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Casting (MIT 2.008x Lecture Slides)

A
A. John Hart

The document provides a comprehensive overview of casting processes in manufacturing, highlighting types such as sand casting, die casting, and investment casting. It discusses advantages, challenges, and characteristics of each method, as well as relevant physical principles like fluidity and solidification. The significance of casting in producing complex geometries and various metal parts is underscored, along with a comparison of different methods based on size, precision, and application.

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2.008x Casting MIT  2.008x Prof.  John  Hart
2.008x
2.008x What  is  casting? Why  is  it  a  useful  and   important  manufacturing   process? How  does  it  compare   and  contrast  to   processes   we  have   studied  already?
2.008x à Casting  is  the  process   whereby  a  part  is  produced  by   solidification  (of  a  molten   metal)  to  take  the  shape  of  a   mold. à Why  casting? § Versatile  to  many  types  of   metals § Potential  for  rapid  and  cost-­ effective  production § Wide  range  of  length  scales   (mm  to  m!) § Complex  part  geometries   (including  internal  cavities) Engine  block  by  160SX  (talk)  -­ 160SX  (talk)'s  file,  CC  BY-­SA  3.0,   https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7899838 Brass  rat  by  Pigsfly33  at  English  Wikipedia,  CC  BY  3.0,  https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=31980643,  
2.008x Casting  and  history Bessemer  steel  converter  (enabled  reduction  of   carbon  content  in  Iron  à steel),  1865 http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/257580 https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-­of-­art/28.77/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer_process#/media/File:Bessemer_converter.jpg (Public   domain)   Left:  Bronze  statue  of  a  man,   Hellenistic  period,  mid-­2nd-­ 1st century  B.C.,  H.  73  in  (185.4  cm) Below:  Herakles  (Son  of  Zeus)
2.008x The  engine  from  the  1903  Wright  Flyer  had  an  aluminum  crankcase.  The  Wrights   contracted  a  local  Dayton  foundry,  the  Buckeye  Iron  and  Brass  Works,  to  cast  the   aluminum  crankcase.  Buckeye  acquired  their  raw  aluminum  from  the  nearby  Pittsburgh   Reduction  Company,  renamed  Alcoa  in  1907,  the  world’s  leading  producer  of  aluminum. http://airandspace.si.edu/explore-­and-­learn/multimedia/detail.cfm?id=5817
2.008x Global  cast  iron  and  steel  production   (millions  of  tons) World  census  of  casting  production:   http://www.afsinc.org/multimedia/contentMCDP.cfm?ItemNumber=16433
2.008x Agenda: Casting § Classification  of  casting  methods § Sand  casting § Die  casting § Casting  process  physics: § Fluidity  and  cooling  (with   demonstration) § Solidification  and  microstructure § Investment  casting § Comparison  and  conclusion
2.008x Casting: 2.Classification  of   casting  methods
2.008x Classification  of  casting  processes General  sequence  (all  casting  processes): § Pattern/mold  making § Melt  preparation § Mold  filling § Cooling  and  solidification § Removal  (‘breakout’)  of  the  parts Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology
2.008x Sand  casting Groover,  Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing
2.008x Important  criteria  for   casting  materials § Melting  point  and  latent  heat § Density  versus  temperature § Solubility  with  other  elements § Diffusion  rates § Reactivity  (especially  to  oxygen) § Outgassing  (vapor  pressure)
2.008x 3000° C 0° C 1000° C 2000° C Tungsten Carbide, WC, Silicon Carbide, SiC Molybdenum Alumina Al2O3 Platinum, Pt Titanium, Ti IronFE, Plain Carbon Steels, low alloy, stainless Nickel, Ni Nickel Allows Cubic Zirconia, ZrO2 Silicon, Si Copper, Cu, Bronze, Brass Aluminum Magnesium Zinc, Zn PTFE (Teflon) Tin, Sn HDPE Nylon Acetal Tungsten  Carbide  (WC) Silicon  Carbide  (SiC) Molybdenum Alumina  (Al2O3;;  2072 oC) Platinum,  Titanium  (1668  oC) Iron  and  steels,  Nickel,  Silicon Copper,  Bronze,  Brass Aluminum  (660  oC) Magnesium Zinc  (420  oC) Tin
2.008x Casting: 3.  Sand  casting
2.008x Sand  casting https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HSOtZj2Y8is  
2.008x Sand  casting § Mold  cavity  is  formed  by  packing   sand  around  a  pattern. § Interior  geometry  is  defined  by  a   core  (disposable). § The  pattern  is  removed  and  the   cavity  has  the  desired  shape. § Sand  for  the  mold  is,  for  example,   90%  sand,  3%  water  and  7%  clay.   Groover,  Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing
2.008x Sand  casting:  key  attributes § Low  surface  detail;;  post-­machining  often  required  for   high  tolerances. § It’s  the  most  common  casting  method  (by  total  weight);;   can  make  VERY  large  parts. § Because  mold  filling  is  gravity-­driven  (more  to  come   later),  must  pay  most  careful  attention  to  flow  and   shrinkage. § It’s  a  (relatively)  labor-­intensive  process  with  long  cycle   time  (why?) § 3D  printing  of  molds  and  complex  cores  (though  one-­ time  use)  can  achieve  previously  impossible  geometries.
