Chapter 02 (4).ppt
- 1. Sociological Investigation A logical system that derives knowledge From direct, systematic observation
- 2. Forms of Truth • Belief or faith • Expert testimony • Simple agreement • Science – Logical system that bases knowledge on direct systematic observation
- 3. Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence • “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” • “Most poor people don’t want to work.” • “Most people marry because they are in love.”
- 4. Three Frameworks for Sociological Investigation • Scientific sociology – The study of society based on systematic observation of social behavior – Empirical evidence–Information we can verify with our senses • Interpretive sociology – The study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world • Critical sociology – The study of society that focuses on the need for change
- 5. Causation • Cause and effect – A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another • Types of variables – Independent: The variable that causes the change – Dependent: The variable that changes (its value depends upon the independent variable)
- 6. Correlation A relationship by which two or more variables change together Spurious correlation An apparent, though false, relationship between two or more variables caused by some other variable
- 7. Scientific Sociology Terminology • Concepts–A mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form • Variables–Concepts whose values change from case to case • Measurement–A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case • Operationalizing a variable–Specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable
- 8. Scientific Sociology Terminology • Reliability–Consistency in measurement – Does an instrument provide for a consistent measure of the subject matter? • Validity–Precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure – Does an instrument actually measure what it sets out to measure?
- 9. Correlation Does Not Mean Causation • Conditions for cause and effect to be considered – Existence of a correlation – The independent (causal) variable precedes the dependent variable in time. – No evidence suggests that a third variable is responsible for a spurious correlation between the two original variables.
- 10. Scientific Sociology Terminology • Objectivity – A state of personal neutrality in conducting research • Value-free research – Weber says sociologists should strive to be dispassionate and detached. • Replication – Repetition of research by other investigators – Helps limit distortion caused by personal values
- 11. Limitations of Scientific Sociology • Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions. • The mere presence of the researcher might affect the behavior being studied. • Social patterns change. • Sociologists are part of the world they study, making value-free research difficult.
- 12. Gender and Research • Androcentricity – Approaching the topic from a male-only perspective • Gynocentricity – Approaching the topic from a female-only perspective (less common than androcentricity) • Overgeneralizing – Using data collected from one sex and applying the findings to both sexes
- 13. Gender and Research • Gender blindness – The failure to consider the effect of gender at all • Double standards – Using different standards to judge males and females • Interference – This occurs when a subject reacts to the sex of the researcher, interfering with the research operation.
- 14. Ethical Guidelines for Research • Must strive to be technically competent & fair-minded • Must disclose findings in full without omitting significant data & be willing to share their data • Must protect the safety, rights, and privacy of subjects • Must obtain informed consent; subjects are aware of risks and responsibilities and agree • Must disclose all sources of funding & avoid conflicts of interest • Must demonstrate cultural sensitivity
- 15. Sociological Research Methods A Systematic Plan for Conducting Research • Experiment–A research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions • Hypothesis–An unverified statement of a relationship between variables (an educated guess) • Placebo–A treatment that seems to be the same but has no effect on the experiment • Hawthorne effect–A change in a subject's behavior caused by the awareness of being studied
- 16. Survey Research A research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or interview • Population – The people who are the focus of the research • Sample – The part of the population that represents the whole • Random Sample – Drawing a sample from a population so that every element of the population has an equal chance of being selected
- 17. Questionnaire A series of written questions that a researcher presents to subjects • Closed-ended – A series of fixed responses; easy to analyze but narrows range of responses • Open-ended – Free response; broadens range of responses but harder to analyze Most surveys are self-administered; pre- testing can avoid costly problems.
- 18. Other Research Methods • Interview – A series of questions that a researcher administers in person • Participant observation – A research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining in their routine activities
- 19. Interplay Between Theory and Method • Inductive logical thought – Reasoning that transforms specific observations into general theory • Induction “increases” from specific to general • Deductive logical thought – Reasoning that transforms general theory into specific hypotheses suitable for testing • Deduction “decreases” from general to specific
- 20. Ten Steps In Sociological Investigation 1. Select and define topic 2. Review the literature 3. Develop key questions to ask 4. Assess requirements for study 5. Consider ethical issues 6. Select a research methodology 7. Collect the data 8. Interpret the findings 9. State conclusions 10.Publish the findings