chapter 1 Solid waste management environmental Engineering

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
All solid and semi-solidwastes arising from human and animal
activities, except human-excreta and sullage (liquid wastes from
bathrooms, kitchens, etc.), are discarded as useless or
unwanted are included in the term ‘Solid-Wastes’ or ‘Refuse’. It
includes garbage, rubbish, ashes and residues, demolition and
construction wastes, dead animals, radioactive wastes, etc. The
quantity of solid-wastes produced depends upon the living
standards of the population. It will be more for an industrialized
modern society. It also depends on seasons.

A few important terms used in solid-wastes are :
Rubbish. It includes combustible and non-combustible solid
wastes, excluding food wastes or putrescible materials.
Combustible rubbish includes paper, card-board, textiles, plastic,
rubber, wood, garden-trimmings, etc. Non-combustible rubbish
consists of glass, crockery, tin-cans, aluminium cans, metals,
construction wastes, etc.
Garbage. It includes putrescible organic waste like the animal,
fruit or vegetable residues resulting from the handling,
preparation, cooking and eating of foods.

Types and Sources of Solid-wastes
There are three general categories of solid-wastes :
(i) Municipal wastes,
(ii) Industrial wastes, and
(iii) Hazardous wastes.

Municipal wastes
Municipal wastes are those wastes which arise from
household activities, restaurants, public places, institutions,
markets, street-sweepings, etc. and typically include garbage,
rubbish, ashes (due to burning of coal, wood etc.), demolition
and construction wastes, street-sweepings, dead animals,
etc. and also treatment plant waste.
The general sources of municipal solid-waste are residential,
commercial (markets, hotels, garages, institutions, etc.) and
open areas (streets, parks, beaches, highways, play grounds),
etc.

Industrial wastes
Industrial wastes are those wastes which arise from
industrial activities, and typically include rubbish,
ashes, construction and demolition wastes, special
wastes and toxic wastes.

Hazardous Wastes
Are those wastes that pose a substantial danger immediately or
over a period of time to human, plant or animal life. A waste is
said to be hazardous if it exhibits any of the following
characteristics, viz., ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity or
toxicity.
Typical hazardous wastes are radioactive substances,
chemicals, biological wastes, flammable wastes, and explosives.
The sources of hazardous wastes are industries, nuclear plants,
hospitals, research institutes, laboratories, etc.

Reasons of excess generation of Solid Wastes
The main causes for the rapid growth in the quantity of solid
wastes are :
(i) Over-population. The ever increasing population is increasing
all types of pollution. Same is true for solid waste pollution too.
(ii) Urbanization. Solid waste is primarily an urban problem,
though it is not exclusively urban. Solid waste pollution increases
with the increase in urbanization. In developed countries, for
instance in USA urban areas produce about 7.0 lac tons of solid
wastes each day—an amount sufficient to cover more than 1.6
sq. km. of land every day to a depth of 3.0 m.

(iii) Affluence. With production or per capita consumption,
there is a tendency to declare items as obsolete, resulting in
their discard. This leads to solid waste pollution.
(iv) Technology. Rapidly growing technologies for most
economic goods are leading to returnable packaging to
nonreturnable packaging. For example, returnable glass
bottles/ containers being replaced by non-returnable cans,
plastic containers, etc.

Effects of Solid Wastes Pollution
The improper handling and transfer of the solid wastes results in
various health and environmental hazards, such as :
• Diseases like bacillary dysentery, diarrhoea and amoebic
dysentery may result in humans from food and water
contamination through flies, which breed on the refuse dump and
solid waste.
• Rats depending upon these solid wastes may also cause plague,
salmonellosis, trichinosis, endemic typhus like diseases through
direct bite.
• The crops and water supply may also get contaminated and may
result in large scale epidemic of cholera, jaundice, gastrointestinal
diseases, hepatits etc.