2.008x Voxeljet:  3D  printed   sand  molds
2.008x Casting: 4.  Die  casting
2.008x Die  casting  of  aluminum  wheel  caps https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N6ODcxK8_lg  
2.008x Die  casting:  attributes § Pressure:  ~1-­1000  MPa  (how   does  this  compare  to  IM?) § Cycle  time:  ~10’s  of  seconds  for   average  components  (tools/toys) § Parts  have  many  similarities  to   IM,  i.e.,  ejector  pin  marks,   parting  lines,  gates/runners. § Dies  are  endangered  by  heat-­ induced  cracking  and  corrosion   (accelerated  at  high   temperature)  à need  tool-­grade   steel  or  other  special  materials.
2.008x Die  casting:  hot  chamber  method :  cold  chamber  method Groover,  Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing
2.008x Hot  Wheels! Image:  http://www.amazon.com/Hot-­Wheels-­9-­Car-­Gift-­Styles/dp/B006EFMSSM
2.008x Which  processes? 20  for  $15  (Amazon);;  how  is  that  possible?
2.008x
2.008x
2.008x DFM:  Integral  rivets!
2.008x Ferrari  F12  Berlinetta Wheelhouses:   sand  casting Frame  components:   High  pressure  die   casting Top  image:  screenshot  from  http://auto.ferrari.com/en_US/sports-­cars-­models/car-­range/f12-­berlinetta/#design-­360_exterior-­5   Bottom  image:  http://auto.ferrari.com/en_EN/wp-­content/uploads/sites/5/2013/07/architecture11.jpg  
2.008x Casting: 5.  Fluidity  and  cooling
2.008x Surface  tension  and  viscosity Ux(H) = Ux Ux(y) Ux(0) = 0 h Ux y U ∂ ∂ = µτ Surface  tension, σ Dynamic viscosity, μ Water  (25 C) 0.07  N/m 1×10-­3  kg/m-­s  [Pa-­s] Honey  (25  C) ~0.06 ~10   Liquid thermoplastic ~0.03 102-­103 Molten aluminum  (600  C) 0.90 3×10-­3
2.008x Fluid  flow   considerations  for   good  casting Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology à If  gravity-­driven,  pressure  ‘head’   must  be  sufficient  to  overcome  flow   resistance  to  fully  infiltrate  mold   cavity.
2.008x Fluid  flow   considerations  for   good  casting Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology à Flow  must  remain  laminar  to   prevent  air  entrainment.avoid abrupt  direction  change.    Trapped   air  leads  to  ‘dross’  (oxide  flakes) à same  as   μ  (viscosity)
2.008x Testing  ‘fluidity’  for  casting Al  with  increasing   content  of   reinforcing   particles  (SiC) Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology Behera et  al.  “Effect  of  Reinforcement  Particles  on  the  Fluidity  and  Solidification  Behavior  of  the  Stir  Cast  Aluminum  Alloy   Metal  Matrix  Composites”,  American  Journal  of  Materials  Science,  2012;;    2(3):  53-­61
2.008x Demonstration:  Cooling  in  sand  casting  vs.   die  casting  (‘wood’s  metal’)
2.008x Solidification  time Time [s] Temperature[°C] 20 Sand Casting 10 30 40 50 60 70 80 Die Casting 2000 400 600 800 1000 1200
2.008x Chvorinov’s rule § V =  volume  of  the   casting § A =  surface  area  of  the   casting § C =  mold  constant,   depends  on  mold   material  and  thermal   properties  of  casting   metal tsolidify = C ⋅ V A " # $ % & ' n Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology
2.008x Solidification:  sand  cast  versus  die  cast TM! SAND SOLID! LIQUID! T0! 0 tsolidify = C ⋅ V A " # $ % & ' 2 αsand ~0.01  cm2/s TM! METAL SOLID! LIQUID! 0 T0! αsteel ~0.1  cm2/s αaluminum ~0.9  cm2/s tsolidify = C ⋅ V A " # $ % & ' à Like  injection  molding,  but   mold  has  low  thermal  conductivity à Lower-­bound  (assumes   constant  mold  temp)
2.008x Casting: 6.  Solidification  and   microstructure
2.008x Solidification  of  pure  metals § Metal  releases  latent  heat  as  it  freezes;;  this  accounts  for   up  to  ~50%  of  the  energy  transfer. § As  a  result,  solid  and  liquid  co-­exist  in  the  mold  for  a   significant  time. Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology 1/Temperature
2.008x Formation  of  cast  microstructure Columnar Shell  zone   (‘Chill’) grain y oy d k += σσ Hall-­Petch model: smaller  grains   give  higher  strength σ0 =  stress  to  start  dislocation  movement ky =  material  hardening  constant d =  grain  size Grain  size  is   inversely   proportional  to   cooling  rate. Shell  has  finer   grains  à thinner  die   cast  parts  are   typically   stronger Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology
2.008x Alloys:  dendrites  and  the  ‘mushy  zone’ Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology
2.008x Casting: 7.  Defects
2.008xWhat  causes  the  voids?
