Ch_10_AP_Psychology_Emotion_and_Motivation.ppt

EMOTIONS
 Emotion – full body response
 involves a subjective conscious experience (cognitive),
accompanied by bodily arousal (physiological), and by
characteristic overt expressions (behavioral).
 Humans are the most emotional of ALL animals
 Subjective Feelings
 Emotions are automatic reactions that are hard to regulate.

EMOTIONS
 Controversies of Emotion
 Which comes first, physiological arousal or subjective
experience of an emotion?
 Can we act emotionally before appraising a situation, or
does thinking always precede an emotion?

EMOTIONS: BODILY AROUSAL
1.Emotions are usually accompanied by physiological effects.
2.Autonomic nervous system responds to emotions
3.Galvanic Skin Response – An increase in the electrical
conductivity of the skin that occurs when sweat glands
increase their activity.
4.Polygraph – Lie detector test that records autonomic
fluctuations while a subject is questioned.

EMOTION BASICS
• Emotion and motivation are complimentary process.
• The concept of emotion emphasizes arousal, both physical and mental, while motivation
emphasizes how this arousal becomes action.
• Emotions help us respond to important situations and to convey our intentions to others.

WHY WE HAVE EMOTIONS
 Emotions are the result of genetics and learning, especially early
in life.
 Serve as arousal states that help organisms cope with important
recurring situations.
 Learned emotional are both important components of many
responses, & genetics psychological disorders, including
depression, anxiety disorders and phobias.

UNIVERSALITY OF EMOTIONS
• Despite different languages, cultures and social norms, studies
suggest that people “speak and understand substantially the same
‘facial language’ the world around.”
– Essentially, people share a set of universal emotion expressions
that give support to the idea of a biological heritage of the
human species.

LATERALIZATION OF EMOTION
• Different parts of our brain deal with
different emotions.
• Cerebral cortex
– Right hemisphere generally
specializes in negative emotions
– Left hemisphere generally
processes more positive and joyful
emotions.

TWO EMOTIONAL PATHWAYS
• One of the pathways is fast, and operates mainly at an unconscious
level.
• It screens incoming stimuli and helps us respond quickly to stimuli
even before they reach consciousness.
Evolutionary Theory of Emotion
– is response to stimuli that has evolved through natural selection.
• These cues seem to have a built-in, innate sensitivity to certain
cues-explains why we have more fears of spiders, heights and
lightening than cars or electricity.

TWO PATHWAYS OF EMOTION
 The other pathway is much slower and linked to explicit memory.
 While it generates emotions more slowly, it delivers more
complex information to our consciousness.
 This system relies heavily on the cerebral cortex, which is why
we can feel fear, despite knowing there is no real basis for that
feeling.

THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
 While the two pathways differ, they do have some things in common. Both
rely heavily on the limbic system.
 The amygdala plays an especially important role in both emotion pathways.
 In the past it was thought that the amygdala was simply involved in negative
emotions.
 Recently it has been discovered that it plays a role in positive emotions as well.
Zajonc-LeDoux theory
• Amygdala responds to emotions quickly to protect against danger.
• Some emotional responses occur instantly; sometimes we feel before we
think

Ch_10_AP_Psychology_Emotion_and_Motivation.ppt

 There are multiple theories on how our emotions affect out
behavior and mental processes.
 James-Lange
 Cannon Bard
 Schacter & Singer
 Lazarus
 Zajonc & LeDoux
Theories of Emotion: Historical Approaches

JAMES-LANGE THEORY
 William James & Carl Lange (1890s)
 Assumed that a stimulus of some sort produces a physiological
reaction and physical arousal leads to the labeling of an emotion
 Emotion follows behavior
A stimulus leads to bodily arousal first, which is then interpreted as an emotion.

CANON- BARD THEORY
• Proposed by physiologists Walter Cannon and Philip Bard
• Assumed that emotion and the physiological arousal occur more or less at
the same time
• The sensory information that comes into the brain is sent simultaneously
(by the thalamus) to both the cortex and the organs of the sympathetic
nervous system
A stimulus leads to activity in the brain, which then sends signals to arouse the
body and interpret the emotion at the same time.

