2. Chapter plan
Chapter plan
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIOUR
INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIOUR
Being in the presence of other people
Being in the presence of other people
The influence of authority
The influence of authority
Affiliation, attraction and close relationships
Affiliation, attraction and close relationships
GROUP PROCESSES
GROUP PROCESSES
Taking our place in the group
Taking our place in the group
How groups influence their members
How groups influence their members
How groups get things done
How groups get things done
INTERGROUP RELATIONS
INTERGROUP RELATIONS
Deindividuation, collective behaviour and the crowd
Deindividuation, collective behaviour and the crowd
Cooperation and competition between groups
Cooperation and competition between groups
Social categories and social identity
Social categories and social identity
Prejudice and discrimination
Prejudice and discrimination
Building social harmony
Building social harmony
SUMMARY
SUMMARY
3. One of the most distinctive aspects of human beings is
One of the most distinctive aspects of human beings is
that we are social.
that we are social.
We are each affected by the presence of other people,
We are each affected by the presence of other people,
we form relationships with other people we join groups
we form relationships with other people we join groups
with other people, and we behave in certain ways
with other people, and we behave in certain ways
towards members of our own and other groups.
towards members of our own and other groups.
In the last chapter we looked at various aspects of
In the last chapter we looked at various aspects of
social evaluation and how we process social
social evaluation and how we process social
information – intra-personal processes.
information – intra-personal processes.
In this chapter, we look more broadly at the ways in
In this chapter, we look more broadly at the ways in
which our behaviour is genuinely social.
which our behaviour is genuinely social.
4. Interpersonal behaviour
Interpersonal behaviour
Being in the presence of other people:
Being in the presence of other people:
Social facilitation
Social facilitation
Intuitively, most of us probably think the term ‘social’
Intuitively, most of us probably think the term ‘social’
means doing things with (or being in the presence of)
means doing things with (or being in the presence of)
other people, and that social psychology is therefore
other people, and that social psychology is therefore
about the causes and effects of this ‘social presence’.
about the causes and effects of this ‘social presence’.
Although social psychologists tend to use the term
Although social psychologists tend to use the term
‘social’ in a much broader way than this, the effect of
‘social’ in a much broader way than this, the effect of
the physical presence of other people on our behaviour
the physical presence of other people on our behaviour
remains an important research question (Guerin, 1993).
remains an important research question (Guerin, 1993).
5. F. Allport (1920) coined the term
F. Allport (1920) coined the term social facilitation
social facilitation
to refer to a clearly defined effect in which the mere
to refer to a clearly defined effect in which the mere
presence of conspecifics (i.e. members of the same
presence of conspecifics (i.e. members of the same
species) would improve individual task performance.
species) would improve individual task performance.
However, later research found that the presence of
However, later research found that the presence of
conspecifics sometimes impairs performance,
conspecifics sometimes impairs performance,
although it was often unclear what degree of social
although it was often unclear what degree of social
presence produced impairment (i.e. coaction or a
presence produced impairment (i.e. coaction or a
passive audience).
passive audience).
6. Zajonc (1965) put forward a drive theory to explain
Zajonc (1965) put forward a drive theory to explain
social facilitation effects.
social facilitation effects.
He argued that, because people are unpredictable, the
He argued that, because people are unpredictable, the
mere presence of a passive audience instinctively and
mere presence of a passive audience instinctively and
automatically produces increased arousal and
automatically produces increased arousal and
motivation.
motivation.
This was proposed to act as a drive that produces
This was proposed to act as a drive that produces
dominant responses for that situation (i.e. well
dominant responses for that situation (i.e. well
learned, instinctive or habitual behaviours that take
learned, instinctive or habitual behaviours that take
precedence over alternative responses under
precedence over alternative responses under
conditions of heightened arousal or motivation).
conditions of heightened arousal or motivation).
7. Zajonc argued that if the dominant response is the
Zajonc argued that if the dominant response is the
correct behaviour for that situation (e.g. pedalling
correct behaviour for that situation (e.g. pedalling
when we get on a bicycle), then social presence
when we get on a bicycle), then social presence
improves performance (social facilitation).
improves performance (social facilitation).
But if the dominant response is an incorrect
But if the dominant response is an incorrect
behaviour (e.g. trying to write notes in a lecture
behaviour (e.g. trying to write notes in a lecture
before we have understood properly what is being
before we have understood properly what is being
said), then social presence can impair performance
said), then social presence can impair performance
(social inhibition).
(social inhibition).
8. Zajonc’s (1965) explanation of social
Zajonc’s (1965) explanation of social
facilitation/inhibition. (Fig. 18.1)
facilitation/inhibition. (Fig. 18.1)
9. Overall, the main empirical finding from this body
Overall, the main empirical finding from this body
of research is that the presence of others improves
of research is that the presence of others improves
performance on easy tasks, but impairs performance
performance on easy tasks, but impairs performance
on difficult tasks.
on difficult tasks.
But no single explanation seems to account for
But no single explanation seems to account for
social facilitation and social inhibition effects
social facilitation and social inhibition effects
(Guerin, 1993).
(Guerin, 1993).
In fact, several concepts – including arousal,
In fact, several concepts – including arousal,
evaluation apprehension, and distraction conflict –
evaluation apprehension, and distraction conflict –
have been implicated.
have been implicated.
10. Bystander apathy and
Bystander apathy and
intervention
intervention
One type of behaviour that might be affected by the
One type of behaviour that might be affected by the
presence of other people is our inclination to offer help
presence of other people is our inclination to offer help
to someone who needs it; this question can be studied
to someone who needs it; this question can be studied
from many perspectives.
from many perspectives.
Two of the most important lines of research on helping
Two of the most important lines of research on helping
by social psychologists have focused on situational
by social psychologists have focused on situational
factors that encourage or discourage helping, and on
factors that encourage or discourage helping, and on
what motives may underlie helping others.
what motives may underlie helping others.
11. A critical feature of the immediate situation that
A critical feature of the immediate situation that
determines whether bystanders help someone who
determines whether bystanders help someone who
is in need of help (
is in need of help (bystander intervention
bystander intervention) is the
) is the
number of potential helpers who are present.
number of potential helpers who are present.
Numerous studies indicate that the willingness to
Numerous studies indicate that the willingness to
intervene in emergencies is higher when a bystander
intervene in emergencies is higher when a bystander
is alone.
is alone.
12. When there are
When there are
several
several
bystanders, it is
bystanders, it is
less likely that a
less likely that a
victim will
victim will
receive help.
receive help.
(Fig. 18.2)
(Fig. 18.2)
13. Subsequent research has indicated that three types
Subsequent research has indicated that three types
of social process seem to cause the social inhibition
of social process seem to cause the social inhibition
of helping in such situations:
of helping in such situations:
1.
1. diffusion of responsibility (when others are
diffusion of responsibility (when others are
present, our own perceived responsibility is
present, our own perceived responsibility is
lowered);
lowered);
2.
2. ignorance about how others interpret the event;
ignorance about how others interpret the event;
3.
3. feelings of unease about how our own behaviour
feelings of unease about how our own behaviour
will be evaluated by others present.
will be evaluated by others present.
14. The effect of the presence and identity of others on
The effect of the presence and identity of others on
bystander intervention in an emergency. (Fig. 18.3)
bystander intervention in an emergency. (Fig. 18.3)
15. On the basis of studies such as this, Latané and
On the basis of studies such as this, Latané and
Darley (1970) proposed a cognitive model of
Darley (1970) proposed a cognitive model of
bystander intervention.
bystander intervention.
Helping (or not) was considered to depend on a
Helping (or not) was considered to depend on a
series of decisions:
series of decisions:
1.
1. noticing that something is wrong;
noticing that something is wrong;
2.
2. defining it as an emergency;
defining it as an emergency;
3.
3. deciding whether to take personal responsibility;
deciding whether to take personal responsibility;
4.
4. deciding what type of help to give; and
deciding what type of help to give; and
5.
5. implementing the decision.
implementing the decision.
16. Bystanders also seem to weigh up costs and benefits
Bystanders also seem to weigh up costs and benefits
of intervention vs. apathy before deciding what to
of intervention vs. apathy before deciding what to
do.
do.
Piliavin, Dovidio, Gaertner and Clark (1981)
Piliavin, Dovidio, Gaertner and Clark (1981)
proposed a bystander calculus model that assigns a
proposed a bystander calculus model that assigns a
key role to arousal.
key role to arousal.
They proposed that emergencies make us aroused,
They proposed that emergencies make us aroused,
situational factors determine how that arousal is
situational factors determine how that arousal is
labelled and what emotion is felt, and then we assess
labelled and what emotion is felt, and then we assess
the costs and benefits of helping or not helping
the costs and benefits of helping or not helping
before deciding what to do.
before deciding what to do.
17. Motives for helping
Motives for helping
A rather different line of research has concentrated on
A rather different line of research has concentrated on
the motives underlying helping (or, more generally,
the motives underlying helping (or, more generally,
prosocial behaviour) – in particular, whether people
prosocial behaviour) – in particular, whether people
help for altruistic or egoistic motives.
help for altruistic or egoistic motives.
Batson proposed an altruism theory, whereas others
Batson proposed an altruism theory, whereas others
have taken the view that people help for selfish, rather
have taken the view that people help for selfish, rather
than altruistic, motives.
than altruistic, motives.
18. Percentage of participants who helped Elaine,
Percentage of participants who helped Elaine,
depending on similarity/empathy and difficulty of
depending on similarity/empathy and difficulty of
escape. (Fig. 18.4)
escape. (Fig. 18.4)
19. It has been proposed that helping could sometimes be
It has been proposed that helping could sometimes be
motivated by an egoistic desire to gain relief from a
motivated by an egoistic desire to gain relief from a
negative state (such as distress, guilt or unhappiness)
negative state (such as distress, guilt or unhappiness)
when faced with another person in need of help.
when faced with another person in need of help.
A meta-analysis by Carlson and Miller (1987) did not
A meta-analysis by Carlson and Miller (1987) did not
support this idea, but there is continued controversy
support this idea, but there is continued controversy
between the ‘altruists’ and ‘egoists’ as to why we help
between the ‘altruists’ and ‘egoists’ as to why we help
others.
others.