2.008x Groover,  Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing Shrinkage!
2.008x Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology Shrinkage!
2.008x Casting:  general  defects § Misrun:  solidification  before  complete  filling § Cold  shut:  lack  of  fusion  due  to  premature  freezing § Cold  shot:  metal  splatter  entrapped  in  casting § Shrinkage  cavity:  depression  in  surface  caused  by   solidification  shrinkage  (or  hot  tear  =  internal  void) Groover,  Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing
2.008x Casting: 8.  Investment  casting
2.008x Investment  (‘lost  wax’)  casting Image  from  http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/investment-­casting
2.008x An  industrial  investment  casting  process Screenshot  from:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cptlGzWYFEk
2.008x Investment  casting:  key  points § Use  of  wax  template  enables  excellent  surface  finish   with  little/no  post-­processing. § Ceramic  shell  enables  casting  of  high  melting  point   metals/alloys. § Metal  typically  poured  in  vacuum  oven  (reduces   defects). § Very  labor  intensive  à robots! Why  investment  casting? § Jewelry:  complex  geometries,  high  tolerances  and  fine   features. § Jet  engine  parts:  smooth  surface  finish,  compatibility   with  high  temperature  alloys.
2.008x
2.008x Image  from  ATI  Aerospace  (http://www.slideshare.net/johnpsilk/ati-­jet-­engine);;  see  also   http://www.geaviation.com/commercial/engines/genx/;;  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S1ahHWXGx5Y
2.008x Investment  casting  of  turbine  blades à Careful  control  of  solidification  can  give  single  crystal  blades  (=  very   high  strength  and  fatigue  life  under  cyclic  load  at  high  temperature) Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology Image  at  right  from  http://www.chromalloy.com/files/newspressrelease/7ac07680-­0adb-­460b-­8f27-­f7d47745a4c4.pdf   Great  article:  ‘The  metal  that  brought  you  cheap  flights’  http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-­32749262  
2.008x Casting: 9.  Comparison  and   conclusion
2.008x What  casting  method  was  used  and  why? Die  casting: Small  parts,  precision   features,  good  surface  finish Sand  casting: Larger  parts,  rough   surface  finish Investment  casting: Complex  curves,  good  surface  finish  (at  right) 1 2 3 Aluminum  castings  from  the  sand  mold  (modified):  photograph  taken  by  Glenn  McKechnie -­ Own  work,  CC  BY-­SA  2.0,   https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=109988 An  investment  cast  turbocharger  turbine,  Nuclear  valve  by  Mark  Bolton  -­ CC  BY-­SA  3.0,  https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10729027,   https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6078994
2.008x Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology
2.008x Why  would  I: à Choose  die  casting  instead  of   injection  molding? Need  metal  (strength,  durability)   instead  of  plastic à Choose  investment  casting   instead  of  die  casting? Higher  melting  point  material,   complex  internal  cavities,  high   precision à Choose  machining  instead  of  die   casting? Higher  tolerances;;  better  control  of   microstructure/properties  (can  use   wrought/forged  material)
2.008x Reflection:  the  big  four Sand Investment Die Rate Medium Low High Quality Low Medium High Cost Low Medium High Flexibility Low-­Medium Medium Low
2.008x Top  image  from:   http://www.alcoa.com/global/en/innovation/alcoa_micromill.asp Article:  Automotive  News,  September  14,  2015.
2.008x Continuous  casting  of  aluminum  sheet (Alcoa  ‘micromill’  process) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AH2QcNGM87w http://www.alcoa.com/global/en/innovation/alcoa_micromill.asp Furnace  (molten  Al) Continuously   moving  sheet
2.008x References 1  Introduction Photo  of  Fire  Hydrant  by  User:  KeystonePetPlace on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the  public  domain. Photo  of  Die  Cast  BMW  Car  by  User:  RockyHorror on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the  public  domain. Photo  of  Cast  Elbow  Pipes  by  User:  Dyanap on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the  public  domain. Photo  of  Wheel  Rims  by  User:  Pashminu on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the  public  domain. Photo  of  Jet  Engine  Turbine  by  User:  Michael  Schwarenberger on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the   public  domain. Photo  of  Engine  Block  by  160SX  (160SX  (talk)'s  file)  on  Wikimedia.  (CC  BY-­SA)  3.0 Photo  of  Propeller  Blade  by  User:  seehund on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the  public  domain. Photo  of  MIT  Class  Ring  by  User:  Pigsfly33  on  Wikimedia.  (CC  BY-­SA)  3.0 Image  of  Herakles Statue  ©  2000–2016  The  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art Image  of  Bronze  Statue  of  a  Man  ©  2000–2016   The  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art
2.008x References Image  of  Bessemer  Converter  Diagram  from  "Discoveries  &  Inventions  of  the  Nineteenth  Century"   by  R.  Routledge,  published  1900.  This  work  is  in  the  public  domain. Image  of  Wright  Brothers  Engine  from  the  National  Air  and  Space  Museum  ©  The  Smithsonian. Image  of  Wright  Brothers  Flyer  from  the  National  Air  and  Space  Museum  ©  The  Smithsonian. Image  of  US  and  China  Casting  Production  ©  American  Foundry  Society Image  of  Global  Cast  Iron  and  Steel  Production  ©  IKB  Deutsche  Industriebank AG 2  Classification Casting  Process  Classification:  Figure  II.3  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology  (7th   Edition)"  by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014). Sand  Casting  Mold  Features:  Figure  10.2  b)  from  "Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing  (4th   Edition)"  by  Groover.  ©  John  Wiley  &  Sons  Inc.  (2010).
