![STEPHANIE MENCIMER, Reporter
http://www.motherjones.com/mojo/2015/11/timothy-foster-
supreme-court-smoking-gun-black-jurors
http://www.motherjones.com/authors/stephanie-mencimer
http://www.motherjones.com/authors/stephanie-mencimer
Flyers with ‘racist tone’ delivered on San Bernardino doorsteps
have residents ‘floored’
By BEATRIZ E. VALENZUELA | [email protected] and GAIL
WESSON | [email protected] | San Bernardino Sun
PUBLISHED: February 15, 2018 at 11:04 am|UPDATED:
February 16, 2018 at 8:41 am
When Matthew Flanagan went outside his San Bernardino home
Valentine’s Day morning, he discovered a newsletter in a bright
plastic bag in his driveway.
“I didn’t think too much of it,” he said Thursday. “We
sometimes get flyers and newsletters
like that and, honestly, a lot of times they just end up in the
trash.”
But Wednesday morning, Flanagan opened the bag to find a thin
newsprint publication, High Mountain TIDBiTS, filled with
entertainment events, businesses and local news from the San
Bernardino County mountain communities of Rim of the World
and Crestline. Wrapped in the newsletter was a flyer that
shocked Flanagan.
“I was floored,” he said.
The publisher was not connected to the distribution, said Eileen
Hards, spokeswoman for the San Bernardino Police Department.
The black-and-white flyer had the profile of a white woman,
looking upward with flowing blond hair below large block
letters seeming to shout, “Love Your Race.” Underneath the
photo was the logo and website address for the National
Alliance.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/chapter3thestoryoftheslaveshipthezong-innovembe-230110080033-6c53ce31/85/CHAPTER-3the-story-of-the-slave-ship-the-Zong-in-Novembe-docx-156-320.jpg)
![format.
- Students may write up to 7 extra credit papers for a total of 14
extra credit points
- PAPERS MUST BE SAVED AS doc, docx, or pdf. NO
EXCEPTIONS
Format of the paper:
- Paragraph 1: Identify and define the first of the two concepts
you will be applying.
— note: The definitions MUST come from either our textbook
or class notes. Papers using dictionary, Wikipedia, etc
definitions will not be read.
- Paragraph 2: Identify and define the second of the two
concepts you will be applying.
— note: The definitions MUST come from either our textbook
or class notes. Papers using dictionary, Wikipedia, etc
definitions will not be read.
- Paragraphs 3 and 4: Show how each of these concepts can be
applied to the article you’ve read.
75 years ago, Zoot Suit Riots marked a dark period in Southern
California history
These youths, one stripped of all his clothes and the other badly
beaten, fell victim to raging bands of servicemen who scoured
the streets in Los Angeles, June 20, 1943, looking for and
beating zoot suited youths. The servicemen blame the zoot
suited youths for numerous unprovoked assaults on their
colleagues. (AP Photo)
By BEATRIZ E. VALENZUELA [email protected] | San
Bernardino Sun
PUBLISHED: June 1, 2018 at 4:12 pm | UPDATED: June 1,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/chapter3thestoryoftheslaveshipthezong-innovembe-230110080033-6c53ce31/85/CHAPTER-3the-story-of-the-slave-ship-the-Zong-in-Novembe-docx-160-320.jpg)
CHAPTER 3the story of the slave ship, the Zong- in Novembe.docx
- 1. CHAPTER 3 the story of the slave ship, the Zong: - in November of 1781, after 3 months at sea the Zong was nearing the ‘New World’ from the western coast of Africa - had started with 471 African individuals intended for the slave trade - fresh water was very low and disease had broken out - in accordance with the ‘economics’ of the slave trade and the norms of the time, the slaves were considered ‘cargo’ – no different from livestock - the ‘cargo’ had been insured at the beginning of the trip — slaves that died of natural causes (lack of water, disease) would not be covered by the insurance — however, if the slaves died from being thrown overboard while still alive, the ship owners’ insurance would cover the lose — hoping to save water and reduce the spread of disease, 54 sick slaves were chained together and thrown overboard — over 2 days, more live slaves were thrown overboard (total: 132 persons) at 1st the insurance company was going to pay, but a new freed slave, Equiano (living free in England now) made an abolitionist aware and a new trial determined the slaves were people, not cargo or livestock and the ship owners did not get the insurance foundations of US - beginning in 1600s and through 1700s the US is an agricultural society - land and labor are needed
- 2. - to get land and labor 3 groups were made into minority status — these groups joined the colonies, then the US through colonization — these 3 groups are still having problems today (Native American, African American, Hispanic/Mexican American) two themes throughout this text 1) what the current subsistence technology is for a specific time period) (impacts majority – minority relations at that time (subsistence technology: how a society provides for basic goods, services (shelter, food, water) for its people) (see table) what’s important hunting / gathering / foraging human energy little stratification - dependent of what nature provides agriculture human energy and animal energy - more surplus - increased stratification - majority / minority relationship is likely to be patriarchal - land ownership - cheap, easily controllable workforce industrialization addition of other energy sources, culminating in electricity - even more surplus - even more stratification - capital to build factories, buy machinery and raw materials, pay workers post industrialization / information electricity human energy