• Solid wastes may also choke the drains and gully pits resulting in
water logging, which in turn results in the breeding of mosquitoes
and thus danger of malaria and dengue.
• There is also aesthetic danger to the surrounding environment,
as the stray animals and scavengers invade the garbage dumps of
roadsides.
• Obnoxious ordors also pollute the air due to decomposition of
organic solid wastes.
• Noxious fumes may pollute air due to the burning of waste
products especially plastic containers.
• Percolation of decomposed garbage dumps into soil may result
into pollution of underground water and land.

Methods of Solid-wastes Disposal
The various methods of solid-wastes disposal are :
• Land filling,
• Incineration,
• Pulverization,
• Composting,
• Pyrolysis, and
• Disposal into sea.

1. Disposal of Solid-Wastes by Land Filling
In this method, solid-wastes are carried and dumped into the low
lying areas. The refuse is filled up or dumped in layers of 1.5 m or
so and each layer is covered by good earth of atleast 20 cm
thickness, so that refuse is not directly exposed. Each layer is left
out for atleast seven days and compaction by trucks is carried out
for its settlement, before starting filling the next layer.
Insecticides like DDT should be sprayed on top to prevent
breeding of mosquitoes and flies.

With the passage of time, the filled up solid-wastes will get
stabilized by the decomposition of the organic matter and
subsequent conversion into stable compounds. Hydrolysis of
complex organic matter takes place under anaerobic conditions and
as a result gases like CH4, CO2, H2S, etc. are evolved and also
simpler water soluble organic acids are formed which diffuse
through the soil. For better biological degradation the moisture
content should be less than 60%.
The refuse gets stabilized, generally, within a period of 2 to 12
months, and settles down by 20 to 40% of its original height.
Unequal settlement and odour may be there for the first few years.
But after that the land can be used for developing parks or other
recreational use.

Advantages :
• Simple and economical.
• No costly plant and equipment is required.
• Skilled labour is not required.
• Separation of different kinds of solid-wastes is not
required.
• No residue or by-product ; hence no further
disposal.
• Low-lying areas can be reclaimed and put to better
use.

Disadvantages :
• Large land area requirement.
• Continuous evolution of foul smell near the site of disposal.
• Use of insecticides is required.
• Covering good earth required for top layer may sometimes be
difficult to obtain.
• The biggest disadvantage is formation of ‘leachate’. It is a
coloured liquid formed due to seepage of rainy water into the
land fill. This water may dissolve the harmful and carcinogenic
compounds present in the refuse. When such a polluted water
contaminates the ground water, it may lead to diseases like
cholera, typhoid, polio, etc.

2.Incineration
Incineration means burning of the solid-wastes in properly
constructed hearth of furnaces. This method is generally used when
suitable dumping land areas are not available and disposal in sea is
not possible.
When solid-waste is collected together, it is better to separate the
non-combustible and inert material like earth, broken glass,
chinaware, metals, etc., so as to reduce the load on the hearth. The
combustible garbage, rubbish and dead animals are only burnt.
The minimum temperature in the combustion chamber should be
greater than 670°C to incinerate all the organic matter and oxidize the
foul smelling gases. If steam is to be generated then a temperature of
about 1000°C is to be produced in the combustion chamber.

Each batch of solid-wastes entering the furnace should
be well-mixed and the proportion of the fuel in the
charge be adjusted to provide complete combustion
and proper temperature. When the moisture contents
of the solid-wastes is high, auxiliary fuels like wood,
coal or oil may be used.
The final products will be ashes and clinkers. The ashes
are dispersed by dumping in low lying areas, while the
clinkers can be used as aggregate for low grade
concrete or as road material.

Advantages :
• The method is sanitary, as all the pathogens and insects are
destroyed.
• No odour and dust nuisance.
• Same revenue can be generated by raising steam power and
selling of the clinkers.
Disadvantages :
• Relatively high initial cost.
• Nuisance of smoke, odour and ash during the improper
functioning of incinerators.

3. Pulverization
In this method, the solid-waste is pulverized in grinding
machines so as to reduce its volume and change its physical
character. By doing so it becomes practically odourless and
unattractive to insects. Although it contains fertilizing elements,
but it cannot be suitably used as a manure.
It has to be further disposed of by land filling. The method is
quite costly, and hence not commonly used, particularly in
India.

