant flooding etc. are seen as the
plight of the poor so soil erosion becomes a problem made
worse by poverty because since the poor don’t have enough
power soil conservation doesn’t get profiled.
• Some solutions may include
• Population Control
• Productive employment
• Meeting basic social welfare needs,
• Better income distribution

Drought
• Drought is a temporary feature of climate
where an unusually long period of rainfall is
below ‘normal’ levels in that region causing
severe depletion of the water available to all
living beings
• Drought is a natural phenomenon and may
occur due to changes in relief, size and
location as well as global changes in whether
patterns.

Size, Relief and Location
• Small territories such as Antigua don’t generate much
convection rainfall; accompanied by a flat landscape reduces the
likelihood of relief rainfall so are at immense risks of drought
• Large countries such as Guyana very near the equator have
frequent rainfall throughout the year but due to the largess their
may be regional variations
• In the Greater and Lesser Antilles rainfall is influenced by the
north-east trades. Where winds rise over mountains there is
much relief rainfall.
• The physical environment conserves and stores water that can
be available in dry seasons i.e. Groundwater store. This seeps to
maintain rivers at a base level and when this is affected drought
is extremely pronounced. Like erosion drought is a creeping
hazard as the store may prevent detection for a while

Global changes in weather patterns
• Caribbean droughts are also linked to weather
patterns. For example the El Nino effect and
Southern Oscillation collectively called ENSO
which fluctuates sea surface temperatures in
the atmosphere every 2-7 years.
• Together these are responsible for the
prolonged droughts in Africa, South and
Central America and the Caribbean for several
years

Drought and Human Activity
• Drought can be influenced by Human Activities such as
deforestation which contributes to silting of rivers and
drying river courses.
• Pollution of rivers also can encourage algae blooms
which can choke streams making them stagnant
• Groundwater store can become depleted through
human activity such as artificial water channeling.
• Using water during the dry season for lawn irrigation
and urban demands such as washing cars can add to
the strain of water supply
• It is also argued that the large human populations is
also putting demand on water supply

Effects of Drought
• As soil moisture decreases vegetation wilts
and eventually dies, encouraging soil erosion
• Low soil moisture prevents or delays
germination of crops leading to low yields
• Reduced Groundwater stores take a long time
to be restored; river may dry permanently
• Competition for water inevitably leads to
conflict, with rationing of water among socio-
economic groups

Destruction of Coral Reefs
• Coral Reefs are large strips of wave resistant
coral rocks built up by Carbonate organisms
(coral polyps) lying close to the surface of the
sea, cemented together to form a physical
structure.
• In the Caribbean there are three types:
1. Barrier
2. Fringing
3. Atoll

Destruction of Coral Reefs
• Barrier reefs are found parallel to the coast and
are usually separated by a shallow but wide area
called a lagoon ex. In Belize
• Fringing reefs are low platforms of coral 0.5-2.5
km wide lying close to the shore of an island of
continental shelf, separated by narrow lagoons
with the outer edge descending sharply into the
sea. Ex Buckoo reef in Tobago
• Atoll reefs tend to form a horseshoe usually
linked to a sunken volcano cone

Growth of Coral Reefs
• Criteria:
– Between 30⁰N and 30⁰S of the equator
– Salty and Shallow water around 20⁰C
– Waters must be clear of sediment
– Sunlight must penetrate freely
– Nutrients and oxygen must be available for the
symbiotic algae which feed off the coral polyps’
waste as it also provides food to the coral

Coral reefs effects on culture & society
• Biodiversity
• Tourism
• Fisheries
• Coastal Protection
– Coral often acts as a storm barrier during times of
turbulent wave activity

Natural Threats to the reefs
• ENSO events which alter water temperatures
increasing the likelihood of coral bleaching
• Global Warming on ocean temperatures
• Desertification from Africa which brings dust
to the Caribbean sea from the trade winds are
believed to bring fungi which can harm polyps

Human Threats
• Deforestation – increasing water turbidity from erosion,
etc.
• Urban settlements near the coast and the pollution from
them disturbs the ecological connection of the reef and
fisheries
• Harvesting the reef itself for sale
• Sewage near the coast causes eutrophication, killing and
choking coral
• Poisonous industrial effluence
• Hot water from power plants affects sea temperatures
• Overfishing
• Destructive fishing techniques such as dynamite fishing

Hurricanes
• A severe, low pressure system and rotating
tropical storm with heavy rains and cyclonic
winds exceeding 119 km per hour (74
mph), occurring in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Hurricanes originate in the tropical parts of
the Atlantic Ocean or the Caribbean Sea and
move generally northward. They lose force
when they move over land or colder ocean
waters

Formation of a Hurricane
• Off the coast of Africa between June 1 and November 30
convectional disturbances come to the Caribbean
1. Convection produces thunderstorms and heavy rainfall which
produces a continuous uplift of air, cooling to produce tall
clouds
2. As the vapour rises it cools and condenses releasing great
energy producing warmness higher up encouraging clouds to
futher rise and condense
3. Cumulonimbus clouds are formed
4. Pressure drops due to the rising air forcing more air and
vapour into the system
5. Coriolis force imparts a spinning effect and pressure decreases
in the system
6. Strong and powerful winds are formed.