- 3. - high stratification education 2) what the contact situation is when 2 or more groups first make contact (impacts majority – minority relations at the time and later) the initial contact situation - application of the Noel and Blauner Hypotheses - they are not mutually exclusive; they look at similar, overlapping issues - much can be learned by applying both hypotheses — Noel hypothesis Noel Hypotheses at contact conditions result Noel Two or more groups come together if the following conditions exist - ethnocentrism - competition - power differential among the groups resulting in inequality and institutionalized discrimination in the form of ethnic or racial stratification figure 3.2 below uses Noel’s hypothesis to understand the creation of prejudice and racism the model below uses the Noel hypothesis to understand how minority group status is created
- 4. application of the Noel hypothesis: some form of inequality (often racial or ethnic stratification) will emerge if 3 conditions exist at time of contact - ethnocentrism – all other cultures are compared against one’s own culture — to a certain degree low ethnocentrism (having pride in one’s own group) is good; it creates a sense of solidarity, cohesion, a sense of belonging to a group, pride in that group — however, ethnocentrism is problematic when a hierarchy is added to the categories; some groups are considered better than others — ethnocentrism can set social boundaries - competition groups compete over a scarce, valued resource; competition can result in prejudice (attitudes), discrimination (actions); almost anything can be a scarce resource — motivation to establish superiority - power differential among the groups (group with greater power is able to achieve goals, even if other group opposes these goals); amount of power can be determined by — size of group (greater size, more power) — degree of organization, discipline, leadership — resources (anything that can help the group to accomplish goals; can include money, information, land; can also include access to adequate education, etc.) power: ability of a group to achieve its goals, even others
- 5. oppose it — Blauner hypothesis Blauner Hypothesis Is the initial contact due to colonization or immigration? - if initial contact is immigration, the individuals in that group will encounter fewer problems with prejudice, discrimination - if the initial contact is colonization there will be more prejudice and discrimination from the beginning and these problems will persist longer and be harder to overcome - colonization: forced by military, political, economic power — creates more problems for prejudice, discrimination (at the time and into the future) — there are large inequalities; cultures are attacked — overall, reduced assimilation - immigration: a least somewhat voluntary slavery Spain (and to some extent Portugal) had been ahead of Britain in conquering land (mostly in Central and South America) - acquisition of gold, silver from these areas increased Spain’s power - in contrast, Britain had only 2 colonies (Plymouth – Protestant families and Jamestown – founded as commercial enterprise) — also Britain did not find the large quantities of gold and silver found by Spain - by 1619 Britain has only 2 small, struggling colonies origins of slavery in America colonial Jamestown, August 1619 - Dutch ship is off course and needs provisions — all they had to trade were 19 or 20 persons from Africa — — these individuals may have been intended to be slaves in those parts of the Americas where slavery was recognized
- 6. — — however, in Virginia at this time they likely became indentured servants (contract laborers – a contract is put together – specifies how long the servitude is, type of labor, living conditions) (see * below) - when contract is up, person is freed, often given ‘freedom dues’ (usually including land, starter seed, etc.) * in early 1600s England did not legally acknowledge slavery; therefore England and her colonies did not (openly) practice slavery as pointed out in the story regarding Anthony, the status of Africans in Virginia was ambiguous for several decades - Anthony, and others in similar situations, became land owners and were considered the same as any other resident — Anthony brought in his own indentured servants the institution of slavery is developed - slavery has existed throughout recorded history, and most likely prior to recorded history — some feel that slavery would not have taken hold in societies that are strictly foraging (hunting and gathering) since it would be necessary to have a surplus(which foragers do not accumulate) and the subsequent inequalities for slavery to be viable by the mid 1700s in colonial America, slavery was accepted and practiced by Britain and her colonies - beginnings of institutionalization of slavery: laws and customs that support slavery emerge - concept of a person as chattel: one person owning another person (different from indentured servant where that person’s labor, energy is owned for a set period of time) — as chattel slaves were not just providing labor, energy; also loss of basic civil rights such as decision of where to live, who to associate with, even relationships with spouses / children