2.008x References 3  Sand  Casting Video  of  Sand  Casting  ©  2006  -­ 2016  ChinaSavvy.  All  Rights  Reserved. Sand  Casting  Mold  Features:  Figure  10.2  b)  from  "Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing  (4th   Edition)"  by  Groover.  ©  John  Wiley  &  Sons  Inc.  (2010). 4  Die  Casting Video  of  Die  Casting  ©  2016  Die  Castings  China Hot  Chamber  Die  Casting:  Figure  11.13  1)  and  2)  from  "Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing   (4th  Edition)"  by  Groover.  ©  John  Wiley  &  Sons  Inc.  (2010). Cold  Chamber  Die  Casting:  Figure  11.14  1)  and  2)  from  "Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing   (4th  Edition)"  by  Groover.  ©  John  Wiley  &  Sons  Inc.  (2010). Image  of  Ferrari  F12  Berlinetta by  Ferrari  S.p.A.  Copyright  2016.  All  Rights  Reserved. Image  of  Ferrari  Aluminum  Chassis  by  Ferrari  S.p.A.  Copyright  2016.  All  Rights  Reserved.
2.008x References 5  Fluidity  /  Cooling Gated  Casting  with  Risers:  Figure  10.8  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology  (7th   Edition)"  by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014). Spiral  Test  Casting:  Figure  10.9  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology  (7th  Edition)"  by   Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014). Image  of  Changing  Fluidity  Index  ©  2012  Scientific  &  Academic  Publishing Temperature  Distribution  at  Mold  Wall:  Figure  10.10  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &   Technology  (7th  Edition)"  by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing   (2014). 6  Solidification Temperature  Evolution  over  Time:  Figure  10.1  a)  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology   (7th  Edition)"  by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014). Change  in  Specific  Density:  Figure  10.1  b)  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology  (7th   Edition)"  by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014).
2.008x References Casting  Cross-­Section:  Figure  10.2  b)  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology  (7th   Edition)"  by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014). Phase  Diagram:  Figure  10.4  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology  (7th  Edition)"  by   Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014). 7  Defects Shrinkage  and  Cavity  Formation:  Figure  10.8  2)  and  3)  from  "Fundamentals  of  Modern   Manufacturing  (4th  Edition)"  by  Groover.  ©  John  Wiley  &  Sons  Inc.  (2010). Shrinkage  Allowances:  Table  12.1  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology  (7th  Edition)"   by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014). Common  Casting  Defects:  Figure  11.22  a)  -­ d)  from  "Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing  (4th   Edition)"  by  Groover.  ©  John  Wiley  &  Sons  Inc.  (2010).
2.008x References 8  Investment  Casting Image  of  Investment  Casting  Process  ©  2009  CustomPartNet Video  of  Investment  Casting  Process  ©2011  Wisconsin  Precision  Casting  Corporation Image  of  Jet  Engine  Materials  ©  2016  ATI.  All  Rights  Reserved. Single  Crystal  Turbine  Blade:  Figure  11.25  b)  and  c)  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &   Technology  (7th  Edition)"  by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing   (2014). Image  of  Wax  Patterns  for  Turbine  Blades  ©  SouthComm Publishing  Company  2015. 9  Conclusion Photo  of  Threaded  Faucet  Connection  by  User:  byrev on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the  public   domain. Photo  of  Bearing  by  User:  petitgiovanni on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the  public  domain.
2.008x References Photo  of  Toy  Truck  by  User:  da_hammer on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the  public  domain. Photo  of  Sand  Cast  Parts  by  User:  Graibeard on  Wikimedia.  (CC  BY-­SA)  2.0 Photo  of  Investment  Cast  Turbocharger  Turbine  Blades  by  MarkBolton at  English  Wikipedia.  (CC   BY-­SA)  3.0 Photo  of  Valve  for  Nuclear  Power  Station  by  MarkBolton at  English  Wikipedia.  (CC  BY-­SA)  3.0 Compatison of  Casting  Methods:  Table  11.2  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology  (7th   Edition)"  by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014). Image  of  Micromill ©  2016  Alcoa  Inc. Article  on  F150  Production  ©  Crain  Communications,  Inc. Image  of  Ford  F150  Chassis  ©  2014  Sustainable  Enterprises  Media,  Inc. Image  of  Ford  F150  ©  2016  Ford  Motor  Company Image  of  Micromill Plant  ©  2016  Alcoa  Inc. Video  of  Micromilling ©  2016  Alcoa  Inc.