TWO-FACTOR THEORY: SCHACHTER & SINGER
Stanley Schachter & Jerome Singer (1962)
•Assumes that both the physical arousal and the labeling of that
arousal are based on cues from the environment (must occur
before the emotion is experienced).
•This theory suggests that the emotions we feel depend on two things:
1) our internal physical state
2) the external situation we find ourselves in.

TWO-FACTOR THEORY: SCHACTER & SINGER
• Schachter–Singer’s cognitive arousal theory is similar to the James–Lange
theory but adds the element of cognitive labeling of the arousal.
• In this theory, a stimulus leads to both bodily arousal and the labeling of
that arousal (based on the surrounding context), which leads to the
experience and labeling of the emotional reaction.

MISATTRIBUTION OF EMOTION
PHENOMENON
Aron & Dutton: Shaky Bridge study
– Improper explanation for emotional state, feelings of fear were
misinterpreted for feelings of sexual arousal

RICHARD LAZARUS (1991 & 1998)
• Agreed brain process info outside of consciousness
• Argues: must be a minimal amount of unconscious thinking
• Assumes that a stimulus must be interpreted (appraised) by a
person in order to result in a physical response and an emotional
reaction
In Lazarus’s cognitive-mediational theory of emotion, a stimulus causes an immediate
appraisal (e.g., “The dog is snarling and not behind a fence, so this is dangerous”).
The cognitive appraisal results in an emotional response, which is then followed by the
appropriate bodily response.

ROBERT ZAJONC (1980 & 1984)
– Emotion & cognition are separate
– Interpretations of situations are slower than emotional reactions
– Supported by neural pathways skipping thinking parts of brain
and going directly to amygdala
• Might explain why feelings influence thought
– Development of feelings before cognition in history of humans
Appraisal
Event
Emotional
Responses
Physiological
Activation
Expressive
Behavior
Subjective
Experience

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF EMOTION
• Cognitive Appraisal Theory: The thought that we look
back on a situation and consciously decide how we should
feel about the situation.
• Ex. Grades, Papers, Projects, Tests
• Opponent-Process Theory: Theory that we trigger one
emotion by suppressing its opposite emotion.
• Ex. Drugs-the highs experienced by some drugs are
replaced with lows (withdrawals). Eventually people
take drugs not for the highs, but to avoid the lows.

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS)
We know that emotions involve bodily response.
Some of these response are easy to notice (butterflies in stomach when fear
arises) but others are more difficult discern (neurons activated in the brain).

FEAR
• Response to dangerous situations coordinated by ANS.
• Fear can torment us, rob us of sleep & preoccupy our thinking.
• But fear can be adaptive – it makes us run away from danger, brings
us closer as groups, protects us from injury and harm.
• We learn fear in two ways through conditioning (Watson – Little
Albert) and/or through observation (Bandura – Bobo Doll).

ANGER
1.People generally get angry with friends and loved ones about
misdeeds, especially if they are willful, unjustified, and avoidable.
2.People also get angry about foul odors, high temperatures, traffic
jams, aches and pains.

CATHARSIS HYPOTHESIS
• Venting anger through action or fantasy achieves emotional
release or “catharsis.”
• Some believe that we are drawn to displays of violence (football,
etc.) because it is cathartic and allows us an outlet for aggression.
• Expressing anger breeds more anger, and through reinforcement,
is habit forming.

EMOTIONAL UPS AND DOWNS
• Our positive moods rise to a maximum within 6-7 hours
after waking up.
• Negative moods stay more or less the same over the day.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
• Also known as body language
• Frequent messengers of emotions
• E.g. facial expressions, tone of voice, hand gestures

PAUL EKMAN: 7 BASIC EMOTIONS
• Suggests humans everywhere can recognize 7 basic emotions:
sadness, fear, anger, disgust, contempt, happiness and surprise.
Display Rules
• According to Ekman, the seven emotions are universal, but the
display rules vary greatly, depending on the culture.
• He defines display rules as the permissible ways of displaying
emotions in a given society.

FACIAL FEEDBACK HYPOTHESIS
• Each basic emotion is associated with a unique facial expression
• Facial expressions provide feedback to the brain concerning the
emotion being expressed, which in turn causes and intensifies
the emotion
• The more one smiles, the happier one feels

READING EMOTION
• In addition to being universal, the ability to read facial
expressions is nearly ageless.
• Psychologists think that children as young as 5 years old have
the same ability to recognize emotion on a person’s face as
an adult does.
– What are some possible explanations for this?