Batson (e.g., 1991) continues to maintain that helping
Batson (e.g., 1991) continues to maintain that helping
under the conditions investigated by him is motivated
under the conditions investigated by him is motivated
positively by the feeling of ‘situational empathy’, rather
positively by the feeling of ‘situational empathy’, rather
than by an egoistic desire to relieve the ‘situational
than by an egoistic desire to relieve the ‘situational
distress’ of watching another person suffer.
distress’ of watching another person suffer.
20. Helping is increased by prosocial societal or group
Helping is increased by prosocial societal or group
norms.
norms.
These can be general norms of reciprocity (‘help those
These can be general norms of reciprocity (‘help those
who help you’) or social responsibility (‘help those in
who help you’) or social responsibility (‘help those in
need’), or more specific helping norms tied to the
need’), or more specific helping norms tied to the
nature of a social group (‘we should help older people’).
nature of a social group (‘we should help older people’).
Other factors that increase helping include being in a
Other factors that increase helping include being in a
good mood and assuming a leadership role in the
good mood and assuming a leadership role in the
situation.
situation.
Research has also shown that, relative to situational
Research has also shown that, relative to situational
variables, personality and gender are poor predictors of
variables, personality and gender are poor predictors of
helping.
helping.
21. The influence of authority
The influence of authority
Research on both social facilitation and helping shows
Research on both social facilitation and helping shows
that the mere presence of other people can have a clear
that the mere presence of other people can have a clear
effect on behaviour.
effect on behaviour.
But this effect can be tremendously amplified if those
But this effect can be tremendously amplified if those
others actively try to influence us – for example, from
others actively try to influence us – for example, from
a position of authority.
a position of authority.
Legitimate authority figures can be particularly
Legitimate authority figures can be particularly
influential; they can give orders that people blindly
influential; they can give orders that people blindly
obey without really thinking about the consequences;
obey without really thinking about the consequences;
e.g. Milgram’s famous experiments published in the
e.g. Milgram’s famous experiments published in the
1960s.
1960s.
22. Milgram’s work showed that apparently ‘pathological’
Milgram’s work showed that apparently ‘pathological’
behaviour may not be due to individual pathology (the
behaviour may not be due to individual pathology (the
participants were ‘normal’) but to particular social
participants were ‘normal’) but to particular social
circumstances.
circumstances.
The situation encouraged extreme obedience. Milgram
The situation encouraged extreme obedience. Milgram
(1965, 1974) subsequently conducted a whole series of
(1965, 1974) subsequently conducted a whole series of
studies using this paradigm.
studies using this paradigm.
One of his most significant findings was that social
One of his most significant findings was that social
support is the single strongest moderator of the effect:
support is the single strongest moderator of the effect:
obedience is strengthened if others are obedient, and
obedience is strengthened if others are obedient, and
massively reduced if others are disobedient.
massively reduced if others are disobedient.
23. Obedience as a function of peer behaviour. (Fig. 18.5)
Obedience as a function of peer behaviour. (Fig. 18.5)
24. One unanticipated consequence of Milgram’s
One unanticipated consequence of Milgram’s
research was a fierce debate about the ethics of
research was a fierce debate about the ethics of
social psychological research.
social psychological research.
Although no electric shocks were actually given in
Although no electric shocks were actually given in
Milgram’s study, participants genuinely believed that
Milgram’s study, participants genuinely believed that
they were administering shocks and showed great
they were administering shocks and showed great
distress.
distress.
Was it right to conduct this study?
Was it right to conduct this study?
25. This debate led to strict guidelines for
This debate led to strict guidelines for
psychological research.
psychological research.
Three of the main components of this code are:
Three of the main components of this code are:
i.
i. that participants must give their fully informed
that participants must give their fully informed
consent to take part;
consent to take part;
ii.
ii. that they can withdraw at any point without
that they can withdraw at any point without
penalty; and
penalty; and
iii.
iii. that after participation they must be fully
that after participation they must be fully
debriefed.
debriefed.
26. Affiliation, attraction and close
Affiliation, attraction and close
relationships
relationships
Seeking the company of others
Seeking the company of others
Human beings have a strong need to affiliate with
Human beings have a strong need to affiliate with
other people, through belonging to groups and
other people, through belonging to groups and
developing close interpersonal relationships.
developing close interpersonal relationships.
Our motives for affiliation include
Our motives for affiliation include social
social
comparison
comparison (we learn about ourselves, our skills,
(we learn about ourselves, our skills,
abilities, perceptions and attitudes),
abilities, perceptions and attitudes), anxiety
anxiety
reduction
reduction and
and information seeking.
information seeking.
27. People usually seek out and maintain the company of
People usually seek out and maintain the company of
people they like.
people they like.
We tend to like others whom we consider physically
We tend to like others whom we consider physically
attractive, and who are nearby, familiar and available,
attractive, and who are nearby, familiar and available,
and with whom we expect continued interaction.
and with whom we expect continued interaction.
We also tend to like people who have similar attitudes
We also tend to like people who have similar attitudes
and values to our own, especially when these
and values to our own, especially when these
attitudes and values are personally important to us.
attitudes and values are personally important to us.
28. The importance of social support
The importance of social support
Generally, having appropriate
Generally, having appropriate social support
social support is a very
is a very
powerful ‘buffer’ against stressful events.
powerful ‘buffer’ against stressful events.
Cohen and Hoberman (1983) found that, among
Cohen and Hoberman (1983) found that, among
individuals who felt that their life was very stressful,
individuals who felt that their life was very stressful,
those who perceived themselves to have low social
those who perceived themselves to have low social
support reported many more physical symptoms (e.g.
support reported many more physical symptoms (e.g.
headaches, insomnia) than those who felt they had high
headaches, insomnia) than those who felt they had high
social support.
social support.
Overall, the evidence is clear – social integration is good
Overall, the evidence is clear – social integration is good
for our physical and psychological health.
for our physical and psychological health.
29. The relationship between perceived stress and physical
The relationship between perceived stress and physical
symptomatology for individuals low and high in social
symptomatology for individuals low and high in social
support. (Fig. 18.6)
support. (Fig. 18.6)
30. Social exchange theory
Social exchange theory
A general theoretical framework for the study of
A general theoretical framework for the study of
interpersonal relationships is
interpersonal relationships is social exchange theory
social exchange theory
(Thibaut & Kelley, 1959).
(Thibaut & Kelley, 1959).
This approach regards relationships as effectively trading
This approach regards relationships as effectively trading
interactions, including goods (e.g. birthday presents),
interactions, including goods (e.g. birthday presents),
information (e.g. advice), love (affection, warmth),
information (e.g. advice), love (affection, warmth),
money (things of value), services (e.g. shopping,
money (things of value), services (e.g. shopping,
childcare) and status (e.g. evaluative judgements).
childcare) and status (e.g. evaluative judgements).
A relationship continues when both partners feel that
A relationship continues when both partners feel that
the benefits of remaining in the relationship outweigh
the benefits of remaining in the relationship outweigh
the costs and the benefits of other relationships.
the costs and the benefits of other relationships.
31. According to the more specific
According to the more specific equity theory
equity theory,
,
partners in intimate relationships are happier if they
partners in intimate relationships are happier if they
feel that both partners’ outcomes are proportional
feel that both partners’ outcomes are proportional
to their inputs, rather than one partner receiving
to their inputs, rather than one partner receiving
more than they give.
more than they give.
Equity theory
Equity theory assumes that satisfaction in a
assumes that satisfaction in a
relationship is highest when the ratio of one’s own
relationship is highest when the ratio of one’s own
outcomes to inputs is equal to that of a referenced
outcomes to inputs is equal to that of a referenced
other (individuals will try to restore equity when
other (individuals will try to restore equity when
they find themselves in an inequitable situation).
they find themselves in an inequitable situation).
32. Happy vs. distressed relationships
Happy vs. distressed relationships
A major characteristic of happy, close relationships is a
A major characteristic of happy, close relationships is a
high degree of intimacy.
high degree of intimacy.
According to Reis and Patrick (1996), we view our
According to Reis and Patrick (1996), we view our
closest relationships as intimate if we see them as:
closest relationships as intimate if we see them as:
caring
caring (we feel that the other person loves and
(we feel that the other person loves and
cares about us);
cares about us);
understanding
understanding (we feel that the other person has
(we feel that the other person has
an accurate understanding of us); and
an accurate understanding of us); and
validating
validating (our partner communicates his or her
(our partner communicates his or her
acceptance, acknowledgement and support for our
acceptance, acknowledgement and support for our
point of view).
point of view).
33. Unhappy or ‘distressed’ relationships, on the other
Unhappy or ‘distressed’ relationships, on the other
hand, are characterized by higher rates of negative
hand, are characterized by higher rates of negative
behaviour, reciprocating with such negative behaviour
behaviour, reciprocating with such negative behaviour
when the partner behaves negatively towards us.
when the partner behaves negatively towards us.
Reciprocation, or retaliation, is the most reliable sign of
Reciprocation, or retaliation, is the most reliable sign of
relationship distress.
relationship distress.
Those in unhappy relationships also tend to ignore or
Those in unhappy relationships also tend to ignore or
cover up differences, compare themselves negatively
cover up differences, compare themselves negatively
with other couples and perceive their relationship as
with other couples and perceive their relationship as
less equitable than others.
less equitable than others.
They also make negative causal attributions of their
They also make negative causal attributions of their
partner’s behaviours and characteristics.
partner’s behaviours and characteristics.
34. The investment model
The investment model
Ultimately, what holds a relationship together is
Ultimately, what holds a relationship together is
commitment – the inclination to maintain a relationship
commitment – the inclination to maintain a relationship
and to feel psychologically attached to it.
and to feel psychologically attached to it.
According to the
According to the investment model
investment model, commitment is
, commitment is
based on one or more of the following factors: high
based on one or more of the following factors: high
satisfaction, low quality of alternatives, and a high level
satisfaction, low quality of alternatives, and a high level
of investments.
of investments.