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Casting (MIT 2.008x Lecture Slides)

  • 3. 2.008x What  is  casting? Why  is  it  a  useful  and   important  manufacturing   process? How  does  it  compare   and  contrast  to   processes   we  have   studied  already?
  • 4. 2.008x à Casting  is  the  process   whereby  a  part  is  produced  by   solidification  (of  a  molten   metal)  to  take  the  shape  of  a   mold. à Why  casting? § Versatile  to  many  types  of   metals § Potential  for  rapid  and  cost-­ effective  production § Wide  range  of  length  scales   (mm  to  m!) § Complex  part  geometries   (including  internal  cavities) Engine  block  by  160SX  (talk)  -­ 160SX  (talk)'s  file,  CC  BY-­SA  3.0,   https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7899838 Brass  rat  by  Pigsfly33  at  English  Wikipedia,  CC  BY  3.0,  https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=31980643,  
  • 5. 2.008x Casting  and  history Bessemer  steel  converter  (enabled  reduction  of   carbon  content  in  Iron  à steel),  1865 http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/257580 https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-­of-­art/28.77/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer_process#/media/File:Bessemer_converter.jpg (Public   domain)   Left:  Bronze  statue  of  a  man,   Hellenistic  period,  mid-­2nd-­ 1st century  B.C.,  H.  73  in  (185.4  cm) Below:  Herakles  (Son  of  Zeus)
  • 6. 2.008x The  engine  from  the  1903  Wright  Flyer  had  an  aluminum  crankcase.  The  Wrights   contracted  a  local  Dayton  foundry,  the  Buckeye  Iron  and  Brass  Works,  to  cast  the   aluminum  crankcase.  Buckeye  acquired  their  raw  aluminum  from  the  nearby  Pittsburgh   Reduction  Company,  renamed  Alcoa  in  1907,  the  world’s  leading  producer  of  aluminum. http://airandspace.si.edu/explore-­and-­learn/multimedia/detail.cfm?id=5817
  • 7. 2.008x Global  cast  iron  and  steel  production   (millions  of  tons) World  census  of  casting  production:   http://www.afsinc.org/multimedia/contentMCDP.cfm?ItemNumber=16433
  • 8. 2.008x Agenda: Casting § Classification  of  casting  methods § Sand  casting § Die  casting § Casting  process  physics: § Fluidity  and  cooling  (with   demonstration) § Solidification  and  microstructure § Investment  casting § Comparison  and  conclusion
  • 10. 2.008x Classification  of  casting  processes General  sequence  (all  casting  processes): § Pattern/mold  making § Melt  preparation § Mold  filling § Cooling  and  solidification § Removal  (‘breakout’)  of  the  parts Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology
  • 11. 2.008x Sand  casting Groover,  Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing
  • 12. 2.008x Important  criteria  for   casting  materials § Melting  point  and  latent  heat § Density  versus  temperature § Solubility  with  other  elements § Diffusion  rates § Reactivity  (especially  to  oxygen) § Outgassing  (vapor  pressure)
  • 13. 2.008x 3000° C 0° C 1000° C 2000° C Tungsten Carbide, WC, Silicon Carbide, SiC Molybdenum Alumina Al2O3 Platinum, Pt Titanium, Ti IronFE, Plain Carbon Steels, low alloy, stainless Nickel, Ni Nickel Allows Cubic Zirconia, ZrO2 Silicon, Si Copper, Cu, Bronze, Brass Aluminum Magnesium Zinc, Zn PTFE (Teflon) Tin, Sn HDPE Nylon Acetal Tungsten  Carbide  (WC) Silicon  Carbide  (SiC) Molybdenum Alumina  (Al2O3;;  2072 oC) Platinum,  Titanium  (1668  oC) Iron  and  steels,  Nickel,  Silicon Copper,  Bronze,  Brass Aluminum  (660  oC) Magnesium Zinc  (420  oC) Tin
  • 16. 2.008x Sand  casting § Mold  cavity  is  formed  by  packing   sand  around  a  pattern. § Interior  geometry  is  defined  by  a   core  (disposable). § The  pattern  is  removed  and  the   cavity  has  the  desired  shape. § Sand  for  the  mold  is,  for  example,   90%  sand,  3%  water  and  7%  clay.   Groover,  Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing
  • 17. 2.008x Sand  casting:  key  attributes § Low  surface  detail;;  post-­machining  often  required  for   high  tolerances. § It’s  the  most  common  casting  method  (by  total  weight);;   can  make  VERY  large  parts. § Because  mold  filling  is  gravity-­driven  (more  to  come   later),  must  pay  most  careful  attention  to  flow  and   shrinkage. § It’s  a  (relatively)  labor-­intensive  process  with  long  cycle   time  (why?) § 3D  printing  of  molds  and  complex  cores  (though  one-­ time  use)  can  achieve  previously  impossible  geometries.