Features of A Hurricane
• Extremely low pressure
• Strong winds
• Heavy convectional rainfall
• First half normally has winds spiralling in from the
north-west & west with increasing intensity until
the eyewall with max force
• When the eye passes there is relative calm with
sinking winds
• Second half arives with SW and SE winds

Earthquakes and Volcanoes
• The theory of Plate Tectonics states that the
Earth’s crust is composed of several large slabs
or plates of rigid crustal materials and some
smaller ones in continuous movement.
• Where one plate meets another that is called
a plate boundary or margin

Divergent Plate Margins
• At these type of plate margins two plates are moving apart
(DIVERGE) from each other in opposite directions.
• Convection currents moving in opposite directions (caused by the
intense heat of the Earth's interior) in the mantle move two plates
apart. As these plates move apart this leaves cracks and
fissures, lines of weakness, that allows magma from the mantle to
escapes from the highly pressurised interior of the planet.
• This magma fills the gap and eventually erupts onto the surface and
cools as new land. this can create huge ridges of undersea
mountains and volcanoes such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and
where these mountains poke above the level of the sea islands are
created. Both earthquakes and volcanoes can result at these
margins, the earthquakes caused by the movement of magma
through the crust. A reall

Convergent Plate Margins
• At these margins 2 plates move or CONVERGE together and
the Destruction of some of the Earth's crust results. An oceanic
plate (denser) is pushed towards a continental plate (less dense) by
convection currents deep within the Earth's interior.
• The oceanic plate is subducted (pushed under) the continental plate
at what is called a subduction zone, creating a deep ocean
trench. It is the Oceanic crust which sinks down into the mantle
because it is denser (heavier). As it descends friction, increasing
pressure and heat from the mantle melt the plate.
• Some of this molten material can work its way up through the
continental crust through fissures and cracks in the crust to collect
in magma chambers. This is often some distance from the margin
where magma can eventually re-emerge at the surface to create a
range of mountains. The movement of the plates grinding past one
another can create earthquakes,

Transform Plate Margins
• Transform boundaries (Conservative) occur
where plates slide or, perhaps more
accurately, grind past each other
along transform faults. The relative motion of
the two plates is either sinistral (left side
toward the observer) or dextral (right side
toward the observer). The San Andreas
Fault in California is an example of a transform
boundary exhibiting dextral motion.

Earthquakes
• Earthquake is a vibration or a series of vibrations
due to sudden movement of crustal rocks. They
occur wherever stresses build up within the crust
as result of crustal plate movements (transform).
As stress is applied to an area the rocks will
gradually bend to accommodate the forces being
exerted. Eventually, however the stresses will
become so great that they will exceed the
strength of the rocks which will then
break, releasing large amount of energy. This
sudden release of energy produces an
earthquake.

Earthquakes
• The location of the stress within the crust is
called the focus, and the position on the earth's
surface, directly above the focus is called the
epicenter, with the vibrations spreading outwards
in concentric circles from the point. The effect
that an earthquake has on the surface depends
on the types of rocks near the focus as well as the
distance from the epicenter. When earthquakes
originate under the ocean, it causes a disturbance
of the water which, then results in tsunamis
being generated.

Effects of Earthquakes
• Destruction of life and property and this is
accompanied by disruption of communication lines, in
addition to this is the outbreak of uncontrollable fires
from broken gas lines.
• The earthquake triggers landslides and rock fall.
• Gigantic waves called tsunamis result in destruction of
coastal areas For exam in 1692 great damage was done
to Annotto Bay, Buff Bay and Port Antonio in Jamaica In
addition, 35 of 115 French buccaneers who were
raiding the town St. Ann's Bay were killed by both the
Earthquake and tsunami waves.

Volcanoes
• There are three types of volcanoes - lava cone, ash and
cinder cone and composite cone - based on the
material which makes up the volcano. In addition
volcanoes are classified according to their level of
activity.
• The active volcanoes are the ones "which erupt or
show.,; signs of eruption on a regular basis. The
dormant volcanoes are the sleeping ones which have
not eruption for a long time but have signs or
grumbling. The extinct ones are those which have not
erupted for centuries; they have practically died out.

Volcanoes
• The Caribbean region is part of the belt of
volcanic activity in the world. There are many
evidences of volcanic activities in the region.
These include Soufriere eruption in St.., Vincent
in 1979, Mt. Pelee eruption in 1902 and the
Soufriere eruption in Montserrat in 1995. In
addition to these there are many evidences of
volcanism such as Crater Lake in
Grenada, volcanic plugs in St. Lucia, fumeroles
which sends out steam and gases and sulphur
dioxide (St Lucia and Dominica)

Effects of Volcanoes
• Positive impacts
• Valuable minerals such as gold, nickel copper in areas such as Pakaraima
area in Guyana
• Good farming soil from weathered volcanic rocks e.g. slopes of Mt. Misery
in St. Kitts
• Hot springs which are potential for thermal energy in countries such as St.
Lucia and Dominica
• Major tourist attraction - sulphur springs in St. Lucia, boiling lake in
Dominica
Export of pumice rock - Dominica
• Creates consciousness among Caribbean people as to the threat of natural
disa;
• Causes governments to enforce building codes to mitigate against the
effects earthquakes and other natural disasters

Effects of Volcanoes
• Negative impacts
• Destruction of lives and property; displacement of
people and sometimes loss of culture
• Pollution due to contamination of water supply by
ash, dirt and gases.
• Poisonous gases released into the atmosphere
resulting in respiratory ailments
• Mudflows which destroy vegetation and infrastructure
• Changes in weather pattern due to clouds of ash which
decrease the amount of sunlight reaching the earth

Effects of Natural Disasters on the
Caribbean
• IMPACT OF NATURAL DISASTER IN THE REGION
• relocation of settlements - volcanic eruption in Montserrat, earthquake in
Royal, Hurricane Ivan (Portland Cottage)
• Reconstruction of schools, houses businesses and roads
• Discomfort of having to live in emergency shelters - little privacy & over
• Migration( internal/external)
• Destruction of crops - bananas in Jamaica, windward islands, sugar cane,
• Loss of life, injury respiratory illnesses
• Psychological stress- homes destroyed life changed - Post Ivan Stress
• Adherence to building codes and location
• Increased emphasis on disaster preparedness and mitigation education
• Training for disaster relief
• Increased COL -insurance costs, price gouging (food, building material etc.)