4. Composting
In this method the putrescible organic material in solid-wastes is
digested anaerobically and converted into humus and stable mineral
compounds. Its volume is also considerably reduced and is made free
of most of the pathogenic organisms so that is can be easily and
safely handled. It is a hygienic method which converts the solid-
wastes into manure through anaerobic bacterial action.
This method is best suited to Indian conditions, especially for small
and medium size towns ; since it solves three problems
simultaneously—disposal of solid-wastes, disposal of night soil
(where there is no water carriage system of sanitation), and
production of valuable manure for crops.

There are three methods of composting, as explained below :
Composting by Trenching. In this method, trenches 4 to 10 m
long, 2 to 3 m wide and 0.7 to 1.0 m deep are excavated at a
clear spacing of 2 m. Solid-waste is disposed of into these
trenches in layers of 15 cm and by sandwiching 5 cm layers of
night soil or animal dung in semi-liquid form, till the heaps so
formed rise about 30 cm above the original ground level. A layer
of 5 to 7.5 cm of good earth is then spread on top to prevent the
flies from getting access into the heaps and for the wind blowing
them off.
Within 2-3 days, intensive biological action starts and the organic
matter begins to be destroyed. Considerable heat is produced in
the process to raise the temperature of the decomposing mass to
about 75°C.

This generated heat prevents any breeding of flies. After about
4-5 months, the decomposing mass gets fully stabilized and
changes into brown odourless innocuous powdery humus
having high fertilizing value. It is then removed from trenches,
sieved on 1.25 cm sieve to remove coarse inert materials like
stones, brick bats, broken glass, etc. The sieved material is then
sold out as manure. The same trenches can be used again for
receiving further batches of solid-wastes.

Open Window Composting. In this method, the coarse inert
matter is first removed from solid-wastes. Then it is dumped on
the ground in the form of 5 to 10 m long, 1 to 2 m wide and 0.5
to 1.0 m high piles at about 60% moisture content. The pile is
then covered with night soil/ animal dung. Due to biological
activity through aerobic bacteria, heat starts developing upto
about 75°C in the piles.
After few days the pile is turned up for cooling and aeration to
avoid anaerobic reactions. The pile temperature again rises and
the process of turning, cooling and aeration is repeated. The
complete process may take about 4 to 6 weeks, after which the
compost is ready for use as manure.

Mechanical Composting
Mechanical composting stabilizes the solid-wastes only within 3 to
6 days. The various unit processes or operations involved in a large
scale mechanical composting plant are—reception of solid-wastes,
segregation, shredding or pulverization, stabilization, and
preparation of the stabilized mass for the market.
Stabilization is carried out, under controlled conditions of
temperature and moisture content, in mechanical digesters. The
mechanical digesters are of various types, such as pits or cells,
windows or stacks, and vertical or horizontal cylinder or silo type
closed digestors.

Closed digestors are most hygienic and occupy less space. In
these digesters, the refuse is digested and converted into
humus and stable mineral compounds. The stabilized brown
humus is collected, sieved and sold in market. Sometimes, the
stabilized mass is enriched by adding chemical nutrients like
phosphorus, nitrogen, etc.

5. Pyrolysis
In pyrolysis, the chemical constituents and chemical energy of
some organic wastes is recovered by destructive distillation of
the solid waste. In pyrolysis, the combustible constituents of the
solid-waste are heated in a specially designed retort like
chamber, known as pyrolysis reactor at 650 to 1000°C in an
oxygen-free (or low-oxygen) environment.
Pyrolysis is an endothermic process and thus differs from the
conventional incineration. Its merits and demerits are same as
that of incineration process discussed earlier.

6. Disposal into Sea
This method of solid-wastes disposal can be used in coastal areas
having deep sea water ( > 30 m) at a reasonable distance ( < 16 to
20 km), and with strong forward currents. This is quite a simple
and cheap method, but it has following disadvantages :
• The bulky and lighter components of solid-wastes float, spread,
and tend to return to the shores during high tides.
• During monsoons or stormy weather, solid-waste has to be
either stored or disposed of by some other methods.
• Some portion of the solid-wastes may return and spoil the
beaches, despite all the necessary precautions.