Highly committed individuals are more willing to make
Highly committed individuals are more willing to make
sacrifices for their relationship, and to continue it even
sacrifices for their relationship, and to continue it even
when forced to give up important aspects of their life.
when forced to give up important aspects of their life.
35. Relationship break-ups can be devastating for both
Relationship break-ups can be devastating for both
partners.
partners.
The physical and mental health of divorced people is
The physical and mental health of divorced people is
generally worse than that of married people, or even
generally worse than that of married people, or even
people who have been widowed or never married.
people who have been widowed or never married.
Factors that predict better adjustment to divorce
Factors that predict better adjustment to divorce
include having taken the initiative to divorce, being
include having taken the initiative to divorce, being
embedded in social networks, and having another
embedded in social networks, and having another
satisfying and intimate relationship.
satisfying and intimate relationship.
36. Group processes
Group processes
Taking our place in the group
Taking our place in the group
Almost all groups are structured into specific roles.
Almost all groups are structured into specific roles.
People move in and out of roles, and in and out of
People move in and out of roles, and in and out of
groups.
groups.
Groups are dynamic in terms of their structure and
Groups are dynamic in terms of their structure and
their membership.
their membership.
First of all, people need to join groups.
First of all, people need to join groups.
37. Joining groups
Joining groups
We join groups for all sorts of reasons, but in many
We join groups for all sorts of reasons, but in many
cases we are looking for company (e.g. friendships
cases we are looking for company (e.g. friendships
and hobby groups) or to get things done that we
and hobby groups) or to get things done that we
cannot do on our own (e.g. therapy groups, work
cannot do on our own (e.g. therapy groups, work
groups and professional organizations).
groups and professional organizations).
We also tend to identify with large groups (social
We also tend to identify with large groups (social
categories) that we belong to – national or ethnic
categories) that we belong to – national or ethnic
groups, political parties, religions, and so forth.
groups, political parties, religions, and so forth.
38. One view is that joining a group is a matter of
One view is that joining a group is a matter of
establishing bonds of attraction to the group, its goals
establishing bonds of attraction to the group, its goals
and its members; so a group is a collection of people
and its members; so a group is a collection of people
who are attracted to one another in such a way as to
who are attracted to one another in such a way as to
form a cohesive entity.
form a cohesive entity.
Another perspective, based on social comparison
Another perspective, based on social comparison
theory, is that we affiliate with similar others in order to
theory, is that we affiliate with similar others in order to
obtain support and consensus for our own perceptions,
obtain support and consensus for our own perceptions,
opinions and attitudes.
opinions and attitudes.
A third approach rests on social identity theory;
A third approach rests on social identity theory;
according to this framework, group formation involves
according to this framework, group formation involves
a process of defining ourselves as group members, and
a process of defining ourselves as group members, and
conforming to what we see as the stereotype of our
conforming to what we see as the stereotype of our
group, as distinct from other groups.
group, as distinct from other groups.
39. Group development
Group development
The process of joining and being influenced by a
The process of joining and being influenced by a
group doesn’t generally happen all at once.
group doesn’t generally happen all at once.
It is an ongoing process.
It is an ongoing process.
The relevant mechanisms have been investigated by
The relevant mechanisms have been investigated by
many social psychologists interested in group
many social psychologists interested in group
development, or how groups change over time.
development, or how groups change over time.
40. One very well established general model of group
One very well established general model of group
development is Tuckman’s five-stage model (1965;
development is Tuckman’s five-stage model (1965;
Tuckman & Jensen, 1977):
Tuckman & Jensen, 1977):
forming
forming – initially people orient themselves to one
– initially people orient themselves to one
another;
another;
storming
storming – they then struggle with one another
– they then struggle with one another
over leadership and group definition;
over leadership and group definition;
norming
norming – this leads into agreement on norms and
– this leads into agreement on norms and
roles;
roles;
performing
performing – the group is now well regulated
– the group is now well regulated
internally and can perform smoothly and efficiently;
internally and can perform smoothly and efficiently;
adjourning
adjourning – this final stage involves issues of
– this final stage involves issues of
independence within the group, and possible group
independence within the group, and possible group
dissolution.
dissolution.
41. More recently, Levine and Moreland (1994) have
More recently, Levine and Moreland (1994) have
provided a detailed account of group socialization –
provided a detailed account of group socialization –
how groups and their members adapt to one
how groups and their members adapt to one
another, and how people join groups, maintain their
another, and how people join groups, maintain their
membership and leave groups.
membership and leave groups.
Levine and Moreland believe that people move
Levine and Moreland believe that people move
through these different roles during the lifetime of
through these different roles during the lifetime of
the group.
the group.
42. Levine and Moreland’s (1994) approach highlights five
Levine and Moreland’s (1994) approach highlights five
generic roles that people occupy in groups:
generic roles that people occupy in groups:
prospective member
prospective member – potential members
– potential members
reconnoitre the group to decide whether to commit;
reconnoitre the group to decide whether to commit;
new member
new member – members learn the norms and
– members learn the norms and
practices of the group;
practices of the group;
full member
full member – members are fully socialized, and can
– members are fully socialized, and can
now negotiate more specific roles within the group;
now negotiate more specific roles within the group;
marginal member
marginal member – members can drift out of step
– members can drift out of step
with group life, but may be re-socialized if they drift
with group life, but may be re-socialized if they drift
back again; and
back again; and
ex-member
ex-member – members have left the group, but
– members have left the group, but
previous commitment has an enduring effect on the
previous commitment has an enduring effect on the
group and on the ex-member.
group and on the ex-member.
43. Roles
Roles
Almost all groups are internally structured into
Almost all groups are internally structured into roles
roles;
;
these prescribe different activities that exist in relation
these prescribe different activities that exist in relation
to one another to facilitate overall group functioning.
to one another to facilitate overall group functioning.
In addition to task-specific roles, there are also general
In addition to task-specific roles, there are also general
roles that describe each member’s place in the life of
roles that describe each member’s place in the life of
the group (e.g. newcomer, old-timer).
the group (e.g. newcomer, old-timer).
Rites of passage, such as initiation rites, often mark
Rites of passage, such as initiation rites, often mark
movement between generic roles, which are
movement between generic roles, which are
characterized by varying degrees of mutual
characterized by varying degrees of mutual
commitment between member and group.
commitment between member and group.
44. Roles can be very real in their consequences (e.g.
Roles can be very real in their consequences (e.g.
Zimbardo et al., 1982).
Zimbardo et al., 1982).
Roles also define functions within a group, and the
Roles also define functions within a group, and the
different parts of the group normally need to
different parts of the group normally need to
communicate with one another (e.g. research on
communicate with one another (e.g. research on
communication networks focuses on centralization
communication networks focuses on centralization
as the critical factor).
as the critical factor).
45. Some communication networks that have
Some communication networks that have
been studied experimentally. (Fig. 18.7)
been studied experimentally. (Fig. 18.7)
46. Leadership
Leadership
The most basic role differentiation within groups is into
The most basic role differentiation within groups is into
leaders and followers.
leaders and followers.
Are some people ‘born to lead’ (think of Margaret
Are some people ‘born to lead’ (think of Margaret
Thatcher, Sir Earnest Shackleton or Sir Alex Ferguson),
Thatcher, Sir Earnest Shackleton or Sir Alex Ferguson),
or do they acquire leadership personalities that
or do they acquire leadership personalities that
predispose them to leadership in many situations?
predispose them to leadership in many situations?
47. Are some people ‘born to lead’, or do they acquire
Are some people ‘born to lead’, or do they acquire
leadership personalities that predispose them to
leadership personalities that predispose them to
leadership? (Fig. 18.8)
leadership? (Fig. 18.8)
48. Extensive research has revealed that there are
Extensive research has revealed that there are
almost no personality traits that are reliably
almost no personality traits that are reliably
associated with effective leadership in all situations
associated with effective leadership in all situations
(Yukl, 1998).
(Yukl, 1998).
This finding suggests that many of us can be
This finding suggests that many of us can be
effective leaders, given the right match between our
effective leaders, given the right match between our
leadership style and the situation.
leadership style and the situation.
49. Leader categorization theory states that we have
Leader categorization theory states that we have
leadership schemas (concerning what the leader
leadership schemas (concerning what the leader
should do and how) for different group tasks, and
should do and how) for different group tasks, and
that we categorize people as effective leaders on the
that we categorize people as effective leaders on the
basis of their ‘fit’ to the task-activated schema.
basis of their ‘fit’ to the task-activated schema.
A variant of this idea, based on
A variant of this idea, based on social identity
social identity
theory
theory, is that in some groups what really matters is
, is that in some groups what really matters is
that you fit the group’s defining attributes and
that you fit the group’s defining attributes and
norms and that, if you are categorized as a good fit,
norms and that, if you are categorized as a good fit,
you will be endorsed as an effective leader.
you will be endorsed as an effective leader.
50. Perhaps the most enduring leadership theory in social
Perhaps the most enduring leadership theory in social
psychology is Fiedler’s (1965)
psychology is Fiedler’s (1965) contingency theory
contingency theory;
;
Fiedler believed that the effectiveness of a particular
Fiedler believed that the effectiveness of a particular
leadership style was contingent (or dependent) on
leadership style was contingent (or dependent) on
situational and task demands.
situational and task demands.
He distinguished between two general types of
He distinguished between two general types of
leadership style (people differ in terms of which style
leadership style (people differ in terms of which style
they naturally adopt):
they naturally adopt):
1.
1. a relationship-oriented style that focuses on the
a relationship-oriented style that focuses on the
quality of people’s relationships and their satisfaction
quality of people’s relationships and their satisfaction
with group life; and
with group life; and
2.
2. a task-oriented style that focuses on getting the task
a task-oriented style that focuses on getting the task
done efficiently and well.
done efficiently and well.
51. A substantial amount of research has shown that
A substantial amount of research has shown that
task-oriented leaders are superior to relationship-
task-oriented leaders are superior to relationship-
oriented leaders when situational control is very low
oriented leaders when situational control is very low
(i.e. poorly structured task, disorganized group) or
(i.e. poorly structured task, disorganized group) or
very high (i.e. clearly structured task, highly
very high (i.e. clearly structured task, highly
organized group).
organized group).