Expected Learning Objectives
1. Explain what is meant by social institution and social
organizations
2. Describe the role that social institution and social
organizations play in society and culture
3. Compare different sociological perspectives on social
institutions
4. Describe the history and evolution of selected social
institutions in the Caribbean
5. Analyse how the family, education, religion and the
justice system impacts individuals, groups and other
social institutions in Caribbean Society and culture

Social Institutions
• These embody all the ideas and beliefs of
members of the society about how they think
their lives should be organized.
• Dominant ideas and beliefs are those usually of
the ruling class or the rich and powerful and tend
to be the ones people find legitimate
• Minority and weaker beliefs are also apart of he
social institution but are not felt to be legitimate
by the majority of the society and so may be
suppressed and alienated.

Social Institutions
• These ideas are normally in competition with one
another for supremacy. So how can ideas be the
building block of an entire society.
• Each institution becomes tangible through social
organizations. So religious beliefs of the Christian
are made tangible through the church.
• The ideas and beliefs forming the institution
become concrete in the society through social
organisations which reflect how these ideas are
held

Social Institution
• Socialization is the process through which the
cherished ideas and beliefs of on generation
become the cherished ideas of the next.
• Members are born into a society where they
are socialized into accepting the social
institutions that organize that society however
if they are born into peripheral groups then
they will feel the institution as oppressive.

Social Institution
• In each institution there are values (ideas on how
something should be ranked in society), norms
(yardsticks and standards that have evolved on
how we should act), statuses (assigned positions
or locations), and roles (expectations of
behaviour)
• They are then the fundamental building blocks of
society and vary over time and are based on the
ideals which the people of the society have on
accomplishing the tasks of living together
collectively

The Family
• Nancie Solien defines the family as "group of
people bound by that complex set of
relationships known as kinship ties“
• It is the basic unit within society which
ensures continued existence of society -
procreation of new generations; it is within
the family that sexual activity; child bearing;
maintenance, support and socialization of the
young are performed.

Historical Context
• Analysing the dominant and subordinate ideas about
the family in the Caribbean
– Amerindian traditions of raising the family have
disappeared for example initiation rights of young Kalinago
boys as warriors
– African extended networks during slavery ensured familial
support through matrifocal relationships and extended kin
– The European dominant idea of the nuclear family was
brought to the Caribbean entrenched in the society yet
most of the population has matrifocal families
– Indians brought the extended family through the joint
household with a strong patriarchal family structure with
emphasis on early marriage

The myth of the nuclear family
• The ethnocentric notion of the co-residential
nuclear family has been indoctrinated into the
Caribbean psyche
• European scholars interpreted the diversity of
Caribbean family systems as inferior and unstable
later labelling our females as promiscuous and
our males as irresponsible
• Missionaries and authorities seemed to believe
marriage as the salvation for the region

The myth of the nuclear family
• Despite our many single parent, unwed couples,
visiting arrangements, several partners and
matrifocal households the bias towards the
nuclear family is at the heart of these other
systems as negative
• This ethnocentric stereotype that males are to be
the authority figures and women are to be the
homemakers has also added a portrayal that any
other arrangement is unstable and irregular

Caribbean family forms
• The diversity of Caribbean family forms has been
theorized in to originate in three different ways
1. African Retentions: Matrifocal families are typical of
West Africa where polygamy is practiced and wives
are accommodated in separate households. This
view acknowledges slavery as a factor which altered
the family structure somewhat
2. Slavery: Others believe that cultural retentions such
as family life couldn’t have survived through slavery.
The unions that the enslaved were forced to
undergo influenced the family forms we see today.
Marriage was rare, cohabitation was irregular &
children remained with their mothers.

Caribbean family forms
3. Economic Thesis: Which states that since slavery
ended more than 150 years ago other factors
such as poor women wanting to enter sexual
relations for money. Since men were not usually
very wealthy women had to seek successive
relationships to make money. Children were not
seen as liabilities but means for the household
to survive. Critics of this thesis easily state that
affairs happen at all social strata.

Caribbean Family Forms
• Despite the diversity of our Caribbean Family
forms they are normal for the people using
them and fulfil the same function any family
anywhere should provide to its members.
• The main focus of Caribbean family forms isn’t
the composition of the household like in the
nuclear family, but the extended network of
kin which arises.

Caribbean Family Forms
• Practices such as godparenthood and fictive kinship
(ex. ‘Aunty Karen’ when she’s actually your mothers
friend), are chosen to provide support to the child and
become as close as kin in some cases.
• The practice of child shifting i.e. leaving a child with a
relative while a parent migrates, etc. reflects the idea
that the extended family is meant to shoulder
responsibilities.
• An analogy is for example family ownership of land. No
one member can claim land ownership so cooperation
and shared responsibility for it is essential. This
concept is alien in most European societies.