Solid Waste Management
Solid waste management may be defined as the application of techniques that
will ensure the orderly execution of the functions of collection, processing and
disposal of solid waste. These functions are called the ‘three basic functional
elements of solid waste management’.
Collection is the first fundamental function of solid waste management. It refers
to the gathering of solid wastes from places such as residences, commercial,
institutional and industrial establishments, and other public places. Generally,
there are two methods of collection— hauled-container system and
stationary-container system.
In the hauled container system, the container is hauled from the collection
point to the final point of disposal, processing facility, or transfer station.
In the stationary-container system, the container is emptied into collection
vehicles at the point of collection.

Processing is the second fundamental function of solid waste
management. It refers to the activity applied to solid waste to
prepare it for subsequent operation. Processing improves the
efficiency of solid waste disposal and prepares solid waste for
subsequent recycling and recovery of materials.
Disposal is the third fundamental function of solid waste
management. It refers to the placing of solid waste in its ultimate
resting place. The various methods of solid waste disposal have
already been discussed earlier.

Recycling of Solid Waste and Its Management
The recovery of solid waste components for possible use as raw
materials is called recycling or salvaging. It involves separating
materials (such as scrap metal, glass, paper, plastic, etc.) from
refuse and reprocessing them for reuse. Processing to segregate
solid waste components may be done at the point of generation
(on-site processing) or at a central processing facility.
In on-site processing, wastes are segregated into different types at
the point of generation. For example, paper is put in one container,
metal scrap in another, and so on. The onsite processing, thus,
needs the cooperation of the waste producer (e.g., houses,
industries, commercial establishments, etc.) If on-site processing is
not done, segregation into components may be done at a central
facility. Unit operations in a central facility involved—screening, air
classifying, and magnetic separations. Size reduction using
shredders, although not a segregation process, is also sometimes
used to produce a more uniformly sized product.

The various recycling techniques that can be utilized are as under :
(i) Crushing of materials such as discarded furniture, appliances, etc.
(ii) Selection for magnetic, non-magnetic and specific gravity based
materials.
(iii) Thermal decomposition of waste organics in the form of gas and
oil.
(iv) Food sources from organic wastes for livestock.
(v) Melting plastic domestic toys and moulding them into new ones.
(vi) Melting blast furnace slag for making artificial jewellery etc.
(vii) Use of incineration heat.
(viii) Methane fermentation and residual sludge.
(ix) Converting waste into solid fuel (wood chips, raw dust etc.)
(x) Alcohol fermentation.
(xi) Composting garbage and using it as manure.

Examples of Recycling and Waste Utilization
1.Construction Materials from Wastes
2.Utilizing Agricultural Wastes
3.Medicines from Agricultural Wastes
4.Utilizing Slaughter-houses Wastes
5.Recovery of Heavy Metal Ions
6.Liquid Fuels from Agricultural Wastes
7.Energy from Industrial and Urban Wastes.
8. Conversion of Agricultural Wastes into Cheap and Efficient
Fuel
9. Rubber from Old Tyres
10. Proteins from Cellulose Waste.
11. Utilizing Aquatic Weeds
12. Oil from Plastic Waste
13. Plastic for Heat and Electricity Generation
14. Silk Industry Waste as Poultry Feed
15. Utilizing Fly Ash as Bricks

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
The term ‘Disaster’ is derived from the French word ‘Desastre’
meaning a bad or an evil star. A disaster is that sudden calamity
which brings misfortune and miseries to humanity. Disasters have
serious impact on human life, economy and environment. They
disrupt the normal pattern of life because a disaster is often sever,
sudden, unexpected and widespread.
Natural disasters are always severe and sudden. Some disasters
are geological in nature like the earthquakes, landslides, volcanic
eruptions, etc. Some are climatic disasters like floods, droughts,
cyclones, hailstorms, etc. There are some man-induced disasters
as well, like wars or battles, riots, terrorist strikes, rail or road
accidents, etc. Nuclear explosions and industrial accidents also fall
under man-induced disasters category as they too occur largely
due to the follies of mankind.