  • 20. 2.008x Die  casting  of  aluminum  wheel  caps https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N6ODcxK8_lg  
  • 21. 2.008x Die  casting:  attributes § Pressure:  ~1-­1000  MPa  (how   does  this  compare  to  IM?) § Cycle  time:  ~10’s  of  seconds  for   average  components  (tools/toys) § Parts  have  many  similarities  to   IM,  i.e.,  ejector  pin  marks,   parting  lines,  gates/runners. § Dies  are  endangered  by  heat-­ induced  cracking  and  corrosion   (accelerated  at  high   temperature)  à need  tool-­grade   steel  or  other  special  materials.
  • 22. 2.008x Die  casting:  hot  chamber  method :  cold  chamber  method Groover,  Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing
  • 24. 2.008x Which  processes? 20  for  $15  (Amazon);;  how  is  that  possible?
  • 28. 2.008x Ferrari  F12  Berlinetta Wheelhouses:   sand  casting Frame  components:   High  pressure  die   casting Top  image:  screenshot  from  http://auto.ferrari.com/en_US/sports-­cars-­models/car-­range/f12-­berlinetta/#design-­360_exterior-­5   Bottom  image:  http://auto.ferrari.com/en_EN/wp-­content/uploads/sites/5/2013/07/architecture11.jpg  
  • 30. 2.008x Surface  tension  and  viscosity Ux(H) = Ux Ux(y) Ux(0) = 0 h Ux y U ∂ ∂ = µτ Surface  tension, σ Dynamic viscosity, μ Water  (25 C) 0.07  N/m 1×10-­3  kg/m-­s  [Pa-­s] Honey  (25  C) ~0.06 ~10   Liquid thermoplastic ~0.03 102-­103 Molten aluminum  (600  C) 0.90 3×10-­3
  • 31. 2.008x Fluid  flow   considerations  for   good  casting Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology à If  gravity-­driven,  pressure  ‘head’   must  be  sufficient  to  overcome  flow   resistance  to  fully  infiltrate  mold   cavity.
  • 32. 2.008x Fluid  flow   considerations  for   good  casting Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology à Flow  must  remain  laminar  to   prevent  air  entrainment.avoid abrupt  direction  change.    Trapped   air  leads  to  ‘dross’  (oxide  flakes) à same  as   μ  (viscosity)
  • 33. 2.008x Testing  ‘fluidity’  for  casting Al  with  increasing   content  of   reinforcing   particles  (SiC) Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology Behera et  al.  “Effect  of  Reinforcement  Particles  on  the  Fluidity  and  Solidification  Behavior  of  the  Stir  Cast  Aluminum  Alloy   Metal  Matrix  Composites”,  American  Journal  of  Materials  Science,  2012;;    2(3):  53-­61
  • 34. 2.008x Demonstration:  Cooling  in  sand  casting  vs.   die  casting  (‘wood’s  metal’)
  • 35. 2.008x Solidification  time Time [s] Temperature[°C] 20 Sand Casting 10 30 40 50 60 70 80 Die Casting 2000 400 600 800 1000 1200
  • 36. 2.008x Chvorinov’s rule § V =  volume  of  the   casting § A =  surface  area  of  the   casting § C =  mold  constant,   depends  on  mold   material  and  thermal   properties  of  casting   metal tsolidify = C ⋅ V A " # $ % & ' n Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology
  • 37. 2.008x Solidification:  sand  cast  versus  die  cast TM! SAND SOLID! LIQUID! T0! 0 tsolidify = C ⋅ V A " # $ % & ' 2 αsand ~0.01  cm2/s TM! METAL SOLID! LIQUID! 0 T0! αsteel ~0.1  cm2/s αaluminum ~0.9  cm2/s tsolidify = C ⋅ V A " # $ % & ' à Like  injection  molding,  but   mold  has  low  thermal  conductivity à Lower-­bound  (assumes   constant  mold  temp)
  • 39. 2.008x Solidification  of  pure  metals § Metal  releases  latent  heat  as  it  freezes;;  this  accounts  for   up  to  ~50%  of  the  energy  transfer. § As  a  result,  solid  and  liquid  co-­exist  in  the  mold  for  a   significant  time. Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology 1/Temperature
  • 40. 2.008x Formation  of  cast  microstructure Columnar Shell  zone   (‘Chill’) grain y oy d k += σσ Hall-­Petch model: smaller  grains   give  higher  strength σ0 =  stress  to  start  dislocation  movement ky =  material  hardening  constant d =  grain  size Grain  size  is   inversely   proportional  to   cooling  rate. Shell  has  finer   grains  à thinner  die   cast  parts  are   typically   stronger Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology
  • 41. 2.008x Alloys:  dendrites  and  the  ‘mushy  zone’ Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology
  • 44. 2.008x Groover,  Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing Shrinkage!
  • 45. 2.008x Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology Shrinkage!