But relationship-oriented leaders do better in
But relationship-oriented leaders do better in
situations with intermediate levels of control.
situations with intermediate levels of control.
52. Fiedler’s model of leadership is, however, a little
Fiedler’s model of leadership is, however, a little
static.
static.
Other approaches have focused instead on the
Other approaches have focused instead on the
dynamic transactional relationship between leaders
dynamic transactional relationship between leaders
and followers.
and followers.
According to these approaches, people who are
According to these approaches, people who are
disproportionately responsible for helping a group
disproportionately responsible for helping a group
achieve its goals are subsequently rewarded by the
achieve its goals are subsequently rewarded by the
group with the trappings of leadership, in order to
group with the trappings of leadership, in order to
restore equity.
restore equity.
53. Leaders who have a high idiosyncrasy credit rating
Leaders who have a high idiosyncrasy credit rating
are imbued with charisma by the group, and may be
are imbued with charisma by the group, and may be
able to function as
able to function as transformational leaders
transformational leaders.
.
Charismatic transformational leaders are able to
Charismatic transformational leaders are able to
motivate followers to work for collective goals that
motivate followers to work for collective goals that
transcend self-interest and transform organizations.
transcend self-interest and transform organizations.
They are proactive, change-oriented, innovative,
They are proactive, change-oriented, innovative,
motivating and inspiring and have a vision or
motivating and inspiring and have a vision or
mission with which they infuse the group.
mission with which they infuse the group.
54. How groups influence their
How groups influence their
members
members
We have seen how the presence of other people can
We have seen how the presence of other people can
make us less inclined to help someone, and how other
make us less inclined to help someone, and how other
people can persuade us to obey their orders.
people can persuade us to obey their orders.
Groups can also exert enormous influence on
Groups can also exert enormous influence on
individuals through the medium of
individuals through the medium of norms
norms (Turner,
(Turner,
1991).
1991).
55. Group norms
Group norms
Although group norms are relatively enduring, they do
Although group norms are relatively enduring, they do
change in line with changing circumstances to prescribe
change in line with changing circumstances to prescribe
attitudes, feelings and behaviours that are appropriate
attitudes, feelings and behaviours that are appropriate
for group members in a particular context.
for group members in a particular context.
Norms relating to group loyalty and central aspects of
Norms relating to group loyalty and central aspects of
group life are usually more specific, and have a more
group life are usually more specific, and have a more
restricted range of acceptable behaviour than norms
restricted range of acceptable behaviour than norms
relating to more peripheral features of the group.
relating to more peripheral features of the group.
High-status group members also tend to be allowed
High-status group members also tend to be allowed
more deviation from group norms than lower-status
more deviation from group norms than lower-status
members (Sherif & Sherif, 1964).
members (Sherif & Sherif, 1964).
56. Sherif (1935, 1936) carried out one of the earliest,
Sherif (1935, 1936) carried out one of the earliest,
and still most convincing demonstrations of the
and still most convincing demonstrations of the
impact of social norms, deliberately using an
impact of social norms, deliberately using an
ambiguous stimulus.
ambiguous stimulus.
Autokinetic effect
Autokinetic effect: optical illusion in which a
: optical illusion in which a
stationary point of light shining in complete
stationary point of light shining in complete
darkness appears to move about.
darkness appears to move about.
57. Participants who first made their judgements alone
Participants who first made their judgements alone
developed rather quickly a standard estimate (a personal
developed rather quickly a standard estimate (a personal
norm) around which their judgements fluctuated; this
norm) around which their judgements fluctuated; this
personal norm was stable within individuals, but it varied
personal norm was stable within individuals, but it varied
highly between individuals.
highly between individuals.
In the group phases of the experiment, which brought
In the group phases of the experiment, which brought
together people with different personal norms,
together people with different personal norms,
participants’ judgements converged towards a more or
participants’ judgements converged towards a more or
less common position – a ‘group norm’.
less common position – a ‘group norm’.
In subsequent studies, Sherif found that, once
In subsequent studies, Sherif found that, once
established, this group norm persisted, and that it
established, this group norm persisted, and that it
strongly influenced the estimations of new members of
strongly influenced the estimations of new members of
the group.
the group.
58. Median estimates of movement under solitary (I) or
Median estimates of movement under solitary (I) or
group (II, III,IV) conditions (left), and under group (I,
group (II, III,IV) conditions (left), and under group (I,
II, III) or solitary (IV) conditions (right) in a research
II, III) or solitary (IV) conditions (right) in a research
study on norm formation which used the autokinetic
study on norm formation which used the autokinetic
phenomenon. (Fig. 18.9)
phenomenon. (Fig. 18.9)
59. Conformity
Conformity
In Sherif’s experiments, people may have conformed
In Sherif’s experiments, people may have conformed
for one of two reasons, each linked to a distinct form
for one of two reasons, each linked to a distinct form
of social influence (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955):
of social influence (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955):
1.
1. They may have been concerned about social
They may have been concerned about social
evaluation (e.g. being liked or being thought badly
evaluation (e.g. being liked or being thought badly
of) by the others in the group (
of) by the others in the group (normative
normative
influence
influence).
).
2.
2. They may have used the other group members’
They may have used the other group members’
judgements as useful information to guide them in
judgements as useful information to guide them in
an ambiguous task on which they had no previous
an ambiguous task on which they had no previous
experience (
experience (informational influence
informational influence).
).
60. A series of experiments by Asch (1951, 1952, 1956)
A series of experiments by Asch (1951, 1952, 1956)
tried to rule out informational influence by using
tried to rule out informational influence by using
clearly unambiguous stimuli.
clearly unambiguous stimuli.
In his first study, Asch invited students to
In his first study, Asch invited students to
participate in an experiment on visual
participate in an experiment on visual
discrimination.
discrimination.
61. The results reveal the powerful influence of an
The results reveal the powerful influence of an
obviously incorrect but unanimous majority on the
obviously incorrect but unanimous majority on the
judgements of a lone participant.
judgements of a lone participant.
In comparison with the control condition (which yielded
In comparison with the control condition (which yielded
only 0.7 per cent errors), the experimental participants
only 0.7 per cent errors), the experimental participants
made almost 37 per cent errors; not every participant
made almost 37 per cent errors; not every participant
made that many errors, but only about 25 per cent of
made that many errors, but only about 25 per cent of
Asch’s 123 participants did not make a single error.
Asch’s 123 participants did not make a single error.
Presumably,
Presumably, conformity
conformity was produced through
was produced through
normative social influence operating in the judgement
normative social influence operating in the judgement
task.
task.
62. An example of the stimuli presented in Asch’s (1956)
An example of the stimuli presented in Asch’s (1956)
research on conformity. (Fig. 18.10)
research on conformity. (Fig. 18.10)
63. Conformity as a function of social support.
Conformity as a function of social support.
(Fig. 18.11)
(Fig. 18.11)
64. Conformity
Conformity: social influence resulting from exposure
: social influence resulting from exposure
to the opinions of a majority of group members or to
to the opinions of a majority of group members or to
an authority figure – typically superficial and short-
an authority figure – typically superficial and short-
lived.
lived.
65. Subsequent Asch-type experiments have investigated
Subsequent Asch-type experiments have investigated
how majority influence varies over a range of social
how majority influence varies over a range of social
situations (e.g. Allen, 1975; Wilder, 1977).
situations (e.g. Allen, 1975; Wilder, 1977).
These studies found that conformity reaches full
These studies found that conformity reaches full
strength with three to five apparently independent
strength with three to five apparently independent
sources of influence.
sources of influence.
Larger groups of independent influence are not
Larger groups of independent influence are not
stronger, which perhaps runs counter to our intuitions.
stronger, which perhaps runs counter to our intuitions.
66. Non-independent sources (e.g. several members of
Non-independent sources (e.g. several members of
the same coalition or subgroup) are seemingly
the same coalition or subgroup) are seemingly
treated as a single source.
treated as a single source.
Conformity is significantly reduced if the majority is
Conformity is significantly reduced if the majority is
not unanimous.
not unanimous.
Dissenters and deviates of almost any type can
Dissenters and deviates of almost any type can
produce this effect.
produce this effect.
67. Minority influence
Minority influence
For most of us, conformity means coming into line with
For most of us, conformity means coming into line with
majority attitudes and behaviours; but what about
majority attitudes and behaviours; but what about
minority influence?
minority influence?
Minorities face a social influence challenge.
Minorities face a social influence challenge.
By definition, they have relatively few members; they
By definition, they have relatively few members; they
also tend to enjoy little power, can be vilified as
also tend to enjoy little power, can be vilified as
outsiders, hold ‘unorthodox’ opinions, and have limited
outsiders, hold ‘unorthodox’ opinions, and have limited
access to mainstream mass communication channels.
access to mainstream mass communication channels.
And yet minorities often prevail, bringing about social
And yet minorities often prevail, bringing about social
change.
change.
68. Research suggests that minorities must actively
Research suggests that minorities must actively
create and accentuate conflict to draw attention to
create and accentuate conflict to draw attention to
themselves and achieve influence.
themselves and achieve influence.
The film
The film Twelve Angry Men
Twelve Angry Men provides a dramatic
provides a dramatic
fictitious example of how minority influence occurs.
fictitious example of how minority influence occurs.
Other examples of minority influence include Bob
Other examples of minority influence include Bob
Geldof’s Band Aid movement to raise money for
Geldof’s Band Aid movement to raise money for
famine relief, and new forms of music and fashion.
famine relief, and new forms of music and fashion.
69. Moscovici (1980) proposed a dual-process theory of
Moscovici (1980) proposed a dual-process theory of
majority/ minority influence, suggesting that people
majority/ minority influence, suggesting that people
conform to majority views fairly automatically,
conform to majority views fairly automatically,
superficially and without much thought because they
superficially and without much thought because they
are informationally or normatively dependent on the
are informationally or normatively dependent on the
majority.
majority.
In contrast, effective minorities influence by
In contrast, effective minorities influence by
conversion
conversion.
.