Earthquakes are tremors which are produced by the
passage of vibratory waves through the rocks of the
earth. They are one of the most dangerous and
destructive natural hazards. Man has always
fearedearthquakes.
The amount of damage done by earthquakes to the life of
man and property can be devastating. A brief mention of
some important earthquakes is given in Next table.
EARTH QUAKES

Some of the devastating earthquakes of the world

chapter 1 Solid waste management environmental Engineering

One of the most notorious effects of earthquakes is the tsunami.
These are giant seismic sea swells (tidal waves) which can move at
1,000 km/hr, or faster, away from the centre of an earthquake.
When these swells approach the shore, they can easily reach 15 m
or more.
To quote, a 1960 tsunami coming from a Chilean earthquake
caused 7 m breakers when it reached Hawaii fifteen hours later.
Tsunamis can also be caused by underwater volcanic explosions or
massive seafloor slumping. To quote, the eruption of Krakatoa
volcano in Indonesia in 1883 created a 40 m high tsunami that killed
more than 30,000 people on nearby Islands.

There is no sure way of getting protection from earthquakes.
However, some ways can be deissed to offset some of the ill-
effects of earthquakes.
The people living in the earthquake risk zones should be educated
and made aware so that they can take precautionary measures
before and after the earthquakes.

During tremors, the following precautionary measures are suggested :
• People should come out of their houses and stay in the open till the
tremors subside.
• Those who are already out of the houses should stay away from
buildings, electric poles, trees and any tall object that has chancces of
falling down.
• In case there are tremors when people are in public buildings (such
as offices, schools, colleges, hotels, etc.), then they should stay in the
corners or near the walls, should not move about or create chaos, and
remain away from heavy objects and maintain their cool.
• In case a person feels the tremors while driving, he/she should stop
driving and park the vehicle on the roadside and wait in the open till
the vibrations subside.

After the tremor subsides, it is the social obligation of every human being to help
those who may have suffered injuries. The following actions in response to the
event are suggested :
• The police control room, the fire control office, the nearby Red Cross office or the
Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) in the area should be informed
immediately.
• Rescue and provide first aid to those unfortunate people who are trapped inside
the buildings. If the injuries are serious they may be shifted to the nearby hospital.
• Relief camps may be arranged either by the government agencies or other social
groups for people whose houses and property have been damaged or have suffered
injuries.
As students, you should find out whether the area where you live in is a high risk
zone or not. If the area is in seismic zone, you should make efforts to inform the
people around you and educate them to cope with this natural calamity.

A cyclone is an area of low pressure in the centre and high pressure outside.
It is a powerful swirling storm that measures from 300 to 500 km in diameter.
The wind in the centre of a cyclone blows at a speed of 120 km per hour. The
cyclones, thus, can be defined as travelling low pressure areas, roughly circular
or oval in shape, which originate as a wave along the front separating two air
masses of different temperature, density and direction.
The produce clouds and rain because a warm moist air made to rise over a mass
of cold air. They are known by different names over different parts of the world,
such as—typhoons in China, hurricanes in Central America, willy willies in
Australia and cyclones in India.
CYCLONES

Some of the devastating
cyclones of the world

The following actions could be of great help in the management of this
type of natural hazard :
• Identification of safe buildings in your area for safe shelters.
• Listening to the weather bulletins as broadcast over the radio or telecast over television.
• In the coastal areas, warning should be sent to the fishermen not to venture into sea.
• Creating awareness and disseminating information among the masses.
• Storage of adequate food supply.
• Emergency phones and addresses should be kept ready and remain in touch with
responsible members of the community.
• Transport movement should be stopped during the course of storm.
• Keep away from fallen electric poles, damaged bridges, etc. and avoid flood water areas.
• People who have evacuated area must wait for the official declaration to come back to
their homes.
• Relief and rehabilitation should be immediately provided to the affected people. Relief
camps should be organised in the community centres so as to provide food and shelter to
the sufferers.