ROBERT PLUTCHIK:
EMOTION WHEEL
• Suggests that rather than seven, we
have:
– 8 primary emotions
– 8 secondary emotions
• More complex emotions occur when
pairs of adjacent emotions combine.
– E.g. love is a combination of joy
and acceptance.

EMOTION IN MEN & WOMEN
• In our culture, on average, women are viewed as far more
emotional than men. This may be the result of two factors.
1) Biology, and the genetic make-up of men and women do lead to
women “having more emotion.”
– Higher levels of certain hormones

EMOTION IN MEN & WOMEN
2) Culture, may be the bigger of the two causes.
•Boys and girls learn different lessons about emotion and emotional
control.
•Boys are largely taught to hide emotions that may be seen as weaknesses
and are praised for emotions that show strength and dominance.
•Girls are taught the exact opposite.
– Display Rules – norms that regulate the appropriate
expression of emotion(s).

GENDER EFFECTS ON EMOTION
• Women
– Better detecting emotions
• especially nonverbal cues of them
– Smile more
– Gesture with more expression
– More expressive faces
– More readily talk about emotion
• Men
– Express anger more readily
• Men & Women
– Difficult to read nonverbal cues of opposite sex

CULTURE EFFECTS ON EMOTION
• 2 factors affecting expression & interpretation of emotions
• Power – person with LESS power more motivated to read
nonverbal cues & will read them better
• Growing up in more expressive families or cultures
• Cultures disagree about meaning behind gestures
– http://www.best-infographics.com/global-guide-hand-gestures-infographic/

ANALYZING EMOTION
Analysis of emotions is carried out on different levels.

HAPPINESS
Spillover Effect
• The tendency of one person's emotion to affect how other people
around them feel.
Feel-Good, Do-Good phenomenon
•When we feel happy we are more willing to help others.
•This is a good example of the “spill over effect”

RELATIVE DEPRIVATION
• Happiness is not relative to our past but also to our
comparisons with others.
• Relative Deprivation is the perception that one is
worse off relative to those with whom one
compares oneself with.
• They realize that they have less of what they believe
themselves to be entitled than those around them.
• Can lead to social movements, deviance, rioting, civil
wars, etc.

MOTIVATION
• A desire that energizes the start of a behavior, & direct & maintain
physical and psychological abilities to attain the goal.
• Psychologists see motivation as being an important part of human
nature:
• Connects observable behavior to internal state
• Accounts for variability in behavior
• Creates perseverance despite adversity
• Motives relate biology to behavior
• Aron Ralston was motivated to cut his arm to free himself from a
rock that pinned him down.

requirements for survival
our impulses to act
in ways that satisfy
our needs
•Primary drives
(biological)
•Secondary Drives
(learned)
stimuli that we are
drawn to/motivated
to seek the rewards
something that
you are trying to
do or achieve

INSTINCT THEORY
• Motivation comes from natural selection.
• Birds migrating, salmon returning to creeks to spawn
• Original textbook by William James (1890)
• 37 instincts (Ex: Jealousy, Curiosity, Cleanliness
• Eventually led to 10,000 instincts!
• The term instinct was becoming overused, so the psychologist changed the phrase they
use to fixed-action patterns
• Needed to be simplified which led to the drive-reduction theory

DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY
• The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension
state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy that need.
– E.g Eating and Drinking
• Physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis
– maintenance of steady internal state.
• E.g., maintenance of steady body temperature.

HOMEOSTASIS
• Body’s tendency to maintain balanced or constant internal
state
• 98.6 degrees F is normal temperature
• Includes regulation of
• Hormones
• Water levels in cells
• Blood sugar levels
• When you experience discomfort, an internal drive motivates
you to establish homeostasis again.

HOMEOSTASIS
• The diagram above shows how increased hunger (a state of imbalance)
prompts a person to eat.
• Eating increases the level of glucose (blood sugar), causing the feelings of
hunger to decrease.
• After a period without eating, the glucose levels become low enough to
stimulate the hunger drive once again, and the entire cycle is repeated.