The deviant message achieves little influence in
The deviant message achieves little influence in
public, but it is processed systematically to produce
public, but it is processed systematically to produce
influence (e.g. attitude change) that emerges later, in
influence (e.g. attitude change) that emerges later, in
private and indirectly.
private and indirectly.
70. But support for Moscovici’s dual-process theory is
But support for Moscovici’s dual-process theory is
mixed.
mixed.
Overall, the weight of evidence is tipped slightly
Overall, the weight of evidence is tipped slightly
towards Moscovici’s claim that minorities instigate
towards Moscovici’s claim that minorities instigate
deeper processing of their message (see Martin &
deeper processing of their message (see Martin &
Hewstone, 2003a, b).
Hewstone, 2003a, b).
Nemeth (1986, 1995) proposed that minorities
Nemeth (1986, 1995) proposed that minorities
induce more divergent thinking (thinking beyond a
induce more divergent thinking (thinking beyond a
focal issue), whereas majorities induce more
focal issue), whereas majorities induce more
convergent thinking (concentrating narrowly on the
convergent thinking (concentrating narrowly on the
focal issue).
focal issue).
71. How groups get things done
How groups get things done
Most groups exist to get things done, including
Most groups exist to get things done, including
making decisions and collaborating on group
making decisions and collaborating on group
projects.
projects.
Working in groups has some obvious attractions –
Working in groups has some obvious attractions –
more hands are involved, the human resource pool
more hands are involved, the human resource pool
is enlarged, and there are social benefits.
is enlarged, and there are social benefits.
Yet group performance is often worse than you
Yet group performance is often worse than you
might expect.
might expect.
72. Potential group gains in effectiveness and creativity
Potential group gains in effectiveness and creativity
seem to be offset by negative characteristics of
seem to be offset by negative characteristics of
group performance, including the tendency to let
group performance, including the tendency to let
others do the work, sub-optimal decision making,
others do the work, sub-optimal decision making,
and becoming more extreme as a group than as
and becoming more extreme as a group than as
individual members.
individual members.
Some of these drawbacks are due to problems of
Some of these drawbacks are due to problems of
coordination, and others are due to reduced
coordination, and others are due to reduced
individual motivation.
individual motivation.
73. Social loafing
Social loafing
Individual motivation can suffer in groups, particularly
Individual motivation can suffer in groups, particularly
where the task is relatively meaningless and
where the task is relatively meaningless and
uninvolving, the group is large and unimportant, and
uninvolving, the group is large and unimportant, and
each individual’s contribution to the group is not
each individual’s contribution to the group is not
personally identifiable.
personally identifiable.
This phenomenon has been termed
This phenomenon has been termed social loafing
social loafing.
.
74. Intensity of sound generated
Intensity of sound generated per person
per person (as proportion of
(as proportion of
individual potential) when cheering as a single individual, or
individual potential) when cheering as a single individual, or
as a member of
as a member of real
real or
or pseudo
pseudo two-person or six-person
two-person or six-person
groups. (Fig. 18.12)
groups. (Fig. 18.12)
75. Subsequent research using this and similar paradigms
Subsequent research using this and similar paradigms
has shown that social loafing is minimized when
has shown that social loafing is minimized when
groups work on challenging and involving tasks, and
groups work on challenging and involving tasks, and
when group members believe that their own inputs
when group members believe that their own inputs
can be fully identified and evaluated through
can be fully identified and evaluated through
comparison with fellow members or with another
comparison with fellow members or with another
group.
group.
In fact, when people work either on important tasks
In fact, when people work either on important tasks
or in groups which are important to them, they may
or in groups which are important to them, they may
even work harder collectively than alone – so, in these
even work harder collectively than alone – so, in these
circumstances, ‘social loafing’ turns into ‘social
circumstances, ‘social loafing’ turns into ‘social
striving’.
striving’.
76. We often work harder on group activities, especially when
We often work harder on group activities, especially when
the task is challenging and involving. (Fig. 18.13)
the task is challenging and involving. (Fig. 18.13)
77. Group decision making
Group decision making
An important group function is to reach a collective
An important group function is to reach a collective
decision, through discussion, from an initial diversity
decision, through discussion, from an initial diversity
of views.
of views.
Research on
Research on social decision schemes
social decision schemes identifies a
identifies a
number of implicit or explicit decision-making rules
number of implicit or explicit decision-making rules
that groups can adopt to transform diversity into a
that groups can adopt to transform diversity into a
group decision (Stasser, Kerr & Davis, 1989).
group decision (Stasser, Kerr & Davis, 1989).
78. These include:
These include:
unanimity
unanimity – discussion puts pressure on
– discussion puts pressure on
deviants to conform;
deviants to conform;
majority wins
majority wins – discussion confirms the
– discussion confirms the
majority position, which becomes the group
majority position, which becomes the group
decision;
decision;
truth wins
truth wins – discussion reveals the position that
– discussion reveals the position that
is demonstrably correct; and
is demonstrably correct; and
two-thirds majority
two-thirds majority – discussion establishes a
– discussion establishes a
two-thirds majority, which becomes the group
two-thirds majority, which becomes the group
decision.
decision.
79. The type of rule that is adopted can affect both the
The type of rule that is adopted can affect both the
group atmosphere and the decision-making process
group atmosphere and the decision-making process
(Miller, 1989).
(Miller, 1989).
For example, unanimity often creates a pleasant
For example, unanimity often creates a pleasant
atmosphere but can make decision making painfully
atmosphere but can make decision making painfully
slow, whereas ‘majority wins’ can make many group
slow, whereas ‘majority wins’ can make many group
members feel dissatisfied but speeds up decision
members feel dissatisfied but speeds up decision
making.
making.
Juries provide an ideal context for research on
Juries provide an ideal context for research on
decision schemes; not only are they socially relevant in
decision schemes; not only are they socially relevant in
their own right, but they can be simulated under
their own right, but they can be simulated under
controlled laboratory conditions.
controlled laboratory conditions.
80. For example, Stasser, Kerr and Bray (1982) found that
For example, Stasser, Kerr and Bray (1982) found that
a two-thirds majority rule prevails in many juries.
a two-thirds majority rule prevails in many juries.
Furthermore, they discovered that it was possible to
Furthermore, they discovered that it was possible to
predict accurately the outcome of jury deliberations
predict accurately the outcome of jury deliberations
from knowledge of the initial distribution of verdict
from knowledge of the initial distribution of verdict
preferences (‘initial’ here means before any discussion
preferences (‘initial’ here means before any discussion
has taken place).
has taken place).
If two thirds or more initially favoured guilt, then that
If two thirds or more initially favoured guilt, then that
was the final verdict, but if there was initially no two-
was the final verdict, but if there was initially no two-
thirds majority, then the outcome was a hung jury.
thirds majority, then the outcome was a hung jury.
81. A jury rarely changes its overall decision during
A jury rarely changes its overall decision during
discussion. (Fig. 18.14)
discussion. (Fig. 18.14)
82. Group polarization and
Group polarization and
‘groupthink’
‘groupthink’
Popular opinion and research on conformity both
Popular opinion and research on conformity both
suggest that groups are conservative and cautious
suggest that groups are conservative and cautious
entities, and that they exclude extremes by a process of
entities, and that they exclude extremes by a process of
averaging.
averaging.
But two phenomena that challenge this view are group
But two phenomena that challenge this view are group
polarization and groupthink.
polarization and groupthink.
83. Group polarization
Group polarization is the tendency for groups to
is the tendency for groups to
make decisions that are more extreme than the
make decisions that are more extreme than the
average of pre-discussion opinions in the group, in
average of pre-discussion opinions in the group, in
the direction towards the position originally
the direction towards the position originally
favoured by the average.
favoured by the average.
84. The explanation for this lies partly in the same
The explanation for this lies partly in the same
processes of informational and normative social
processes of informational and normative social
influence we discussed earlier.
influence we discussed earlier.
Group members learn from other group members’
Group members learn from other group members’
arguments, and engage in mutual persuasion, but they
arguments, and engage in mutual persuasion, but they
are also influenced by where others stand on the
are also influenced by where others stand on the
issue, even if they do not hear each other’s
issue, even if they do not hear each other’s
arguments.
arguments.
85. This polarization is particularly likely to occur when
This polarization is particularly likely to occur when
an important group to which an individual belongs
an important group to which an individual belongs
(i.e. an ingroup) confronts a salient group to which
(i.e. an ingroup) confronts a salient group to which
she does not belong (i.e. an outgroup) that holds an
she does not belong (i.e. an outgroup) that holds an
opposing view.
opposing view.
Mere repetition of arguments, which also tends to
Mere repetition of arguments, which also tends to
occur within groups (especially when the discussion
occur within groups (especially when the discussion
lasts a long time, and all group members wish to
lasts a long time, and all group members wish to
express their views) can also produce polarization
express their views) can also produce polarization
(Brauer & Judd, 1996).
(Brauer & Judd, 1996).
86. Groupthink
Groupthink is a more extreme phenomenon.
is a more extreme phenomenon.
Janis (1972) argued that highly cohesive groups that are
Janis (1972) argued that highly cohesive groups that are
under stress, insulated from external influence, and
under stress, insulated from external influence, and
which lack impartial leadership and norms for proper
which lack impartial leadership and norms for proper
decision-making procedures, adopt a mode of thinking
decision-making procedures, adopt a mode of thinking
(groupthink) in which the desire for unanimity
(groupthink) in which the desire for unanimity
overrides all else.
overrides all else.
The members of such groups apparently feel
The members of such groups apparently feel
invulnerable, unanimous and absolutely correct; they
invulnerable, unanimous and absolutely correct; they
also discredit contradictory information, pressurize
also discredit contradictory information, pressurize
deviants and stereotype outgroups.
deviants and stereotype outgroups.
87. The consequences of groupthink can be disastrous –
The consequences of groupthink can be disastrous –
particularly if the decision-making group is a
particularly if the decision-making group is a
government body.
government body.