- 7. role of religion – initially colonists could not enslave someone who had been baptized Christian; this changed indentured servitude - 2 parties enter into a contract which specifies conditions of service (what type of work, how many hours a day / days per week), length of service (typically 4 – 7 years) — sometimes used to pay off a debt - was already in use in Britain, so was brought to the colonies - indentured servitude turned out to not be as profitable as hoped in the colonies — after the 4 – 7 year contract, that labor is lost — due to horrific living conditions in colonies, many indentured servants didn’t even live long enough to fulfill their indenture, so another loss — once the indenture is over, not only are these laborers released, but the law stated that they should be given ‘freedom dues’ which usually included their own land, starter seed, possibly other stuff like a plow or clothing (thus freed indentured servants are now competitors) - indentured servitude is where a master owns another person’s labor for set period of time under specific conditions — this is not the same as slavery where one person totally owns another person; the ‘owned’ person (slave) is considered no more than property, livestock, chattel — — slaves’ civil rights no longer exist labor supply problems - initially colonies (then the US) were agricultural subsistence technology — at this time agriculture was (human) labor intensive - the plantation system emerged in the south where 2 things were necessary — large areas of land to grow (and then export): sugar, cotton, tobacco, rice — a large, very cheap, easily controlled labor force (necessary
- 8. since profit margins tended to be small) - initially Jamestown (started as a business enterprise, nothing to do with religion) relied on indentured servants from Britain and north west Europe 8/14/18 application of the Blauner Hypothesis - considers two different initial relationships (on a continuum) — colonization and immigration — and hypothesizes that: — minority groups created by colonization will experience more intense prejudice, racism, and discrimination than those created by immigration — the disadvantaged status of colonized groups will persist longer and be more difficult to overcome than the disadvantaged status faced by groups created by immigration colonized minority groups: - are forced into minority status by superior military, political power, technology of colonizer - are subjected to massive inequalities and attacks on their cultures - are assigned to positions from which any form of assimilation is extremely difficult and perhaps even forbidden - are identified by highly visible racial or physical characteristics that maintain and reinforce the oppressive system - experience greater prejudice and discrimination at the beginning, which continues longer than immigrant groups immigrant minority groups: - are at least in part voluntary participants in the host society and have at least some control over their destination and their position in the host society - do not occupy such markedly inferior positions as colonized groups do and retain enough internal organization and resources to pursue their own self-interests - boundary between majority group and immigrant group is not
- 9. as rigid, especially if both are perceived as being racially similar - commonly experience more rapid acceptance and easier movement to equality as boundaries between groups are not so rigidly maintained, especially when the groups are racially similar groups that are treated as both immigrants and colonized, have a status intermediate between that of immigrant groups and colonized groups using the Noel Hypothesis to explain why black indentured servants (and not the other 2 groups) became enslaved table 3.2 The Noel Hypothesis Applied to the Origins of Slavery Three Causal Factors Potential Sources of Labor Ethnocentrism Competition Differential in Power white indentured servants yes yes no American Indians yes yes no black indentured servants yes yes yes - all 3 groups encountered ethnocentrism - all 3 groups experienced competition with the majority group
- 10. - differential in power is the key variable here — at beginning power between Europeans and Native Americans was fairly equal — — in some ways the Native Americans had greater power: greater numbers and their weaponry was better than the muskets and cannons of this early period — Native Americans had good organization (after all, they were not ‘subdued’ until late 1800s) plantation system of agriculture - emerged in south where crops were more likely to need a lot of hands on labor - to maximize profits this labor should be low cost and easily controlled — slavery solved this problem - indentured servants used at beginning, no longer viable — the contracts meant that their labor was owned for only 4 – 7 years — word was spread in Britain and surrounding areas that the living conditions in the colonies was difficult — once the contract was over, giving them ‘freedom dues’ was an extra cost (and, since land was often part of the freedom dues, possible competitors were created) - slavery allowed plantation owners (landowners) to generate profits, status and success - bringing persons into the colonies from the African continent was very cost-effective - attempts at enslaving Native Americans (Indians) did not work — knew the layout of the land and could more easily run away — when running away, easy to blend in with other Native Americans — over time fewer and fewer Native Americans left in the eastern colonies (warfare, disease, being relocated) 8/10/17 3 groups were exploited to acquire land and needed labor that could be easily controlled