Functionalist Perspective on Family
• Functionalists say that the family should carry out several
functions for order, stability and harmony in
society, including:
• Reproduction
• Socialization
• Economic function
• Provision of love and a sense of belongingness
• These functionalist ideas and values provide a basis for the
common interpretation of the institution of the family
across the region. The family is seen as the basic unit of
society. If these functions are carried out in an optimal
manner and if everyone plays a role, then families would be
happy and society would not be threatened by an
breakdown of social order

Marxist/Conflict Perspective on the
Family
• For the conflict theorist, families are associated with exploitation,
oppression and domination. Nuclear families in particular are seen as
products of capitalism where labour has to move where employment is
located leaving behind the extended family. Conflict theorists also argue
that the values attributed to nuclear family units are a result of the values
imposed by the rich and powerful in the society.
• The nuclear family form also fits into the capitalist plans in that there is a
sexual division of labour where the man works outside, and the woman
stays at home and carries out the roles of wife, mother and homemaker.
• Conflict theorists believe that the “assigning of roles” in a family has
contributed to family oppression, abuse and violence. This is because
what results is an unequal distribution of power that jeopardizes gender
relations and even produces generational conflict.
• Even children are affected by this assignment of roles as they are expected
to be obedient and subservient and many of them are powerless because
their voices are silenced.

Impact of the family
• This can be assessed through the effect on the
individual, the group and through other
institutions and is based on the norms and
values the family type has

• Individual
– Individuals in each family will have different
perceptions of the norms and values instilled on
them by it. For example the patriarchal structure
of the Indian extended family instils that males
must be obeyed so a girl in the family has a much
different experience than the eldest son

• Groups
• The idea of kin impacts different groups as follows:
– African families: Kin in these families include anyone related by
blood and by fictive kinship ties. Kin can be perceived as
beneficial as they usually help members of the family for
example through remittances but can be seen as burdensome if
you are expected to help an endless succession of family
members
– Muslim families: Kinship here also includes the idea of
polygamy. In the Caribbean this practice isn’t intense but when
it occurs such families are scrutinized and often restricts social
interaction with outsiders.
– Women: Caribbean women often see themselves as locked into
certain predetermined roles such as the caregiver/nurturer.
Some come home and basically have a second shift of doing
domestic chores. These roles are often disadvantage in
comparison to men & is an example of gender socialization

• Institutions
• Ideas about the social institution of the family can
affect other institutions and even the family itself as
dominant and alternative values and norms often
compete for legitimacy.
– The family: The nuclear family has been at odds for a long
time with the ideas of Caribbean family forms.
Functionalist perspective, where the family is seen as an
agent which ensures stability has been misinterpreted as
scholars often see the diversity of Caribbean families while
not accepting the fact that they have the same functions
as other types. However as of recent new more expanded
views of the family have been accepted as legitmate.

– Education: The family impacts education in many
ways. For example parental support is proven in
most cases to improve academic performance.
Also research evidence has proven that lower
socio-economic families are more reluctant to
interact with the school environment.

Education
• This institution is primarily concerned with
socializing members of the society into the
norms, knowledge and skills to which it deems
important (just like religion and the family)
• Education can be through primary
socialization (informal i.e. living in society) or
through secondary socialization (teaching
through formal means like in school)

Historical Context of Education
• Formal education during slavery was only formal and
meant for Europeans.
• The Spanish however gave religious instruction to their
slaves while the British felt that any type of education
would increase salve capacity to think increasing the
probability of rebellion.
• After 1834 the Negro Education Act that elementary
schools would be built in the British Caribbean. The
rationale behind this was these schools would help ex-
slaves make the transition towards a free society.
• Elements such as reading, writing and arithmetic were
encouraged. The Bible was the main text and English values
were heavily steeped through songs, poems, etc.
(remember Colonial Girls School)

• Elementary education meant that the education
wasn’t meant to go any further to primary or
secondary because the planter class felt that it
may upset the social order (which it kinda did)
• They were a few secondary schools with charged
fees based on the English classical curriculum.
• Many Caribbean scholars can through the system
to attend prestigious universities such as Oxford
and Cambridge and returned as lawyers, writers
and scholars who challenged the colonial system
(told you).

• Ideas of education from the Caribbean perspectives in
these times included
1. Education was the primary means to upwards social mobility
2. Elites sought to block primary and secondary education as it
was believed that the status quo would be damaged. The
general populace were upset at these tactics to prevent their
success.
3. Secondary curricula was steeped in Euro-centric values and
culture as the belief was that only education in British ideals
would develop us.
4. Only the ‘bright’ students should be taught at the secondary
level and beyond as shown through streaming and the
Common Entrance Examinations.
5. More emphasis was placed at going to ‘good’ schools as it was
believed that only at such schools could children receive high
achievement

• Less dominant ideas include:
1. Educating students with disabilities is to house such
students separately where they can get
individualized attention. The idea of mainstreaming
students is less popular hence in our system
mechanisms to care for students with disabilities are
in large part absent
2. Home schooling is undertaken by families who
believe that teaching students in public schools
exposes them to wide variety of unsavoury
occurrences (violence, etc.).

Purposes of Education
• In purpose of education right after slavery was to
inculcate English customs and values so that governing
ex-slaves would be easier.
• To the enslaved though education was seen as a
primary means of upward social mobility – a belief
which is still here with us today.
• The 20th Century belief is more complex as now it is
mandatory for children to be educated the idea is that
not all children will contribute equally to the society
after they have been educated so differentiation
practices such as streaming to ensure ‘bright’ children
would get qualifications

• Tertiary education was seen the same way as
only the academic elite were expected to go
to university ensuring them status as a part of
the intelligentsia (professional and intellectual
class)
• It can be observed therefore that education
organizes the opportunities and life chances of
children.