INCENTIVE THEORY
• Revolves around External Stimuli e.g. Money
• Proposes that people are pulled toward behaviors that lead to rewards
and pushed away from actions that might lead to negative consequences.
– Incentives can be positive or negative  behave in a manner to avoid an
unpleasant outcome
• In many cases, these external rewards can motivate you to do things that
you might otherwise avoid such as chores, work, and other tasks you
might find unpleasant

AROUSAL THEORY
• Sometimes we do not seek homeostasis but seek arousal or excitement.
– E.g. Sensation seekers
• We each have our own sense of appropriate arousal and we act in ways to
remain at a comfortable level.
• Yerkes-Dodson Law predicts that there is a relationship between the difficulty
of a task, our level of arousal, and the eventual outcome
– For easy tasks=higher levels of arousal
– For difficult tasks= moderate levels work best

YERKES-DODSON LAW
• A degree of psychological arousal helps performance, but only to a
certain point.
– Too much or too little arousal can decrease performance.
• Also known as the Inverted U.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Cognitive Social-Learning Theory
•Our behavior is attempting to maintain order or balance and attain an
understanding of the world. This is determined by two factors:
1) the expectation of attaining a goal
2) the personal value of the goal
•Locus of Control: our belief that we control the outcome of our own lives
–Internal locus of control e.g. “I control my destiny”
–External locus of control e.g. “others control my destiny”
NOTE: High external locus of control = more likely to conform
High internal locus of control = less likely to conform

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Psychodynamic Theory
•Our motivation comes from the deep, dark parts of our unconscious
minds (the id).
• We have two basic needs:
1) Eros: desire for sex
2) Thanatos: aggression and destruction
•NOTE: Freud was attempting to explain mental disorders, not
everyday behaviors

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
(SOMETIMES THEY BOTH WORK TOGETHER)
Intrinsic Motivation
•Rewards we get internally e.g. enjoyment or satisfaction.
•Intrinsic is better than extrinsic
•Results in higher achievement
Extrinsic Motivation
•Reward that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves
(grades or money etc.)
•Works great in the short run.
•Decreases the degree of creativity when compared to intrinsic
motivation

• Research indicates that intrinsic motivation has an
edge over extrinsic motivation in most cases.
• This does not mean that extrinsic motivation isn’t
good or does not work. In many cases, the two
work together.
• E.g. Journalism students work all Summer & Spring
washing cars as a fundraiser to attend a
conference in St. Louis in Fall
– Making Money= extrinsic motivation.
– Desire to go to the conference = intrinsic
motivation.
So which type of motivation is better?
Which produces more, positive results?

PROBLEMS WITH
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
• A primary concern about external rewards, however, is
that behaviors maintained by extrinsic motivation alone
may not be enough to be effectively sustained once the
motivation is gone.
– Example: Will a student’s grades go down if their
parents stop giving them money for earning As and Bs?
– Evidence suggests that the removal of an extrinsic
motivation will result in behavior levels lower than
before the rewards were given.

OVER JUSTIFICATION EFFECT
• If we give extrinsic rewards or motivators for things that
people already love to do and would do without a reinforcer.
• Eventually the person’s intrinsic motivation will be replaced by
that extrinsic motivation.
– Ex: Professional athletes, musicians
• When a celebrity 1st
starts off
they may do concerts for free
(for the “little people” because
they remember what it was like).
• After making lots of money, are
they still likely to do it free?

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
•The need to master difficult challenges, to outperform others,
and to meet high standards of excellence.
• Involves desire to excel, especially in competition with others.
Henry Murray (1938)
•The need to achieve varies in strength in different people and
influences their tendency to approach and evaluate their own
performances.
• Achievement motivation includes desire for
–Significant accomplishment
–Mastery of ideas, things, or people
–Attaining a high standard

DAVID MCCLELLAND (1953)
• Emphasis on three psychological needs:
– Affiliation
– Power
– Achievement
• Need for affiliation (n Aff): the need for friendly social
interactions and relationships with others
– People in this need seek to be liked by others and to
be held in high regard by others
– Makes them good team players

• Need for power (n Pow): the need to have control or influence
over others
– People high in this need want their ideas to be the ones
that are used, regardless of its success
– Status and prestige are important
– Monetary achievement is valued