- 11. - Native Americans were exploited for their land - African Americans were exploited for their labor - Hispanic / Mexican Americans were exploited for both labor and land paternalistic relations - especially in the southern colonies which used a plantation based economy to flourish - plantation based economy — a small group of elites who are wealthy and own land - paternalism emerged as the relationship between elite owners and slaves — very large power differentials — huge inequalities — elaborate and repressive systems of control over minority group by majority group — barriers between groups are caste like (ascribed characteristics) — elaborate and highly stylized codes of behavior, of communication between groups — overt conflict was rare (too great power differentials) ascribed – those characteristics we are born with such as sex, race achieved – characteristics that individuals gain through effort (skills, status such as having a BA) - our society today puts greater emphasis on achieved characteristics without recognizing the limiting factors of ascribed characteristics paternalism – the group with greater authority / control restricts the autonomy of another group, supposedly in the best interests of the less powerful group (in reality the concerns / needs of the less powerful group are not considered)
- 12. slavery - slaves were defined as chattel (property) and had no civil or political rights - master determined the type and severity of punishment - slaves were forbidden by law to read or write - marriages were not legally recognized and masters separated families - slavery was a caste system, or a closed stratification system (a child’s status (slave or free) is based on the status of the mother – also known as the one drop rule - a rigid, strictly enforced code of etiquette had slaves show deference and humility when interacting with whites - unequal interactions allowed elites to maintain an attitude of benevolent despotism toward slaves — often expressed as positiveemotions of affection for their black slaves Mw 2/5 mwf 2/7 the powerlessness of slaves made it difficult for them to openly reject or resist the system, however, slaves: - revolted - ran away (many with the help of the abolitionist Underground Railroad) - used the forms of resistance most readily available to them— sabotage, intentional carelessness, dragging their feet, and work slowdowns with the development of the institution of slavery, a distinct African American experience accumulated and traditions of both resistance and accommodation developed side by side African American culture: created as a response to slavery - found in folklore, music, religion, family and kinship
- 13. structures understanding the creation of slavery - power differentials - inequality - institutional discrimination — legal and political institutions created to give power over slaves terminology: American Indians, Indians, Native Americans, First Peoples, Indigenous peoples, AmerIndians (all refer to same group) American Indians (Native Americans) - at least 500 different cultures in Americas prior to arrival of Europeans — a lot of variation in subsistence technologies, cultures, languages, sizes, home territory, histories — therefore there is no one entity of ‘Native Americans’ - 1763: England said the tribes were “sovereign nations with inalienable rights to their land” — each tribe was to be treated as a nation-state — would be compensated for any lands taken - as Europeans arrived in east and moved west, lands were taken from Native Americans — also, food sources, culture taken away - many tribes, nations, cultures have been lost — even many groups that still exist have lost languages, aspects of culture — other groups are much, much smaller than before arrival of Europeans — — some death due to warfare; a lot more due to diseases (some deliberately imposed) and destruction of food sources as land was taken Native Americans and the Noel Hypothesis:
- 14. - initially not great differences in weaponry, resource bases between Europeans and Native Americans — over time EuroAmericans gained greater power in all areas and were able to defeat Native Americans sovereignty – to what degree are a people self-governing - can a people enter into a treaty with another people? — if so, how binding is that agreement? - in 1763 Britain ruled that the different tribes should be considered “sovereign nations with inalienable rights to their land” — therefore lands could not be simply taken away; decisions would be made with treaties signed — any lands taken would be compensated for - after Revolutionary War, the new government did not acknowledge sovereignty of the Native American groups gender relations - as there were different cultures, tribes had differing family systems, including a great deal of variety in gender relations — some tribes were patriarchal — though many tribes practiced gendered division of labor; some tribes allowed women a lot of power - upon contact with EuroAmericans the gender relations of many tribes changed; some becoming more patriarchal, some less patriarchal — overall: change in gender roles Native Americans and the Blauner Hypothesis: - Native Americans are a colonized minority group — have had and continue to have high levels of prejudice, racism and discrimination