A dramatic example attributed to groupthink is the
A dramatic example attributed to groupthink is the
decision of NASA officials to press ahead with the
decision of NASA officials to press ahead with the
launch of the space shuttle
launch of the space shuttle Challenger
Challenger in 1986, despite
in 1986, despite
warnings from engineers (see Esser & Lindoerfer,
warnings from engineers (see Esser & Lindoerfer,
1989).
1989).
The shuttle crashed seconds into its flight.
The shuttle crashed seconds into its flight.
88. Brainstorming
Brainstorming
A popular method of harnessing group potential is
A popular method of harnessing group potential is
brainstorming
brainstorming – the uninhibited generation of as
– the uninhibited generation of as
many ideas as possible, regardless of quality, in an
many ideas as possible, regardless of quality, in an
interactive group.
interactive group.
Although it is commonly thought that brainstorming
Although it is commonly thought that brainstorming
enhances individual creativity, research shows
enhances individual creativity, research shows
convincingly that this is not the case.
convincingly that this is not the case.
89. Stroebe and Diehl considered various possible
Stroebe and Diehl considered various possible
explanations for this finding.
explanations for this finding.
They hypothesized that ‘process loss’ in
They hypothesized that ‘process loss’ in
brainstorming groups is due to an informal
brainstorming groups is due to an informal
coordination rule of such groups which specifies that
coordination rule of such groups which specifies that
only one group member may speak at a time.
only one group member may speak at a time.
During this time, other group members have to keep
During this time, other group members have to keep
silent, and they may be distracted by the content of
silent, and they may be distracted by the content of
the group discussion, or forget their own ideas.
the group discussion, or forget their own ideas.
90. Stroebe and Diehl termed this phenomenon
Stroebe and Diehl termed this phenomenon
‘production blocking’, because the waiting time
‘production blocking’, because the waiting time
before speaking and the distracting influence of
before speaking and the distracting influence of
others’ ideas could potentially block individuals
others’ ideas could potentially block individuals
from coming up with their own ideas.
from coming up with their own ideas.
Their results suggest that ‘production blocking’ is
Their results suggest that ‘production blocking’ is
indeed an important factor explaining the
indeed an important factor explaining the
inferiority of interactive brainstorming groups.
inferiority of interactive brainstorming groups.
91. This finding suggests that it may be more effective
This finding suggests that it may be more effective
to ask group members to develop their ideas
to ask group members to develop their ideas
separately, and only then have these ideas
separately, and only then have these ideas
expressed, discussed and evaluated in a subsequent
expressed, discussed and evaluated in a subsequent
joint meeting.
joint meeting.
Of interest, electronic brainstorming (via computers
Of interest, electronic brainstorming (via computers
linked on a network) can be very effective – the lack
linked on a network) can be very effective – the lack
of face-to-face interaction may minimize
of face-to-face interaction may minimize
production blocking.
production blocking.
92. Intergroup relations
Intergroup relations
Through the study of intergroup relations – how
Through the study of intergroup relations – how
people in one group (the ‘ingroup’) think about and act
people in one group (the ‘ingroup’) think about and act
towards members of another group (the ‘outgroup’) –
towards members of another group (the ‘outgroup’) –
social psychologists (e.g. Brewer & Brown, 1998;
social psychologists (e.g. Brewer & Brown, 1998;
Hewstone, Rubin & Willis, 2002) seek to understand a
Hewstone, Rubin & Willis, 2002) seek to understand a
range of critical issues, including:
range of critical issues, including:
1.
1. crowd behaviour;
crowd behaviour;
2.
2. cooperation and competition between groups;
cooperation and competition between groups;
3.
3. social identity;
social identity;
4.
4. prejudice and discrimination; and
prejudice and discrimination; and
5.
5. how to replace social conflict with social harmony.
how to replace social conflict with social harmony.
93. Deindividuation, collective
Deindividuation, collective
behaviour and the crowd
behaviour and the crowd
Many researchers have emphasized the tendency of group
Many researchers have emphasized the tendency of group
members to act in unison, like a single entity.
members to act in unison, like a single entity.
Early writers on crowd behaviour (who were not trained
Early writers on crowd behaviour (who were not trained
social psychologists) tended to view collective behaviour as
social psychologists) tended to view collective behaviour as
irrational, aggressive, antisocial and primitive – reflecting
irrational, aggressive, antisocial and primitive – reflecting
the emergence of a ‘group mind’ in collective/crowd
the emergence of a ‘group mind’ in collective/crowd
situations (e.g. LeBon 1896/1908).
situations (e.g. LeBon 1896/1908).
The general model is that people in interactive groups such
The general model is that people in interactive groups such
as crowds are anonymous and distracted, which causes
as crowds are anonymous and distracted, which causes
them to lose their sense of individuality and become
them to lose their sense of individuality and become
deindividuated.
deindividuated.
94. Deindividuation
Deindividuation is thought to prevent people
is thought to prevent people
from following the prosocial norms of society that
from following the prosocial norms of society that
usually govern behaviour, because they are no
usually govern behaviour, because they are no
longer identifiable (and hence no longer feel
longer identifiable (and hence no longer feel
compelled to conform to social norms).
compelled to conform to social norms).
It is argued that, in a crowd, people regress to a
It is argued that, in a crowd, people regress to a
primitive, selfish and uncivilized behavioural level.
primitive, selfish and uncivilized behavioural level.
95. More recent research has discarded the idea that
More recent research has discarded the idea that
crowds are irrational, and has concentrated instead
crowds are irrational, and has concentrated instead
on understanding how people in crowds develop a
on understanding how people in crowds develop a
shared identity, a shared purpose and shared norms
shared identity, a shared purpose and shared norms
(Turner & Killian, 1972).
(Turner & Killian, 1972).
In crowd situations, people often identify very
In crowd situations, people often identify very
strongly with the group defined by the crowd, and
strongly with the group defined by the crowd, and
therefore adhere very closely to the norms of the
therefore adhere very closely to the norms of the
crowd (Reicher, 2001).
crowd (Reicher, 2001).
96. In a crowd, individuals will often identify very
In a crowd, individuals will often identify very
strongly with the group and adhere very closely
strongly with the group and adhere very closely
to group norms. (Fig. 18.15)
to group norms. (Fig. 18.15)
97. Cooperation and competition
Cooperation and competition
between groups
between groups
Sherif (1966; Sherif et al., 1961; Sherif, White, &
Sherif (1966; Sherif et al., 1961; Sherif, White, &
Harvey, 1955) provided a far-reaching and influential
Harvey, 1955) provided a far-reaching and influential
perspective on intergroup behaviour.
perspective on intergroup behaviour.
In a series of naturalistic field experiments on conflict
In a series of naturalistic field experiments on conflict
and cooperation at boys’ camps in the United States in
and cooperation at boys’ camps in the United States in
the early 1950s, Sherif and colleagues studied group
the early 1950s, Sherif and colleagues studied group
formation, intergroup competition and conflict
formation, intergroup competition and conflict
reduction.
reduction.
98. Ingroup favouritism in estimates of performance
Ingroup favouritism in estimates of performance
by other ingroup and outgroup members during
by other ingroup and outgroup members during
intergroup competition. (Fig. 18.16)
intergroup competition. (Fig. 18.16)
99. Having found it so easy to trigger intergroup
Having found it so easy to trigger intergroup
hostility, in the conflict reduction phase Sherif
hostility, in the conflict reduction phase Sherif
discovered how hard it was to reduce conflict.
discovered how hard it was to reduce conflict.
The most effective strategy was to introduce a series
The most effective strategy was to introduce a series
of
of superordinate goals
superordinate goals, i.e. goals that both groups
, i.e. goals that both groups
desired but could only attain if they acted together.
desired but could only attain if they acted together.
For example, when the camp truck broke down
For example, when the camp truck broke down
delivering supplies, neither group could push-start it
delivering supplies, neither group could push-start it
on their own; but both groups working together
on their own; but both groups working together
managed to move the truck by pulling on a rope
managed to move the truck by pulling on a rope
attached to the front bumper.
attached to the front bumper.
100. Impact of competition vs. superordinate goals on
Impact of competition vs. superordinate goals on
negative stereotypes of the outgroup. (Fig. 18.17)
negative stereotypes of the outgroup. (Fig. 18.17)
101. To explain his findings, Sherif focused on the
To explain his findings, Sherif focused on the
importance of goals.
importance of goals.
Mutually exclusive goals cause competitive
Mutually exclusive goals cause competitive
intergroup behaviour, and superordinate goals
intergroup behaviour, and superordinate goals
improve intergroup relations.
improve intergroup relations.
As he pointed to the real nature of goal relations
As he pointed to the real nature of goal relations
determining intergroup behaviour, Sherif ’s theory is
determining intergroup behaviour, Sherif ’s theory is
often called
often called realistic conflict theory
realistic conflict theory.
.
102. But Sherif’s studies also found that first expressions
But Sherif’s studies also found that first expressions
of in-group favouritism occurred in the group
of in-group favouritism occurred in the group
formation phase, when the groups were isolated
formation phase, when the groups were isolated
from one another and knew only of each other’s
from one another and knew only of each other’s
existence.
existence.
So the mere existence of two groups seemed to
So the mere existence of two groups seemed to
trigger intergroup behaviour, before any mutually
trigger intergroup behaviour, before any mutually
exclusive goals had been introduced!
exclusive goals had been introduced!
103. Social categories and social
Social categories and social
identity
identity
Experiments by Tajfel and colleagues provided the
Experiments by Tajfel and colleagues provided the
most convincing evidence that competitive goals are
most convincing evidence that competitive goals are
not a necessary condition for intergroup conflict.
not a necessary condition for intergroup conflict.
In fact, merely being categorized as a group member
In fact, merely being categorized as a group member
can cause negative intergroup behaviour (Tajfel,
can cause negative intergroup behaviour (Tajfel,
Flament, Billig & Bundy, 1971).
Flament, Billig & Bundy, 1971).
104. In Tajfel’s studies, participants were randomly
In Tajfel’s studies, participants were randomly
divided into two groups and asked to distribute
divided into two groups and asked to distribute
points or money between anonymous members of
points or money between anonymous members of
their own group and anonymous members of the
their own group and anonymous members of the
other group.
other group.