Floods
The excess rain water runs through numerous channels or tributaries which
feed the main river, thereby, increasing the volume of the river water.
This increased volume of water sometimes cannot be contained within the
banks of the rivers and, thus, overflows and causes floods.
Thus, excess water that overflows stream/river banks and covers adjacent
land is considered a flood.
The severity of floods can be described by the depth of water above the
normal stream/river banks or by how frequently a similar event normally
occurs—on average—for a given area.
The heavy menserval cyclonic rainfalls are the chief cause of floods.
Narrowness of the river bed and blockade of the river flow by landslides are
the occasional causes of floods.

All over the world floods have imposed untold human
suffering and extracted heavy toll of losses.
Cultivable and cultivated areas get submerged and
eroded, leading to the loss of fertile soil as well as crops
which may further lead to famines.
Houses, buildings, public and private utility services and
industries also face heavy damage.

To mitigate flood disasters, a detailed planning for prompt and efficient action
in response to the anticipated event is needed. The measures include :
• Forecast, warnings and advice should be provided through media (radio or
television) to educate and aware people about the steps to be taken in the
event of a mishap.
• Valuable household items, animals and other necessary materials like food,
clothes, medicines, etc. should be shifted to safer places.
• Elderly people and children should be evacuated to safe shelters on
emergency basis.
• Government agencies and NGOs should help the flood affected people by
providing public health services ; and to modify the loss, disaster relief and tax
relief should be provided.
• Flood management should be viewed in a broader perspective forming an
integral part of overall water resource development and economic development
of the area.

Disaster Management
Disaster management can be defined as the effective
organization, direction and utilization of available counter-
disaster resources. These above discussed natural disasters are
among the most unique and urgent situations that humans are
called upon to manage.
The events of a disaster move rapidly and can be extremely
traumatic for those who are unprepared. Disaster managers often
do not get a second chance. If a decision is wrong, the manager
and the victims must live with it.
Therefore, it is extremely important that disaster managers
thoroughly
understand their role and responsibilities and be familiar with the
tools
of management.

The role of a disaster manager can be divided into three parts :
(i) Managing Operations. It involves decision-making, information
management, problem solving, project and program planning,
resource management and monitoring.
(ii) Managing People. It includes leadership, organization,
personnel management and personnel evaluation.
(iii) Managing Organizations. It refers to planning, control and
direction, organizational development, quality/performance
control, physical control, resource management, communications
and evaluation.

Disaster management places heavy emphasis on advance
planning. Advance planning activities, collectively called
disaster preparedness, include :
• Strategic Planning. It consists of preparing the organization
to respond to disaster threats in locations that are not specified
and not immediately threatened.
• Contingency Planning. It is site-specific and recognizes that a
disaster could occur at any time.
• Forward Planning. It occurs when a disaster is imminent and
some details regarding the threat are known to the crisis
manager.

The Indian sub-continent due to its
unique geographical and geological
features has the distinction of being one
of the most vulnerable areas to natural
disasters, causing colossal losses of life
and property.
Natural disasters, almost all kinds, seem
to occur with a strange regularity
and multiple disasters striking
simultaneously in different parts of the
country are not uncommon.

vulnerability of India to natural disaster can be gauged from the facts
that :
• a number of Indian States are highly vulnerable to multiple
disasters ;
• among the 35 States/UTs, 25 are disaster prone ;
• 7516 km coastline exposed to tropical cyclones ;
• about 40 million hectare of land area is prone to floods, landslides,
hailstorm and avalanches ;
• about 56% of total area is vulnerable to seismic activity ;
• average annual loss of human life is 3,600 ;
• average annual number of house damages is 2.36 million ;
And
• average annual crop area affected is 1.42 million hectare.