- 15. - similar to African Americans, Native Americans have been controlled through a paternalistic system (the reservation system) — coercive acculturation 10/17/17 Mexican Americans Spain had been exploring / exploiting Mexico before England had her colonies - Santa Fe, New Mexico was founded in 1598 (almost 10 years before Jamestown was founded) - as EuroAmericans sought land as they moved west, they made contact with Mexico Texas - in 1820s, many Anglo Americans were moving into east Texas to grow cotton - by 1835 outnumbered Tejanos (Texans of Mexican descent) 6 to 1. - when US annexed Texas in 1840s, a war erupted between US and Mexico — settled with Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 and much of what is now known as the south-west US was ceded to the US - 1852: Gadsden Purchase – more southwest territory acquired colonization - with these lands ceded to the US, the inhabitants (had been citizens of Mexico) were now a conquered, colonized minority - though the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo said that any person’s of Mexican descent living in these ceded lands could keep their land (language as well), many legal, illegal and quasi legal techniques were used to get these lands territory ceded to US in Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo could be thought of as being in 4 areas that roughly correspond to the US states of Texas, California, New Mexico and Arizona - these areas differed, resulting in different relationships with
- 16. the US - overall all these areas were sparsely settled - economy largely based on farming, herding - Catholic Church was a foundation of culture, family life and was dominated by the elite class of wealthy landowners Gold Rush – 1849 - people (mostly middle class, single men) came to California to mine gold - soon more Anglos than Californios (native Mexicans living in California) - Anglos had greater power, taking over California land and political power - in the beginning California was on track to be a multi-ethnic, multilingual state — as Anglos gained greater power, this did not happen - using violence, biased laws, discrimination, and other means of exploitation Californios were repressed New Mexico - here original Mexicans were able to retain some political, economic power — the group here was larger and had resources in mobilizing for political activity the contact for Mexican Americans - since these areas varied, so did the contact situation vary - end result: both colonization and immigration statuses for persons of Mexican descent (then and now) — Mexican Americas became a minority group Mexican Americans and the Noel Hypothesis: - the prejudices towards African Americans was transferred to Mexicans (mostly the poorer Mexicans who were stereotyped as lazy and shiftless) - Mexicans consisted of Spanish, Native American and some
- 17. African - highly Roman Catholic in a time when Catholicism was not accepted by US majority both land and labor were desired by US Anglos Anglo-Americans used their superior numbers and military power to acquire control of the political and economic structures and expropriate the resources of the Mexican American community—both land and labor. Mexican Americans and the Blauner Hypothesis: - culture and language were suppressed even as their property rights were abrogated and their status lowered also subjected to coercive acculturation however, Mexican Americans were in close proximity to their homeland and maintained close ties with villages and families this constant movement across the border with Mexico kept the Spanish language and much of the Mexican heritage alive in the Southwest (sojourners) - for Mexican American women, the consequences of contact were variable even though the ultimate result was a loss of status within the context of the conquest and colonization of the group as a whole the kinds of jobs available to the men (mining, seasonal farm work, railroad construction) often required them to be away from home for extended periods of time, and women, by default, began to take over the economic and other tasks traditionally performed by males however, poverty and economic insecurity placed the family structures under considerable strain
- 18. like black female slaves, Mexican American women became a very vulnerable part of the social system comparing minority groups each of these three groups, became involuntary players in the growth and development of European and, later, American economic and political power all three were overpowered and relegated to an inferior, subordinate status against their will, and were coercively acculturated in the context of paternalistic relations in an agrarian economy meaningful integration was not a real possibility, and in Gordon’s (1964) terms, we might characterize these situations as “acculturation without integration” or structural pluralism. Mexico, Canada and the United States Like the Spanish in Mexico, the French in Canada tended to link to and absorb indigenous social structure - however, French-Canadians, similar to Mexican Americans, full assimilation has been (continues to be) difficult 5 chapter 4 – industrialization and dominant-minority relations; from slavery to segregation and the coming of the postindustrial society story at beginning: author Richard Wright discusses lives of blacks in kitchenettes of the urban north to what had been in rural south (early 1900s) - kitchenette – very small housing; bathrooms shared by many families; each family usually had a small, utilitarian kitchen