There was no personal interaction, group members
There was no personal interaction, group members
were anonymous, and the groups had no ‘past’ and
were anonymous, and the groups had no ‘past’ and
no ‘future’ – for these reasons these groups are
no ‘future’ – for these reasons these groups are
called ‘minimal groups’, and this experimental
called ‘minimal groups’, and this experimental
procedure is called the
procedure is called the minimal group paradigm
minimal group paradigm.
.
105. The consistent finding of this research is that the
The consistent finding of this research is that the
mere fact of being categorized is enough to cause
mere fact of being categorized is enough to cause
people to discriminate in favour of the ingroup and
people to discriminate in favour of the ingroup and
against the outgroup.
against the outgroup.
This research spawned the ‘social identity
This research spawned the ‘social identity
perspective’ on group processes and intergroup
perspective’ on group processes and intergroup
relations (Tajfel & Turner, 1986; see also Hogg &
relations (Tajfel & Turner, 1986; see also Hogg &
Abrams, 1988).
Abrams, 1988).
These processes produce a sense of group
These processes produce a sense of group
identification and belonging, as well as ingroup
identification and belonging, as well as ingroup
solidarity, conformity and bias.
solidarity, conformity and bias.
106. According to this social identity perspective, because
According to this social identity perspective, because
groups define and evaluate who we are, intergroup
groups define and evaluate who we are, intergroup
relations are a continual struggle to gain superiority
relations are a continual struggle to gain superiority
for the ingroup over the outgroup.
for the ingroup over the outgroup.
How the struggle is conducted – and the specific
How the struggle is conducted – and the specific
nature of intergroup behaviour (e.g. competitive,
nature of intergroup behaviour (e.g. competitive,
conflictual, destructively aggressive) – is thought to
conflictual, destructively aggressive) – is thought to
depend on people’s beliefs about the status relations
depend on people’s beliefs about the status relations
between groups.
between groups.
107. Prejudice and discrimination
Prejudice and discrimination
Some of the most negative forms of intergroup
Some of the most negative forms of intergroup
behaviour are demonstrations of prejudice and
behaviour are demonstrations of prejudice and
discrimination.
discrimination.
Prejudice refers to a derogatory attitude towards a
Prejudice refers to a derogatory attitude towards a
group and its members, whereas discrimination refers
group and its members, whereas discrimination refers
to negative behaviour.
to negative behaviour.
The two are often closely interconnected.
The two are often closely interconnected.
108. Prejudiced personalities
Prejudiced personalities
Some theories of prejudice focus on personality,
Some theories of prejudice focus on personality,
arguing that there are certain personality types that
arguing that there are certain personality types that
predispose people to intolerance and prejudice.
predispose people to intolerance and prejudice.
The best known of these theories concerns the
The best known of these theories concerns the
authoritarian personality
authoritarian personality (Adorno, Frenkel-
(Adorno, Frenkel-
Brunswik, Levinson & Sanford, 1950); according to
Brunswik, Levinson & Sanford, 1950); according to
this view, harsh family rearing strategies produce a
this view, harsh family rearing strategies produce a
love–hate conflict in children’s feelings towards their
love–hate conflict in children’s feelings towards their
parents.
parents.
109. The conflict is resolved by idolizing all power
The conflict is resolved by idolizing all power
figures, despising weaker others and striving for a
figures, despising weaker others and striving for a
rigidly unchanging and hierarchical world order.
rigidly unchanging and hierarchical world order.
People with this personality syndrome are thought
People with this personality syndrome are thought
to be predisposed to be prejudiced.
to be predisposed to be prejudiced.
110. This ‘personality’ approach has now been largely
This ‘personality’ approach has now been largely
discredited, partly because it underestimates the
discredited, partly because it underestimates the
importance of current situations in shaping people’s
importance of current situations in shaping people’s
attitudes, and partly because it cannot explain
attitudes, and partly because it cannot explain
sudden rises or falls in prejudice against specific
sudden rises or falls in prejudice against specific
racial groups (Brown, 1995).
racial groups (Brown, 1995).
On the other hand, a fairly small number of people
On the other hand, a fairly small number of people
do hold generalized negative attitudes towards all
do hold generalized negative attitudes towards all
outgroups (e.g. the stereotypical bigot who dislikes
outgroups (e.g. the stereotypical bigot who dislikes
blacks, Asians, gays and communists), and
blacks, Asians, gays and communists), and
authoritarianism is indeed associated with various
authoritarianism is indeed associated with various
forms of prejudice (Altermeyer, 1988).
forms of prejudice (Altermeyer, 1988).
111. Society and identity
Society and identity
Contrary to personality explanations, by far the best
Contrary to personality explanations, by far the best
predictor of prejudice is the existence of a culture of
predictor of prejudice is the existence of a culture of
prejudice legitimized by societal norms.
prejudice legitimized by societal norms.
For example, Pettigrew (1958) measured
For example, Pettigrew (1958) measured
authoritarianism and racist attitudes among whites in
authoritarianism and racist attitudes among whites in
South Africa, the northern United States and the
South Africa, the northern United States and the
southern United States.
southern United States.
He found more racist attitudes in South Africa and the
He found more racist attitudes in South Africa and the
southern United States than in the northern United
southern United States than in the northern United
States, but he found no differences in authoritarianism
States, but he found no differences in authoritarianism
between these two groups.
between these two groups.
112. How do such prejudiced ‘cultures’ arise?
How do such prejudiced ‘cultures’ arise?
Both social identity theory (e.g. Tajfel & Turner,
Both social identity theory (e.g. Tajfel & Turner,
1986) and social dominance theory (Pratto, 1999;
1986) and social dominance theory (Pratto, 1999;
Sidanius & Pratto, 1999) may provide part of the
Sidanius & Pratto, 1999) may provide part of the
answer.
answer.
From the perspective of social dominance theory,
From the perspective of social dominance theory,
people differ in their social dominance orientation
people differ in their social dominance orientation
[SDO] – the extent to which they desire their own
[SDO] – the extent to which they desire their own
group to be dominant and superior to outgroups.)
group to be dominant and superior to outgroups.)
113. Modern forms of prejudice
Modern forms of prejudice
Prejudiced attitudes are often deeply entrenched, may
Prejudiced attitudes are often deeply entrenched, may
be passed from parents to children and are supported
be passed from parents to children and are supported
by the views of significant others.
by the views of significant others.
Yet societal norms for acceptable behaviour can and
Yet societal norms for acceptable behaviour can and
do change, sometimes creating a conflict between
do change, sometimes creating a conflict between
personal feelings and how they can be expressed.
personal feelings and how they can be expressed.
114. Therefore, modern prejudice often presents itself as
Therefore, modern prejudice often presents itself as
denial of the claim that minorities are disadvantaged,
denial of the claim that minorities are disadvantaged,
opposition to special measures to rectify disadvantage,
opposition to special measures to rectify disadvantage,
and systematic avoidance of minorities and the entire
and systematic avoidance of minorities and the entire
question of prejudice against these minorities.
question of prejudice against these minorities.
New, more subtle measures are required to detect these
New, more subtle measures are required to detect these
modern forms of prejudice (Pettigrew & Meertens,
modern forms of prejudice (Pettigrew & Meertens,
1995); for example, increasing use is being made of
1995); for example, increasing use is being made of
implicit measures, which are beyond the intentional
implicit measures, which are beyond the intentional
control of the individual, and so can detect prejudice
control of the individual, and so can detect prejudice
even when people are aware of societal norms
even when people are aware of societal norms
regarding tolerance or political correctness (see
regarding tolerance or political correctness (see
Cunningham, Preacher & Banaji, 2001).
Cunningham, Preacher & Banaji, 2001).
115. Building social harmony
Building social harmony
Prejudice and conflict are significant social ills that
Prejudice and conflict are significant social ills that
produce enormous human suffering, ranging from
produce enormous human suffering, ranging from
damaged self-esteem, reduced personal and
damaged self-esteem, reduced personal and
professional opportunities, stigma and socio-
professional opportunities, stigma and socio-
economic disadvantage, to intergroup violence, war
economic disadvantage, to intergroup violence, war
and genocide.
and genocide.
Prejudice can be attacked by public service
Prejudice can be attacked by public service
propaganda and educational campaigns, which
propaganda and educational campaigns, which
convey societal disapproval of prejudice and may
convey societal disapproval of prejudice and may
overcome some of the anxiety and fear that fuel it.
overcome some of the anxiety and fear that fuel it.
116. But the problem with these strategies is that the very
But the problem with these strategies is that the very
people being targeted may choose not to attend to
people being targeted may choose not to attend to
the new information.
the new information.
Two prominent social-psychological approaches to
Two prominent social-psychological approaches to
building social harmony avoid this problem by
building social harmony avoid this problem by
promoting increased positive intergroup contact and
promoting increased positive intergroup contact and
changing the nature of social categorization
changing the nature of social categorization
(Hewstone, 1996).
(Hewstone, 1996).
117. Intergroup contact
Intergroup contact
There is now extensive evidence for the
There is now extensive evidence for the contact
contact
hypothesis
hypothesis, which states that contact between
, which states that contact between
members of different groups, under appropriate
members of different groups, under appropriate
conditions, can improve intergroup relations.
conditions, can improve intergroup relations.
Favourable conditions include cooperative contact
Favourable conditions include cooperative contact
between equal-status members of the two groups in
between equal-status members of the two groups in
a situation that allows them to get to know each
a situation that allows them to get to know each
other on more than a superficial basis, and with the
other on more than a superficial basis, and with the
support of relevant social groups and authorities.
support of relevant social groups and authorities.
118. One difficulty is that, even if they do come to view
One difficulty is that, even if they do come to view
some individuals from the other group more positively,
some individuals from the other group more positively,
participants in such studies do not necessarily generalize
participants in such studies do not necessarily generalize
their positive perceptions beyond the specific contact
their positive perceptions beyond the specific contact
situation or contact partners with whom they have
situation or contact partners with whom they have
engaged, to the group as a whole (Hewstone & Brown,
engaged, to the group as a whole (Hewstone & Brown,
1986).
1986).