• Another view is that education contributes to social
cohesion, enabling people to come together. This view was
seen through the ideas of 19th century colonial authorities
who believed that if people were exposed to a similar
curriculum and values they probability of socialization and
integration into the society would increase
• Education was also seen as a means economic
development as it grants skills which ensures a productive
workforce seeing people as human capital
• Recently postmodern thinkers have associated human
development to education increasing peoples chances to
develop themselves etc. (see Mod 2)
• Education in modern times is seen as a human right for all
no matter the disabilities and disadvantages

Impact of Education
• Individuals
– It is expected to confer social mobility on
individuals. However the tremendous weight of
credentials to achieving mobility can confer low
self-esteem and feelings of inadequacy which can
lead to under-achievement.

Impact of Education
• Groups
– There are different impacts on different socio-
economic groups. Theorists say schools have a middle-
class bias and are intrinsically set up to reward
children who already have the cultural capital to
succeed in the academic world. This can be seen
through how middle class children can code-switch
while speaking which offers them more opportunities
for interaction and varied experience as contrasted
with working class children who cannot code switch
switch from creole which reduces the likelihood of
academic success.

Impact of Education
• Institution
– Religion and education in the Caribbean
perspective are intrinsically linked as many
denominational churches made serious attempts
to educate children in the colonial era. The Jesuits,
Baptists etc. have produced very high demand
schools which place a major focus on religion
therefore religious instruction is emphasised in
the socialization of the students.

Religion
• "Men in every society throughout the ages
have pondered over questions dealing with
such matters as existence, purpose and
divinity. To help explain the
unexplainable, provide a sense of purpose in
life and make the unknown future less
threatening, every society' has developed the
institution of religion"(Campbell, 2002).

Historical Context of Religion
• Ideas of the dominant class usually are
perpetuated in religious beliefs. The system of
religion in the Caribbean has been a struggle
between the ideas of the dominant Europeans
and colonized peoples.
• Syncretism and Hybridization have re-created
the institutions of religion primarily through the
Africans and Amerindians adopting many
European forms and practices into their own
traditions from slavery until now.

• Our peoples did accept the religious beliefs of the
smaller denominations who came as missionaries so
Caribbean countries have wide varieties of Christianity.
• Religion is influenced by the stratification of society
where Europeans and Coloureds normally attended
mainstream religions and more syncretic religious
forms were associated with the poorer groups. Dual
membership often existed where people would have
formal alliances with a mainstream religion but still
would practice traditional forms such as in Cuba with
Santeria.

• After emancipation syncretic religious forms flourished
such as Myal as well as African ones such as Vodun. Laws
were often passed to restrict these practices such as the
Obeah Act in Jamaica which outlawed its practice.
• Resistance also created other distinctive worldviews such
as through Rastafari formed in the 1930’s in Jamaica based
on Marcus Garvey’s philosophies.
• In the 19th Century in Trinidad, Guyana and Suriname there
were Hindus belonging to various sects who have schools
today. Many Hindus were also converted to
Presbyterianism due to the Canadian missions there who
marketed it as a means towards upward mobililty

• US missionaries especially in the last half of
the 20th century have brought their unique
brand of Pentecostalism and Fundamentalism
to the region.

Impact of Religion
• Individuals
– Religion can be a source of oppression. For
example the oppression of women in almost all
mainstream and alternative religions

Impact of Religion
• Groups
– Religion can help groups maintain solidarity and
keep their traditions alive in the face of globalizing
western culture. For example the Garifuna still
practice many of their African customs today.

Impact of Religion
• Institutions
– Religion is seen as a major factor in the establishment
of the Justice system as countries with different
religious systems have usually varying Justice systems.
For example Sharia Law vs Western legal system based
on Christianity
– Some religious laws have various tenets which bind
their believers which can affect interaction with other
institutions for example Jehovah’s Witnesses do not
believe in blood transfusion altering relationships with
heath care professionals
– Religion also has an immense ability to generate
conflict in a society especially among Plural societies.

The Justice System
• This refers to the ideas and beliefs a society have
about protecting and preserving the rights and
obligations of citizens through the political and
Judicial framework in a country.
• Political Framework: idea that citizens entrust
power to representatives to make
decisions, defend and uphold their interests
• Legal Framework: the system of laws which are
fair to all persons and enshrined within a
constitution.

Historical Context
• The Justice system in the Caribbean evolved out
of our history of colonialism, resistance and
independence.
• As Captives the native people were treated so
badly that in 1512 with the help of Montesinos
and Las Casas, The Laws of Burgos were created
to help protect them from the harsh treatment,
convert them to Christianity but strangely still
allowed Ecomienda. These ‘rights’ were in large
part ignored

Historical Context
• Under slavery, African people had no rights and were
classified as chattel (property) while Europeans
through being white possessed power over them. In
Spanish Colonies La Siete Partidas and in the French
Colonies the Code Noir each laid down laws including
provisions for slave property. In the British Colonies
Assemblies were established made of the planter class
who enacted laws to control, subdue and coerce slaves
• This is why Caribbean law has such heavy sanctions for
property offences in its legal systems

Historical Context
• There was no true fairness as laws inclusive of
penalties and rewards were based on the rigid
system of racial stratification in the society.
• There were however alternative ideas and
resistance movements threatened the stability of
the colony such as missionaries who often
attempted to educate Africans to some extent
and tried to instil some semblance of Human
rights to the African population – not necessarily
which would result in freedom.