- 19. - housing is substandard, over-priced - poor living conditions - easy for landlords to exploit renters – charging outrageous rents for buildings that often should’ve been demolished subsistence technology – how a society provides basic needs of members - when subsistence technology changes, the relationship between minority / majority is effected Table 4.1 Three Subsistence Technologies and the United States Technology Key Trends and Characteristics Dates Agrarian labor-intensive agriculture; control of land and labor are central 1607 – early 1800s Industrial capital-intensive manufacturing; machines replace animal and human labor early 1800s to mid 1900s Postindustrial shift away from manufacturing to a service economy; the ‘information society’ mid 1900s to present industrialization and the shift from paternalistic to rigid competitive group relations - industrialization began in England in mid 1700s, then to Europe and US - use of machines & other energy sources leads to increase in production, increase in economy, available goods, services — from agrarian / paternalistic to industrial / competitive US as an agrarian society - relationships between groups is paternalistic, with dominant groups paternalistic to minority groups (example: slavery, Native American reservations where
- 20. minority groups are – supposedly – looked after for their own ‘best interests’ (reality is that the best interests of the majority is promoted)) under industrialization – 2 forms: rigid competitive and fluid competitive relations as compared to paternalistic, the rigid competitive allows for a bit more freedom - some freedom in choosing housing - some freedom in choosing employment - somewhat more education for children - however, all of this threatens the dominant group (especially the lower income dominant group) who then want to minimize minority group members from effectively competing the impact of industrialization on the racial stratification of African Americans: from slavery to segregation reconstruction - federal government enforced new laws (civil rights to newly freed slaves) - was positive for newly freed slaves, but short lived - from about 1865 - 1880s - 15th amendment - African American males (women do not have the right to vote at this time) can vote — at first very successful - which upset elite southern Whites — initially newly freed slaves were able to vote (including some Blacks being voted into office), set up schools for Africa American children, start businesses, own land / homes after reconstruction - reversal into more exploitation, inequality 1. slavery - lack of literacy, uneducated, lack of power 2. tradition of racism continued and is passed on from generation to generation
- 21. - backed up racist treatment of African Americans - assumption: Blacks are racial inferior - a ‘heritage of prejudice and racism’ throughout the South (and some groups / individuals in the North as well) de jure segregation (also called ‘Jim Crow’ system) - ‘by law’ - legal institutions back up segregation - segregation: minority status groups (and individuals) forced to be separate from dominant groups (even the non-elite classes of dominant group) - segregation in housing, education, jobs, etc. - inferior treatment of Blacks demanded (not just backed up) by legal system de facto segregation – by tradition (ostensibly because it is what people want) sharecropping - (impacted both poor whites and blacks) more problematic for blacks than whites (blacks less likely to read / know someone who did read; then taken advantage of by plantation owners — such as what was actually in the contract (and what newly freed slaves were told was in the contract) - tenant farming - type of ‘leasing’ land - poor whites and blacks given seed, food, materials, clothing, etc. in exchange for a ‘share’ of the profit at end of harvest - anything that they were given in beginning is considered part of their >debt= to the plantation owner - frequently what the ‘debt’ was could / would change at discretion of plantation owner (to plantation owners benefit) the great migration - one difference for southern Blacks after end of slavery - no longer - legally - tied to one plantation (for the most part – ‘sharecropping’ could create problems) - therefore had freedom to relocate (and would compete with other minority status
- 22. groups for low-paying jobs) - many went north to urban areas and factory jobs life in the north - yes, some positives (able to vote, get education for kids, get away from racial ‘etiquette’ - more job opportunities) - however, the ongoing prejudice and discrimination still created problems dual labor market - primary labor market — stable employment, decent wages — jobs in large bureaucracies - more secure, etc. - secondary labor market — unstable employment, poor wages — competitive market - low-paying, low-skilled jobs - not secure; lack benefits — split labor market - within the secondary labor market split labor market - based on Marxism which sees 2 and only 2 classes (socio- economic statuses) — capitalists - own the means of production — labor - sell their labor for subsistence wages - there are at least 2 divisions within the secondary labor market (this is the split) - all sell labor for subsistence wages - at least one group resembles the capitalist regarding perceived racial grouping and or ethnicity - at least one group does not resemble the capitalist regarding perceived racial grouping and or ethnicity - creates an advantage for capitalists - keep the split labor markets in competition with each other - therefore capitalists win because their overhead is lower, since they can spend less $ on paying labor (split labor markets are each willing to take the job for less $ since something is better than nothing) - it is often to the capitalists advantage to further stir things up