• Need for achievement (n Ach): the need that involves a strong desire to succeed in
attaining goals, realistic and challenging ones
– People high in this need
• Look for careers & hobbies that allow others to evaluate them
• Have the need to receive feedback about their performance in addition to the
achievement of reaching the goal
• Achieve success in ways that do not always lead to material riches
• Strongly related to success in school, occupational
success, and the quality and amount of
what a person produces

ABRAHAM MASLOW
• Suggested some needs have priority over others.
• Physiological needs like breathing, thirst and hunger
come before psychological needs like achievement,
self-esteem & need for recognition.
• Created Hierarchy of Needs (1970)- Idea of pyramid
= must satisfy lower, basic needs first.
• Highest level = self actualization
• The need to live up to one’s fullest & unique potential

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY
(HUMANISTIC APPROACH)
• Maslow said that there is a natural hierarchy or rank to the needs
humans have.
• Before one of the higher needs can be fulfilled, the needs on the
levels below must be met, at least to some degree.
• Most needs are met at a rate of about 85% before a
person can move onto a higher need.
Video Clips:
• Up --- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iucf76E-R2s
• Ratatouille -- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tzQ9vrvTAtk

CRITICISM OF MASLOW
• Although critics will admit Maslow’s Hierarchy was the first real step toward a
comprehensive theory of motivation, they say it isn’t complete.
•People often neglect their basic biological needs for more social needs
•Cross-cultural needs: individualistic vs. collectivist cultures see needs differently
•Little scientific support: theory based on his own observations of people
•Sensation seeking: Why would someone jump out of a plane for “fun?”
–Other areas it doesn’t explain?

MOTIVATION AT WORK
• Freud stated that a healthy life of an adult is filled by love and work.
• Attitudes toward work differs:
– Job: Necessary way to make money.
– Career: Opportunity to advance from one position to another.
– Calling: fulfilling a socially useful activity.
What motivates us?
– Achievement - need for success or the attainment of excellence.
– GRIT
– Extrinsic or Intrinsic rewards

WORK: FLOW & STRENGTH
• Flow marks immersion into one’s work. Experience between no
work and a lot of work.
• People who “flow” in their work (artists, dancers, composers etc.) are driven
less by extrinsic rewards and more by intrinsic rewards.
• Identifying people’s strengths (analytical, disciplined, eager to learn etc.) and
matching them to work is the first step toward workplace effectiveness.
How to do it successfully?
• Appraisal of Performance: 360 Degree Feedback

MANAGEMENT THEORY OF MOTIVATION
INTRINSIC VS EXTRINSIC
Theory X
•Managers believes that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with
punishment.
•Think employees are extrinsically motivated.
•Only interested in Maslow’s lower needs.
Theory Y
•Managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should
encourage this internal motive.
•Interested in Maslow’s higher needs.
Theory Z
•Employers who invest in the employees and provide opportunities for self-fulfillment, will reap the
benefits of happy employees (productivity and job satisfaction)

SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY (SDT)
• Proposed by Richard Ryan and Edward Deci
• Suggests that the social context of an action has an effect on the type of
motivation existing for the action
• Three inborn and universal needs:
– Autonomy: the need to be in control of one’s own behavior and goals
– Competence: the need to be able to master the challenging tasks of one’s life
– Relatedness: the need to feel a sense of belonging in relationship with others

MOTIVATING OURSELVES & OTHERS
Motivating Ourselves
– 3 ways to develop self-motivation
• Associate high achievement with positive emotions
• Connect achievement with your efforts
• Raise your expectations
Motivating Others
– 4 steps to motivate others
• Cultivate intrinsic motivation
• Attend to individual motives
• Set specific, challenging goals
• Choose an appropriate leadership style
– Task leadership: goal-oriented leader that sets standards,
organizes work, and focuses attention
– Social leadership: group-oriented leader that builds
teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support

BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF
HUNGER
• Hunger does NOT come
from our stomach. People
who have had their
stomachs removed still feel
hunger.
• Hunger comes from the
brain  Hypothalamus

HYPOTHALAMUS
Lateral Hypothalamus
•When stimulated it makes you
hungry.
•When lesioned (destroyed) you will
never be hungry again.
•Remember: LAT = FAT
Ventromedial Hypothalamus
•When stimulated you feel full.
•When lesioned you will never feel
full again.
•Remember: Ven= Thin