Historical Context
• The military nature of the Haitian Revolution in 1804
which resulted in the freedom of Haitian Africans
ensured that the justice system there became
dominated by fear and intimidation despite Her people
having their rights enshrined with a constitution.
• Emancipation occurred for the rest of the Caribbean
after 1834 and eventually blacks and coloureds won
representation in colonial assemblies. Independence
resulted in most Caribbean countries having some form
of the Westminster Model of government.
• To achieve political enfranchisement we were forced to
adopt European judicial and legislative systems

Historical Context
• The evolution of our justice system originated
from the strong insistence of ensuring basic
human rights for the mass of our citizens
inclusive of freedom of expression, of assembly,
respect of private property, fair trial, vote and run
for public office.
• However due to stratification of our society there
are entrenched inequalities of the lower income
brackets in terms of acquiring the full
representation of the Justice system.

Functionalist perspective of the justice
system
• Functionalists believe that values about justice, equality and
fairness are universally acclaimed as good and form the basic
framework for society. Society has to have ways of dealing with
those who break the laws of society because they contribute to
disorder and disharmony leading to chaos and confusion.
• Functionalist created the institutions of the justice system to take
care of such deviants- by one or more of the
following, punishment, deterrence or rehabilitation. The police
force and the court system have a role to perform. Deviant
behaviour is explained is explained largely in terms of breakdown in
the family socialization process or how individuals react to changes
in society. For example, the anomie theory says that there are
socially accepted means of obtaining the rewards of society but
those who cannot access the rewards through these means will try
other socially

Conflict/Marxist Perspective on Justice
System
• According to Marxist thought the justice system is another institution that
forms part of the state apparatus. It functions to maintain the wealthy in
power and by extension seeks to oppress others and discriminate against
them.
• The view is that the inequalities of society are brought on by capitalism
which helps to isolate poorer class who cannot access better jobs. So the
acts of crime that these individuals may commit could be regarded as a
rebellion against their situation.
• Marxist believe that there is a superstructure that includes the police
service and the law courts which functions to control the activities of the
poor. Criminal statistics are used as a device to blame social problems on
the working class. This is evidence of unequal law enforcement, says
Marxist, because the many crimes of the wealthy go either unreported or
unpunished. In sum, social order is imposed by the powerful on the
powerless and is not based on shared values. The justice system serves
the interest of the elites and is not about social integration.

Impact of the Justice System on
Society
• Individuals
– Laws may or may not respect an individual’s rights
to cultural differences. Ex. A man’s cultural right to
have several wives may not be respected legally
– Laws be respected legally but not at another
organization such as a school. Ex. A girl’s legal
right to wear a skirt 5 inches above her knees may
not respected.

Impact of the Justice System
• Groups
– Constitutions may restrict the rights of certain
groups as they see fit. Ex. Persons under 18 are
not allowed to vote.
– Laws may also discriminate between certain
groups ex. People over 65 are allowed to retire
while in certain jobs people are not allowed to
retire early with benefits (i.e. ageism)

Impact of the Justice System
• Institutions
– Claims of justice may be represented to protect
members of institutions such as the Family
through Family Court, etc.

INTERACTING WITH THE WIDER
WORLD

1. Explain how imperial and colonial policies affect
Caribbean Society and Culture
2. Describe Neo-colonial and Post Colonial Aspects of
Caribbean society and culture
3. Assess how the Identity of Caribbean People has been
influenced by Colonialism
4. Discuss the influence of consumption patterns, creative
expression, politics and sport of extra regional territories
on the Caribbean
5. Analyse the impact of the Caribbean on the extra-regional
societies using examples from
politics, economics, creative expression, religion and the
culinary arts.

Imperialism and Colonization
• The Age of Imperialism began with the coming of the
Europeans who conquered lands and established colonies
in carved up regions in the world. These powers ruled their
subjects through fear and psychological conditioning to
promote European culture as superior
• During colonialism territories became settled in European
attitudes, culture and political systems which became
hegemonic in the Caribbean. The metropole (mother
country) exerted all influence in the colony while the colony
wasn’t allowed to have its own identity.
• The colonizer instilled economic patterns which only
allowed it to become profitable while instilling a belief that
colonized would never achieve equality.
• The culture of the colonizer was also regarded with praise
and reverence while the culture of the colonized was met
with disdain

Neocolonial and postcolonial societies
• The dominant attitudes and cultural norms today still reflect the
metropole rather than the periphery. There is therefore a belief
that the legacy of the colonizer is still hegemonic despite our
independence.
• Indigenous efforts to regain legitimacy of our syncretic cultures
have been largely ignored
• Also Multinational companies also threaten to hinder whatever
independence we do have. As they normally export their profits
outside the region after ‘investing’ here. There is a general
imbalance in trading relationships. These relationships between the
ex-colonizer and the excolonized today are labelled as neocolonial.
• Postcolonial society is a term to describe how these neocolonial
relationships of continued dominance and subjugation affect
people in the ex-colonies.

Influence of Extra-regional countries
on the Caribbean
• Postcolonial theory shows how the dominance of the
West is perpetuated, resisted and integrated into
Caribbean society and culture through the interactions
between the metropole a periphery through
socialization and can be broken down into:
1. Consumption Patterns
2. Creative Expression
3. Political Influences
4. Migration
5. Sport
6. Tourism

Consumption Patterns
• Western countries have profoundly influenced
consumption patterns in the Caribbean. Colonial
policies for many years have skewered our
economic relationships with them by prohibiting
us from Manufacturing and encouraging
dependency.
• Despite attempts to combat this people still view
European products as superior so we can
conclude that this reflects a mindset privileging
western values.