With an objective to prevent and mitigate natural disasters and
make the vulnerable group resilient to adverse impacts of
natural disasters, various initiatives have been taken at
National, State and other levels. Some of the important
initiatives are discussed as :
1. National Decade for Disaster Reduction (NDDR). The
Government of India decided to observe October 29 as ‘National
Day for Disaster Reduction (NDDR)’ every year to commemorate
the day a super cyclone had hit Orissa in 1999. The basic
objective of NDDR is to create public awareness and educate the
people about the impact of natural disasters and importance of
disaster preparedness and mitigation.

2. High Powered Committee (HPC) on Disaster Management
Plans. One of the most significant events of the last decade
was the setting up of a High Powered Committee in August
1999 at the initiative of the Prime Minister to prepare
comprehensive model plans for management of disasters at
the National, State and District levels, under the
Chairmanship of Sh. J.C. Pant.
3. National Committee for Disaster Management. The
Government of India also constituted a National Committee
for Disaster Management under the chairmanship of the Prime
Minister having representatives of the National Centre for
Disaster Management, and National and State level political
parties

4. Hazard Mapping and Vulnerability Assessment of Buildings. During the
period 1994-1997, a Vulnerability Atlas of India was prepared under the
initiatives of Ministry of Urban Development. The Atlas contains the flood,
earthquake, cyclone, etc. maps for 25 States and 7 Union Territories of India
showing the boundaries of the districts prone to the various intensities of the
hazards. As an extension, State-wise Vulnerability Atlas has also been prepared
that also includes an Action Plan that the State may adopt for disaster
mitigation.
5. Monitoring and Impact Assessment of Natural Disasters. Significant
technological programmes have been launched by the Department of Space
using space technology as information support for monitoring and quick
assessment of flood, cyclone and drought impact, wherever they occur in the
country. National flood incidence monitoring and inundation area assessment,
and agricultural drought assessment and monitoring are some of the activities
undertaken during the past decade.

6. Disaster Warning System. Telecommunication systems such as telephones, telex
and telegram are often among the first casualties during a natural disaster (such as
cyclones and like) resulting in delayed warning messages. To overcome this difficulty,
Disaster Warning System (DWS) has been developed in India. This is a very
dependable and rapid system of direct dissemination of cyclone warnings operated
through INSAT satellite. The DWS sets have been installed in small administrative units
like Block Development Offices and Police Stations all along the coastal areas.
7. Human Resource Development. Ministry of Agriculture initiated a Central Sector
Scheme in 1993 covering various aspects of disaster management including human
resource development. Under the scheme a ‘National Centre for Disaster
Management (NCDM)’ was established at the Indian Institute of Public Administration
(IIPA) at New Delhi and ‘Disaster Management Faculties’ were set up in 18 States. The
NCDM functions as the Nodal Centre for human resource development in the area of
disaster management in the country.

8. Networking Initiatives. The centre is networking with various Central/State
Government Ministries, Training Institutions, Autonomous Organizations and
Universities in organizing training programmes, seminars, workshops and
research activities related to disaster mitigation and management. The centre
has also developed a good network with international institutes/organizations
working in the field of disaster management such as the Asian Disaster
Reduction Centre, Kobe ; Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre, Bangkok ; Oxford
Brooks University ; Centre for Excellence in Disaster Management, Hawaii ; and
many more.
9. UNDP Project on Strengthening Disaster Management Capacity. The
Government of India and the UNDP have recently initiated a programme on
‘Disaster Risk Management (DRM)’ so as to accelerate capacity building in
disaster reduction and recovery activities at the national level and in some of
the most-vulnerable regions in the country through community-based and
gender sensitive approach. The programme is designed to assist the states that
are most prove to natural disasters.

10. Technology Upgradation and Deployment.
Emphasis is on using various state-of-the-art
technologies, like Remote Sensing, Geographical
Information System (GIS), Global Positioning System
(GPS), Electronic Information Management System and
Computer Modelling in managing the situation caused by
natural disasters. Databases are being compiled so as to
keep track of past events and benefit from the
experiences of their management.

chapter 1 Solid waste management environmental Engineering

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chapter 1 Solid waste management environmental Engineering