Physiology of Hunger
Glucose
(simple sugar)
• form of sugar that circulates throughout the body
• Major source of body’s energy
• Running low makes you hungry
Insulin
(Hormone)
• hormone that allows our cells to use glucose for energy
or convert it to fat
• Insulin goes up, glucose goes down
Leptin
(Hormone)
• protein produced by bloated fat cells, which send “stop
eating” message
• Obesity = insensitivity to leptin
Gherlin
(Hormone)
• appetite increaser, is released primarily in
the stomach and is thought to signal hunger to the brain
Orexin
(Hormone)
• hunger-triggering hormone produced by hypothalamus
• Glucose levels drop, orexin levels rise, making us hungry

PHYSIOLOGY OF HUNGER
Hormone Tissue Response
Orexin increase Hypothalamus Increases hunger
Ghrelin increase Stomach Increases hunger
Insulin increase Pancreas Increases hunger
Leptin increase Fat cells Decreases hunger
PYY increase Digestive tract Decreases hunger

HYPOTHALAMUS
• Hypothalamus is key in hunger
– Actively regulates appetite
– Considered “weight thermostat”
• Set point = point at which an individual’s hypothalamus is supposedly set
– Falling below increases hunger triggering a lowered metabolic rate to restore lost
weight.
• Relies on
– Basal metabolic rate – resting rate at which we burn calories for energy
– Specific number of fat cells (can expand in size & increase in #)
– Hormones that work together to keep weight where it’s designed

ENVIRONMENT & HUNGER
External incentives
– Sight, sound, and smell of food that seem to affect eating habits
– External Eater is more affected by external incentives
Culture
– Americans view obesity as weakness
– African-Americans & Latinos less worried about weight and
more accepting of overweight individuals
– Affects taste
• Dislike foods we have not been exposed to
• Repeated exposure to new food inc. want to try new

ENVIRONMENT & HUNGER
• Availability of Food – if food is available, people are more
likely to eat.
• Learned Habits – if people develop food habits, they will
stick to those habits.
• Stress – with more stress, comes more eating.

EATING DISORDERS: ANOREXIA
• Normal weight person has distorted self-
perception of being “fat” (delusion)
• Self-starvation regimens
• Become dangerously underweight
• Considered 15% or more
underweight
• 9 out of 10 times = adolescent
female
• Often can display characteristics of
bulimia
• Starts as a diet

EATING DISORDERS: BULIMIA
• Eating disorder characterized by
excessive eating (bingeing), followed
by vomiting (purging)
• May include laxative use, fasting,
or excessive exercise
• Characterized by
• Fear of gaining weight
• Preoccupation with food
• Suffering from depression and/or
anxiety
• Origins in a diet broken by gorging

CAUSE OF EATING DISORDERS
• Genetic links
• Cultural pressures
•Particularly strong in weight-
conscious cultures (ex: USA)
•Mothers concerned with own
weight are more likely to have
children with eating disorders
•Pictures
•Commercials, social media

DYING TO BE THIN
• http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/thin/program.html
• What would you do if someone you knew had an eating disorder? How
would you help them? What can you do to help change their
misconceptions about their weight and the culture around them?

OBESITY
• Condition of Being Overweight.
• Some People have mild genetic predispositions to eat more
• Body Mass Index (BMI) – Weight/Height (Squared)..
• Set Point Theory – the body monitors fat cell levels to keep them (and weight)
fairly stable.
• explains how people usually put back on weight after they lose it.
• Settling-Point Theory – weight tends to drift around the level at which the
constellation of factors that determine food consumption and energy expenditure
achieves an equilibrium.
• Dietary Restraint – people are constantly thinking about food while dieting, so
overindulge more.

MEMORY & HUNGER
• Memory plays an important role in
hunger.
• Due to difficulties with retention,
amnesia patients eat frequently, if given
food (Rozin et al., 1998).
• On the other hand, Alzheimer’s patients
may forget to eat

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE EATING
BEHAVIOR

STRESS
• In psychology, stress is not a situation, but a response.
• When you perceive a stimuli you either interpret it as a stressor or non-
stressor
• Psychologists talk about stress and stressors a little different than you or I
might:
• Stress: A physical and mental response to a a challenging or
threatening situation
• Stressor: A stressful stimulus or situation demanding adaptation