Consumption Patterns
• This can be analysed through
– The value of assessing what is foreign whether through
clothes, ideas or music – is somehow better than the local
alternatives is viewed as a sort of self hate imposed by the
colonized on the colonizer
– The extreme importance placed on being modern. Having
the most up to date western products is a matter of course
because since the West is the pacesetter we just have to
follow the trend
– Building social capital through brand names etc. has been
seen as a way to confer approval from peers. Those
without brands are seen with disdain as losers.
– The ‘Universal’ Caribbean feeling that the US is a must go
place where it is even said that having a holiday visa is a
status symbol because ‘foreign’ is the centre of the world

Creative Expression
• Our expressions are unique among themselves
and show strong influences especially among
extra-regional territories through:
– Festivals
– Music
– Theatre
– Cuisine
• Which both effect and have been affected by
Extra-regional territories

Festivals
• Effects on the Caribbean by extra-regional territories:
– Western territories and more specifically former colonizers
directly influence our society and culture through
observances of certain religious days such as Easter and
Christmas. We also celebrate them in a similar way in the
Caribbean including the immense role mass media and
commercialization have on certain religious days.
– Secular festivals such as New Years’ Eve, Fathers’ Day and
Valentines day have penetrated our culture due specifically
to the US. Halloween hasn’t yet penetrated but is on the
rise. All these celebrations have also been immensely
commercialized as well due to mass media.

Festivals
• Impacts on Extra Regional Countries
In the Caribbean Diaspora, festivals have come to play a big role in the
lives of the migrants. In North America (Canada and USA), England and
elsewhere, large Caribbean festivals are staged featuring our
music, food, craft, fashion and general culture.
NOTTING HILL CARNIVAL (England)
• This carnival is staged in Notting Hill, London on the last weekend in
August (since 1956). It began with the black immigrants from W.I
especially from Trinidad. It served as a form of uniting the
immigrants who were facing racism, unemployment, poor housing
and general oppression which led to the suppression of their self
esteem
• Hill festival reflected a blend of old and new - the Caribbean
carnival with the English summer. It became the vehicle for protest
and demonstration on part of immigrant but later became the
model for other different and smaller festivals. It helped to focus on
and encourage respect for Caribbean traditions through the
melding of Calypso and reggae

Festivals
CARIBANA (Canada)
• Every summer, Toronto (Canada) blazes with calypso, steel pan and
masquerade costumes during the annual Caribbean Festival.
Caribana is the largest Caribbean festival in North America. The
two-week Festival attracts over a million participants annually,
including hundreds of thousands of American tourists. Among the
highlights is the Caribbean Parade, one of the largest in North
America. Thousands of costumed masqueraders and dozens of
trucks carrying live soca , calypso, steel pan, reggae and salsa artists
jam the 1.5 km parade route all day
• Outdoor concerts and glamorous dances round out the
entertainment. Caribana was created in 1967. Based on Trinidad
Carnival, the Festival exhibits costumes of Jamaica, Guyana, the
Bahamas. Toronto's Caribana Festival is a complex hybrid inheriting
aspects from most of the region. Coincidentally, Toronto's Caribana
Festival falls on the anniversary of the emancipation from slavery in
Trinidad (August 1, 1834),

Festivals
LABOUR DAY IN BROOKLYN (USA)
• The West Indian American Day Carnival is the biggest
parade in New York with 3 million participants each
year. The parade depicts costumes, illustrating beauty
and pageantry with many masqueraders and live
performers. The parade begins at 1 am and ends at 6
There are live performers in front of the viewing stage
at the Brooklyn Library.
• The people of the Caribbean have exported their
carnival traditions to Canada, England, several US
cities. However the New York version of this
celebration far exceeds any like celebration in the US.

Music
• Caribbean music has developed from African,
European and Asian mix with African music having the
dominant role.
• The African characteristics in Caribbean music are
– close relationship between rhythm and speech tone (as in
calypso)
– spontaneity in rhythm and melody
– willingness of performers to extemporize
– polyphony: emphasis on many voices and parts in music
and the bringing these voices in harmony as well as
keeping them separate
– arrangement of complicated rhythms

Music
• Impact of Extra-Regional Countries on music
• Most of our successful musical forms have been developed
through themes of resistance from our history of
oppression through colonization and stratification explain
the fact they (calypso, ska, reggae) originated among the
poor whether Trinidad or Jamaica
• Reggae has always been associated with resistance and
Rastafari as its message of defiance against British authority
has linked together all who have been oppressed likewise
Calypso sought to expose inequalities like racism and
political/religious oppression from the Roman Catholic
Church in Trinidad with wit and satire

Music
• Impact on Extra-regional territories
• Steelband men or pannists have gone abroad and
settled and have taught citizens and tune the pans.
Today steelband music is on the curriculum of some
schools in America and the fashioning of the pans is a
growing skill, which has potential to contribute to the
economies of these countries in North America and
Europe. Oc saw over 600 pannists from Europe, North
America and Caribbean taking part in International
Steel band Festival. There is the Pan European
Association promoter development of the pan in
Europe.

Music
• In Zambia, Sunsplash is staged in Lusaka each
year. Reggae music is being used to market
products like Levi jeans, it is being used in
movies-arid has been incorporated into other
musical forms like Jan rock. The University of
Vermont even has a course in the Rhetoric of
Reggae.