  • 46. 2.008x Casting:  general  defects § Misrun:  solidification  before  complete  filling § Cold  shut:  lack  of  fusion  due  to  premature  freezing § Cold  shot:  metal  splatter  entrapped  in  casting § Shrinkage  cavity:  depression  in  surface  caused  by   solidification  shrinkage  (or  hot  tear  =  internal  void) Groover,  Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing
  • 48. 2.008x Investment  (‘lost  wax’)  casting Image  from  http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/investment-­casting
  • 49. 2.008x An  industrial  investment  casting  process Screenshot  from:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cptlGzWYFEk
  • 50. 2.008x Investment  casting:  key  points § Use  of  wax  template  enables  excellent  surface  finish   with  little/no  post-­processing. § Ceramic  shell  enables  casting  of  high  melting  point   metals/alloys. § Metal  typically  poured  in  vacuum  oven  (reduces   defects). § Very  labor  intensive  à robots! Why  investment  casting? § Jewelry:  complex  geometries,  high  tolerances  and  fine   features. § Jet  engine  parts:  smooth  surface  finish,  compatibility   with  high  temperature  alloys.
  • 52. 2.008x Image  from  ATI  Aerospace  (http://www.slideshare.net/johnpsilk/ati-­jet-­engine);;  see  also   http://www.geaviation.com/commercial/engines/genx/;;  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S1ahHWXGx5Y
  • 53. 2.008x Investment  casting  of  turbine  blades à Careful  control  of  solidification  can  give  single  crystal  blades  (=  very   high  strength  and  fatigue  life  under  cyclic  load  at  high  temperature) Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology Image  at  right  from  http://www.chromalloy.com/files/newspressrelease/7ac07680-­0adb-­460b-­8f27-­f7d47745a4c4.pdf   Great  article:  ‘The  metal  that  brought  you  cheap  flights’  http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-­32749262  
  • 55. 2.008x What  casting  method  was  used  and  why? Die  casting: Small  parts,  precision   features,  good  surface  finish Sand  casting: Larger  parts,  rough   surface  finish Investment  casting: Complex  curves,  good  surface  finish  (at  right) 1 2 3 Aluminum  castings  from  the  sand  mold  (modified):  photograph  taken  by  Glenn  McKechnie -­ Own  work,  CC  BY-­SA  2.0,   https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=109988 An  investment  cast  turbocharger  turbine,  Nuclear  valve  by  Mark  Bolton  -­ CC  BY-­SA  3.0,  https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10729027,   https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6078994
  • 56. 2.008x Kalpakjian and  Schmid,  Manufacturing  Engineering  and  Technology
  • 57. 2.008x Why  would  I: à Choose  die  casting  instead  of   injection  molding? Need  metal  (strength,  durability)   instead  of  plastic à Choose  investment  casting   instead  of  die  casting? Higher  melting  point  material,   complex  internal  cavities,  high   precision à Choose  machining  instead  of  die   casting? Higher  tolerances;;  better  control  of   microstructure/properties  (can  use   wrought/forged  material)
  • 58. 2.008x Reflection:  the  big  four Sand Investment Die Rate Medium Low High Quality Low Medium High Cost Low Medium High Flexibility Low-­Medium Medium Low
  • 59. 2.008x Top  image  from:   http://www.alcoa.com/global/en/innovation/alcoa_micromill.asp Article:  Automotive  News,  September  14,  2015.
  • 60. 2.008x Continuous  casting  of  aluminum  sheet (Alcoa  ‘micromill’  process) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AH2QcNGM87w http://www.alcoa.com/global/en/innovation/alcoa_micromill.asp Furnace  (molten  Al) Continuously   moving  sheet
  • 61. 2.008x References 1  Introduction Photo  of  Fire  Hydrant  by  User:  KeystonePetPlace on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the  public  domain. Photo  of  Die  Cast  BMW  Car  by  User:  RockyHorror on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the  public  domain. Photo  of  Cast  Elbow  Pipes  by  User:  Dyanap on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the  public  domain. Photo  of  Wheel  Rims  by  User:  Pashminu on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the  public  domain. Photo  of  Jet  Engine  Turbine  by  User:  Michael  Schwarenberger on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the   public  domain. Photo  of  Engine  Block  by  160SX  (160SX  (talk)'s  file)  on  Wikimedia.  (CC  BY-­SA)  3.0 Photo  of  Propeller  Blade  by  User:  seehund on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the  public  domain. Photo  of  MIT  Class  Ring  by  User:  Pigsfly33  on  Wikimedia.  (CC  BY-­SA)  3.0 Image  of  Herakles Statue  ©  2000–2016  The  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art Image  of  Bronze  Statue  of  a  Man  ©  2000–2016   The  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art
  • 62. 2.008x References Image  of  Bessemer  Converter  Diagram  from  "Discoveries  &  Inventions  of  the  Nineteenth  Century"   by  R.  Routledge,  published  1900.  This  work  is  in  the  public  domain. Image  of  Wright  Brothers  Engine  from  the  National  Air  and  Space  Museum  ©  The  Smithsonian. Image  of  Wright  Brothers  Flyer  from  the  National  Air  and  Space  Museum  ©  The  Smithsonian. Image  of  US  and  China  Casting  Production  ©  American  Foundry  Society Image  of  Global  Cast  Iron  and  Steel  Production  ©  IKB  Deutsche  Industriebank AG 2  Classification Casting  Process  Classification:  Figure  II.3  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology  (7th   Edition)"  by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014). Sand  Casting  Mold  Features:  Figure  10.2  b)  from  "Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing  (4th   Edition)"  by  Groover.  ©  John  Wiley  &  Sons  Inc.  (2010).