TYPES OF STRESS
• Despite the bad name that stress has, it is actually a vital part of our
lives, as long as it is controlled.
• There are two main types of stress:
– Acute Stress: A temporary pattern of stressor-activated arousal
with a distinct onset, and limited duration
• Short term stress
– Chronic Stress: A continuous state of stressful arousal,
persisting over time.
• Long term stress

RESPONSE TO A NORMAL STRESSOR
• The physical response to a normal stressor is fairly universal as
well and follows the same sequence:
• An initiation of arousal
• A protective behavioral reaction (fight or flight)
• Internal response of the autonomic nervous system
• A decrease in the effectiveness of the immune system

TRAUMATIC STRESSORS
• Certain events go beyond a “normal” stressor
– For example: World Tsunami in 2004, 9/11, Parkland shooting,
Hurricane Katrina.
• These are called traumatic stressors.
• To be considered a traumatic stressor, it must be a situation that
threatens yours, or others’ physical safety and promotes a feeling of
helplessness.
• Human created catastrophes are always worse, why?

RESPONSE TO TRAUMATIC STRESSORS
• In the face of catastrophic situations, most people pass through five stages:
1) Psychic Numbness: shock, confusion, lack of understanding
2) Automatic Action: little awareness of the experience, poor
memory/recall
3) Communal Effort: people work together, but with little planning
4) Letdown: the setting-in of the magnitude and impact of the situation
5) Recovery: Survivors adapt to changes caused by the disaster

PTSD
• Individuals who have undergone severe ordeals-rape, combat,
beatings, torture-may experience a delayed pattern of stress
symptoms that can appear as long as years after the event.
– Victims of PTSD often have the following symptoms:
• Distracted
• Disorganized
• Suffer memory difficulties
• Experience psychic numbing
(diminished hedonic capacity)
• Feelings of alienation

GENERAL ADAPTATION
SYNDROME (GAS)
• A pattern of general physical responses that take essentially
the same form in responding to any serious chronic stressor.
• Three stages:
– Alarm reaction- body mobilizes it’s resources to cope with
a stressor (fight or flight)
– Resistance- adapt to the presence of the stressor
– Exhaustion- the body depletes it’s resources

SEXUAL MOTIVATION
Sex is natural.
Without sex, none of us would be here.

KINSEY’S STUDIES
• Confidential interviews with 18,000 people (in
early 1950’s).
• Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and
Sexual Behavior in the Human Female
• Scale of sexuality….0 to 6 where 0 is exclusively
heterosexual and 6 homosexual and 7 is asexual.
Click on Kinsey to see the
movie trailer.

MASTERS AND JOHNSON STUDY (1960)
• Explore the physiology of sex.
• 382 females and 312 males.
• After their research was done they ran an institute that claimed to
turn gay people straight.
Click on Masters and Johnson to see a more
detailed explanation of their research.

SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE
– Excitement Phase – Sexual Arousal Rises, and Vasocongestion Occurs.
• i. Vasocongestion – Engorgement of Blood Vessels. (Erection)
– Plateau Phase – Arousal builds at slower pace. (Pre-Cum)
– Orgasm Phase – Sexual arousal reaches peak & discharges. (Ejaculation)
– Resolution Phase – A refractory period in men is experienced, women are more
likely to experience multiple orgasms.
– Refractory Period – A Time Following an Orgasm During Which Males are Largely
Unresponsive to Further Stimulation.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN SEXUAL
MOTIVATION
• Only some people are externals when it comes to hunger- but we are all externals when it comes
to sex.
• People can find sexually explicit images either pleasing or disturbing- but they are none the less
biologically arousing.
Sexual Orientation
• An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own gender or the other gender.

HOW IS SEXUAL ORIENTATION DETERMINED?
• Biologically determined.
– There has been NO evidence that sexuality is socially determined.
• Children raised by gay parents are no more likely to be gay that if
they were raised by hetero parents.
Simon LeVay discovered that there is a cluster of cells in the
hypothalamus that is larger in heterosexual men than in
heterosexual women or homosexual men.
Prenatal Environment : Current research seems to point to
the hormonal levels in the prenatal environment.
• Scientists have created homosexual male fruit flies and
lesbian sheep

RECAP: CRASH COURSE
• Video : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE
• Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4KbSRXP0wik
• Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hdSLiHaJz8

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