Music
• The staging of Reggae Sunsplash festival has
caught on in all parts of the world Japan and
North America attesting to the roots that
reggae has spread to all parts of the world.
Reggae is now incorporated into music of
other countries e.g. Sayoko ha Sukiyaki to
reggae, in Nicaragua protest songs against the
government.

Cuisine
• Extra-regional influence on the Caribbean
– Cuisine in the Caribbean has a high degree of creative
adaptations of the food traditions of
Europe, India, China and Pre-Columbian peoples
including their creolization
– For example the use of saltfish or salted cod in
Jamaica has its origin from the importation of slat or
smoked fish from the British colony of Canada to feed
the slaves. Also other culinary traditions like the
consumption of intestines (tripe) and other animal
parts not prime from eating originated via slavery
– Rise of Western style ‘fast foods’

Cuisine
• Our influence on Extra-regional territories
– There has been limited acceptance of Caribbean culinary
practices, foods, seasonings and beverages in mainstream
America and Europe. The little acceptance there is tends to
focus in the large cities where there are concentrations of
Caribbean people- Miami, London, Toronto, New York.
These food and products are largely purchased by the
immigrants.
– Evidence that Caribbean foods are not widely accepted can
be seen in the lack of representative in menus across UK,
USA and Canada
– In Britain places like Brixton market however imported
Caribbean produce has become a familiar sight and an
important part of the economy.

Political Influence
• Extra-regional influence on us
– In the 60’s and 70’s while the region was gaining independence the
model of government that was instilled was the Westminster system.
This happened throughout the British Empire and today these
independent former British Governments make up the
Commonwealth
– This system is a parliamentary government where the head of
government is the Prime Minister and depends on the parliamentary
body for his/her position meaning that there is no clear separation of
powers between the executive (cabinet, PM) and the legislature
(MP’s, senate, etc). In Constructional monarchies there is usually a
head of state (Governor General) with mostly ceremonial powers.
– During the era of decolonization this system was imposed on us
without our input. Two Houses were installed – the lower house
(House of Representatives) and the upper House (Senate)
– The electoral system imposed was First Past the Post where candidates
run for a seat in parliament based on constituency. The candidate who
polls most vote in a constituency wins. Therefore for party to win the
election they must get majority seats

Political Influence
• Our influence on them
– Political influence of Caribbean on outside world is based mainly on
the issue of migration that Caribbean nationals have been associated
with from the beginning of the century.
– Faced with this large immigrant population, the population is in a
position to form groups to influence policy making on issues such as
education, unionization, discrimination.
– Immigrants are usually supporters of the status quo and so they
generally accept the norms and values of these societies. They form a
pool of voters or whom politicians rely on to vote in a conservative
manner ex Cubans and Dominicans in Miami
– The Caribbean impact in politics is quite evidentthe US, in the number
of state and city legislators of Caribbean heritage during national
elections. The first African-American woman to sit in congress and to
run for the presidency was a Caribbean national - Shirley Chisholm.
The first non-white chairman oft Joint Chief of Staffs and Secretary of
State was a Caribbean - Colin Powell

Migration
• Extra-regional influence on us
• The Culture of migration that characterizes Caribbean
societies sees migration as means better life. This has
resulted in major cities in the North Atlantic
(USA, Canada, England) are heavily populated with
Caribbean nationals
• Positive effects include
• Training of skilled individuals who migrate and contribute to the
Caribbean
• Remittances from foreign workers
• Negative effects include
• Brain Drain
• Racism and unfair treatment in these countries
• Injustices felt by seasonal workers who are segregated by the general
populace on orchards or handed down menial jobs
• The mindset that better opportunities lie by going Abroad

Migration• Our influence on extra-regional territories
• In US the Caribbean nationals are more socio-economically mobile than
African- Americans and Hispanic (New York's Newsday Newspaper
Survey). Thus they represent not only very significant power (over 1
billion per annum) but they generate jobs and contribute to the
development of the areas they choose to reside in.
– Caribbean nationals helped to rebuild the war tom economies of
Europe (i.e France)
– Brain gain: nationals educated at expense of Caribbean states migrate
to developed countries where they establish themselves thus
contributing to their economy
– Carnival celebrations help to generate millions of dollars to the
economy of Canada and England when Caribbean festivals are held;
boosts tourism; promotion of sales for businesses
– Migrant farm workers have worked in USA and Canada help to harvest
crops before winter
– Offshore banking in the region which provide tax haven for clients in
metropolitan countries- Cayman islands, Bahamas, Turks and Caicos,
Virgin islands

Sport
• Sports and recreation: cricket, soccer, tennis,
netball as well as maypole dances (European
influence); basketball, hip hop, rap, American
football . Halloween (North American influence)
• We are pace setters in sports particularly in
cricket and track and field
– In cricket we invented ‘cutting’ batting as well as
rejuvenated the sport in the 1930’s
– In Track and field Jamaica has a long standing tradition
of doing extremely well… Usain Bolt/Asafa Powell etc.

Tourism
• Tourism Extra-regional impacts on us
– Positive impact: Foreign exchange earnings
retention (cultural/heritage
tourism), infrastructural development
understanding and appreciation of ones culture
– Negative impact : Prostitution, drug
trafficking, environmental pollution
(beaches, damage to coral reefs, erosion through
hotel construction, destruction of natural
vegetation, prejudice, landownership

Rastafarianism
• Impacts
– it was one of the first full-fledged movements to
confront issues of racial identity and prejudice all
over the world with reggae music
– Incited Jamaica's middle-class blacks and then
people all over the world to reflect on the
importance of their African heritage

Caribstudiesmodule1notes

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