Recent work supports the idea that clear group
Recent work supports the idea that clear group
affiliations should be maintained in contact situations,
affiliations should be maintained in contact situations,
and that participating members should be seen as being
and that participating members should be seen as being
(at least to some extent) typical of their groups (Brown
(at least to some extent) typical of their groups (Brown
& Hewstone, in press).
& Hewstone, in press).
119. Only under these circumstances does it appear that
Only under these circumstances does it appear that
cooperative contact is likely to lead to more positive
cooperative contact is likely to lead to more positive
ratings of the outgroup as a whole.
ratings of the outgroup as a whole.
A further limitation is that optimal intergroup contact
A further limitation is that optimal intergroup contact
may be hard to bring about on a large scale.
may be hard to bring about on a large scale.
120. Wright and colleagues therefore proposed an ‘extended
Wright and colleagues therefore proposed an ‘extended
contact effect’, in which knowledge that a fellow in-
contact effect’, in which knowledge that a fellow in-
group member has a close relationship with an out-
group member has a close relationship with an out-
group member is used as a catalyst to promote more
group member is used as a catalyst to promote more
positive intergroup attitudes (Wright, Aron,
positive intergroup attitudes (Wright, Aron,
McLaughlin-Volpe & Ropp, 1997).
McLaughlin-Volpe & Ropp, 1997).
Paolini and colleagues (in press) have recently shown
Paolini and colleagues (in press) have recently shown
that, by reducing intergroup anxiety, both direct and
that, by reducing intergroup anxiety, both direct and
extended forms of contact contribute towards more
extended forms of contact contribute towards more
positive views of the outgroup among Catholics and
positive views of the outgroup among Catholics and
Protestants in Northern Ireland.
Protestants in Northern Ireland.
121. Decategorization and
Decategorization and
recategorization
recategorization
Prejudice depends on ingroup–outgroup
Prejudice depends on ingroup–outgroup
categorizations.
categorizations.
So if the categorization disappears, then so should
So if the categorization disappears, then so should
the prejudice.
the prejudice.
Is this the case, and are these kinds of interventions
Is this the case, and are these kinds of interventions
practical?
practical?
122. There are various ways in which dissipation might
There are various ways in which dissipation might
occur, two of the most prominent being:
occur, two of the most prominent being:
1.
1. decategorization, where people from different
decategorization, where people from different
groups come to view each other as individuals
groups come to view each other as individuals
(Brewer & Miller, 1984); and
(Brewer & Miller, 1984); and
2.
2. recategorization, where people from different
recategorization, where people from different
subgroups, such as Scots and English, come to
subgroups, such as Scots and English, come to
view each other as members of a single
view each other as members of a single
superordinate group, such as British (see
superordinate group, such as British (see
Gaertner, Dovidio, Anastasio, Bachman & Rust,
Gaertner, Dovidio, Anastasio, Bachman & Rust,
1993).
1993).
123. A more successful strategy may be a combination of
A more successful strategy may be a combination of
a superordinate identity and distinctive subgroup
a superordinate identity and distinctive subgroup
identities, so that each group preserves its distinctive
identities, so that each group preserves its distinctive
subgroup identity within a common, superordinate
subgroup identity within a common, superordinate
identity (Hornsey & Hogg, 2000).
identity (Hornsey & Hogg, 2000).
A nice example is the Barbarians invitation rugby
A nice example is the Barbarians invitation rugby
team, which regularly plays matches against visiting
team, which regularly plays matches against visiting
international teams to the UK; they all wear the
international teams to the UK; they all wear the
same famous blue-and-white hooped shirts, but they
same famous blue-and-white hooped shirts, but they
each wear the socks of their club team.
each wear the socks of their club team.
124. At the societal level this notion relates to the social
At the societal level this notion relates to the social
policy of multiculturalism or cultural pluralism, in
policy of multiculturalism or cultural pluralism, in
which group differences are recognized and
which group differences are recognized and
nurtured within a common superordinate identity
nurtured within a common superordinate identity
that stresses cooperative interdependence and
that stresses cooperative interdependence and
diversity.
diversity.
This notion has been especially cultivated in some
This notion has been especially cultivated in some
societies and countries, especially ‘immigrant
societies and countries, especially ‘immigrant
countries’ such as Australia, New Zealand and
countries’ such as Australia, New Zealand and
Canada.
Canada.
125. Summary
Summary
There is a wide range of evidence regarding the effects
There is a wide range of evidence regarding the effects
of other people on social behaviour.
of other people on social behaviour.
We have highlighted some of the key theories in
We have highlighted some of the key theories in
interpersonal relations, group processes and intergroup
interpersonal relations, group processes and intergroup
relations, and we have summarized the methods and
relations, and we have summarized the methods and
findings of some of the most important studies.
findings of some of the most important studies.
Generally, performing a task in the presence of other
Generally, performing a task in the presence of other
people improves performance on easy tasks, but
people improves performance on easy tasks, but
impairs performance on difficult tasks.
impairs performance on difficult tasks.
126. People are more likely to help if they are on their own,
People are more likely to help if they are on their own,
or with friends. The presence of multiple bystanders
or with friends. The presence of multiple bystanders
inhibits intervention because responsibility is diffused
inhibits intervention because responsibility is diffused
and the costs of not helping are reduced.
and the costs of not helping are reduced.
People are especially likely to obey orders from a
People are especially likely to obey orders from a
legitimate authority figure, and when others are
legitimate authority figure, and when others are
obedient.
obedient.
We are motivated to seek the company of others to
We are motivated to seek the company of others to
compare ourselves with them, reduce anxiety and
compare ourselves with them, reduce anxiety and
acquire new information from them.
acquire new information from them.
127. Social support from others provides a ‘buffer’ against
Social support from others provides a ‘buffer’ against
stress.
stress.
Close interpersonal relationships can be analysed in
Close interpersonal relationships can be analysed in
terms of social exchange of goods, love, information
terms of social exchange of goods, love, information
and so on. Happy close relationships are characterized
and so on. Happy close relationships are characterized
by high intimacy, whereas distressed relationships
by high intimacy, whereas distressed relationships
tend to involve reciprocation of negative behaviour.
tend to involve reciprocation of negative behaviour.
We join social groups for multiple reasons, and
We join social groups for multiple reasons, and
frequently define ourselves, in part, as group
frequently define ourselves, in part, as group
members. This social identity develops over a series
members. This social identity develops over a series
of stages, in which we are socialized into groups.
of stages, in which we are socialized into groups.
128. Groups are typically structured into roles, of which
Groups are typically structured into roles, of which
the distinction between leader and followers is
the distinction between leader and followers is
central.
central.
Group influence is affected by norms, and both
Group influence is affected by norms, and both
majorities and minorities within groups can exert
majorities and minorities within groups can exert
influence, albeit in different ways.
influence, albeit in different ways.
Performance of groups is often worse than
Performance of groups is often worse than
performance of individuals, because potential gains
performance of individuals, because potential gains
in effectiveness are offset by social loafing and poor
in effectiveness are offset by social loafing and poor
decision making.
decision making.
129. Decisions made in groups tend to be more extreme
Decisions made in groups tend to be more extreme
than individual decisions, sometimes with disastrous
than individual decisions, sometimes with disastrous
consequences. Individuals are also less creative in
consequences. Individuals are also less creative in
groups, because their ideas are blocked by those of
groups, because their ideas are blocked by those of
other group members.
other group members.
In larger groups we may find ourselves influenced by
In larger groups we may find ourselves influenced by
other members of a crowd, due to shared norms and
other members of a crowd, due to shared norms and
a shared identity, but crowds are not necessarily
a shared identity, but crowds are not necessarily
irrational.
irrational.
130. Behaviour between members of different groups may
Behaviour between members of different groups may
be competitive, especially where goals are incompatible,
be competitive, especially where goals are incompatible,
but ingroup favouritism can be triggered by the mere
but ingroup favouritism can be triggered by the mere
existence of two groups, and the development of social
existence of two groups, and the development of social
identity as a group member.
identity as a group member.
Excesses of intergroup behaviour are revealed in
Excesses of intergroup behaviour are revealed in
prejudice and discrimination, which sometimes take
prejudice and discrimination, which sometimes take
subtle forms in contemporary society. Prejudice and
subtle forms in contemporary society. Prejudice and
discrimination may be partly determined by personality,
discrimination may be partly determined by personality,
but have more to do with group norms, and the desire
but have more to do with group norms, and the desire
to achieve or maintain a positive social identity and
to achieve or maintain a positive social identity and
dominate other groups.
dominate other groups.
131. Social psychology contributes positively to society by
Social psychology contributes positively to society by
promoting social harmony. Positive, cooperative
promoting social harmony. Positive, cooperative
contact between members of different groups reduces
contact between members of different groups reduces
anxiety and can generalize beyond the contact situation,
anxiety and can generalize beyond the contact situation,
while ingroup–outgroup categorizations can be altered
while ingroup–outgroup categorizations can be altered
in various ways to decrease the importance of group
in various ways to decrease the importance of group
memberships, promote shared identities, and recognize
memberships, promote shared identities, and recognize
group differences in a positive way.
group differences in a positive way.
Editor's Notes
#20:Because of contemporary ethical considerations, it would be difficult now to conduct
some of these studies, as well as other studies described in this chapter.
![ How do such prejudiced ‘cultures’ arise?
How do such prejudiced ‘cultures’ arise?
Both social identity theory (e.g. Tajfel & Turner,
Both social identity theory (e.g. Tajfel & Turner,
1986) and social dominance theory (Pratto, 1999;
1986) and social dominance theory (Pratto, 1999;
Sidanius & Pratto, 1999) may provide part of the
Sidanius & Pratto, 1999) may provide part of the
answer.
answer.
From the perspective of social dominance theory,
From the perspective of social dominance theory,
people differ in their social dominance orientation
people differ in their social dominance orientation
[SDO] – the extent to which they desire their own
[SDO] – the extent to which they desire their own
group to be dominant and superior to outgroups.)
group to be dominant and superior to outgroups.)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/ch18slides-250406194003-99cbf90e/85/Ch18-interpersonal-communication-and-personalities-ppt-112-320.jpg)