  • 63. 2.008x References 3  Sand  Casting Video  of  Sand  Casting  ©  2006  -­ 2016  ChinaSavvy.  All  Rights  Reserved. Sand  Casting  Mold  Features:  Figure  10.2  b)  from  "Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing  (4th   Edition)"  by  Groover.  ©  John  Wiley  &  Sons  Inc.  (2010). 4  Die  Casting Video  of  Die  Casting  ©  2016  Die  Castings  China Hot  Chamber  Die  Casting:  Figure  11.13  1)  and  2)  from  "Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing   (4th  Edition)"  by  Groover.  ©  John  Wiley  &  Sons  Inc.  (2010). Cold  Chamber  Die  Casting:  Figure  11.14  1)  and  2)  from  "Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing   (4th  Edition)"  by  Groover.  ©  John  Wiley  &  Sons  Inc.  (2010). Image  of  Ferrari  F12  Berlinetta by  Ferrari  S.p.A.  Copyright  2016.  All  Rights  Reserved. Image  of  Ferrari  Aluminum  Chassis  by  Ferrari  S.p.A.  Copyright  2016.  All  Rights  Reserved.
  • 64. 2.008x References 5  Fluidity  /  Cooling Gated  Casting  with  Risers:  Figure  10.8  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology  (7th   Edition)"  by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014). Spiral  Test  Casting:  Figure  10.9  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology  (7th  Edition)"  by   Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014). Image  of  Changing  Fluidity  Index  ©  2012  Scientific  &  Academic  Publishing Temperature  Distribution  at  Mold  Wall:  Figure  10.10  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &   Technology  (7th  Edition)"  by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing   (2014). 6  Solidification Temperature  Evolution  over  Time:  Figure  10.1  a)  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology   (7th  Edition)"  by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014). Change  in  Specific  Density:  Figure  10.1  b)  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology  (7th   Edition)"  by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014).
  • 65. 2.008x References Casting  Cross-­Section:  Figure  10.2  b)  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology  (7th   Edition)"  by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014). Phase  Diagram:  Figure  10.4  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology  (7th  Edition)"  by   Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014). 7  Defects Shrinkage  and  Cavity  Formation:  Figure  10.8  2)  and  3)  from  "Fundamentals  of  Modern   Manufacturing  (4th  Edition)"  by  Groover.  ©  John  Wiley  &  Sons  Inc.  (2010). Shrinkage  Allowances:  Table  12.1  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology  (7th  Edition)"   by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014). Common  Casting  Defects:  Figure  11.22  a)  -­ d)  from  "Fundamentals  of  Modern  Manufacturing  (4th   Edition)"  by  Groover.  ©  John  Wiley  &  Sons  Inc.  (2010).
  • 66. 2.008x References 8  Investment  Casting Image  of  Investment  Casting  Process  ©  2009  CustomPartNet Video  of  Investment  Casting  Process  ©2011  Wisconsin  Precision  Casting  Corporation Image  of  Jet  Engine  Materials  ©  2016  ATI.  All  Rights  Reserved. Single  Crystal  Turbine  Blade:  Figure  11.25  b)  and  c)  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &   Technology  (7th  Edition)"  by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing   (2014). Image  of  Wax  Patterns  for  Turbine  Blades  ©  SouthComm Publishing  Company  2015. 9  Conclusion Photo  of  Threaded  Faucet  Connection  by  User:  byrev on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the  public   domain. Photo  of  Bearing  by  User:  petitgiovanni on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the  public  domain.
  • 67. 2.008x References Photo  of  Toy  Truck  by  User:  da_hammer on  Pixabay.  This  work  is  in  the  public  domain. Photo  of  Sand  Cast  Parts  by  User:  Graibeard on  Wikimedia.  (CC  BY-­SA)  2.0 Photo  of  Investment  Cast  Turbocharger  Turbine  Blades  by  MarkBolton at  English  Wikipedia.  (CC   BY-­SA)  3.0 Photo  of  Valve  for  Nuclear  Power  Station  by  MarkBolton at  English  Wikipedia.  (CC  BY-­SA)  3.0 Compatison of  Casting  Methods:  Table  11.2  from  "Manufacturing  Engineering  &  Technology  (7th   Edition)"  by  Kalpakjian,  Schmid.  ©  Upper  Saddle  River;;  Pearson  Publishing  (2014). Image  of  Micromill ©  2016  Alcoa  Inc. Article  on  F150  Production  ©  Crain  Communications,  Inc. Image  of  Ford  F150  Chassis  ©  2014  Sustainable  Enterprises  Media,  Inc. Image  of  Ford  F150  ©  2016  Ford  Motor  Company Image  of  Micromill Plant  ©  2016  Alcoa  Inc. Video  of  Micromilling ©  2016  Alcoa  Inc.