- 23. by bringing attention to racial / ethnic differences Matewan – movie that depicts split labor market https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matewan competition with white ethnic groups - before we discussed the large influx of European immigrants into the US in mid to later 1800s - at the time when blacks are beginning to migrate north, European immigrants beginning to have upward social mobility - as ethnic whites leave low income housing, communities, blacks more in — however, white ethnics still dealing with prejudice, discrimination from elite whites — jobs, adequate housing still a struggle for many — and elite whites - wanting to reduce their overhead / increase profits - use incoming blacks as strikebreakers, scabs when ethnic whites tried to form unions — increased inter-racial problems at low end of economic hierarchy incoming blacks did, however, help out the social situation of ethnic whites - in that now the elite whites are putting the focus of their prejudice, discrimination - less on the ethnic white origins of black protest W.E.B. Du Bois - had at least one Ph.D. - advocated that blacks should strive for as much mainstream education as possible - wanted better public schools for blacks as well as whites - joined with white liberals - eventually founding NAACP — National Association for the Advancement of Colored People 2/14/18 Booker T. Washington
- 24. - agreed with Du Bois that education was important - but disagreed in that he felt it was best for blacks (at this time) to stay in their niche, their communities and do as well as possible there Marcus Garvey - born in Jamaica - came to US - was a printer - rather than blacks working into mainstream society, he advocated separatism — even advocated for a movement of freed slaves and descendants moving back to Africa - began movement towards Black Nationalism, Black Pride shift from rigid to fluid competitive relationships - the rigid competitive systems (such as Jim Crow) associated with earlier phases of industrialization have given way to fluid competitive systems of group relations - in fluid competitive relations, there are no formal or legal barriers to competition. Compared with previous systems, the fluid competitive system is closer (not there yet) to the American ideal of an open, fair system of stratification in which effort and competence are rewarded and race, ethnicity, gender, religion, and other “birthmarks” are not as important dimensions of minority-group status acculturation and integration structural pluralism / inequality - not assimilation - blacks created and lived in a separate sub-culture / sub-society (neighborhoods, schools, churches, businesses) - Rosewood - at this time beginnings of middle class blacks - over time many middle class blacks moved out of inner cities, frequently leaving the other blacks in a more problematic situation industrialization, the shift to a postindustrial society, and
- 25. dominant-minority group relations: general trends - paternalistic system no longer useful - urbanization provided more (not a bunch more) potential for education, etc. - populations of African Americans - in sub-communities were able to organize occupational specialization - increase in jobs - need production, transport, sales of goods, services - jobs became more specialized as complex tasks were broken down into smaller steps that frequently did not require as much skill, knowledge - industrial, urban society no longer controlled by paternalism - a complex industrial structure has emerged - growth of white-collar jobs and the service sector — movement from industrial to information / service jobs — — deindustrialization - part of postindustrial society — most job growth in service sector; most service sector jobs are no- skill / low skill requirements — but there is variation, some do require more education, etc. and have larger salaries bureaucracy and rationality - large workforces and specialization (and sub-specialties) required that a middle management system come forth - bureaucracies developed to organize the large industrial structures, including middle management - bureaucracies - supposedly based on rationality — people get jobs, promotions based on performance, abilities — reality: bureaucracies are not as rational as they seem extractive (primary) jobs - produce raw materials manufacturing (secondary) jobs - transform raw materials into finished products service (tertiary) jobs - nothing is produced - services are provided
- 26. the growing importance of education credentialism - benefits elite because they can ‘afford’ getting more credentials afford: 1. cost of the education (tuition, fees, books, transportation) 2. cost of a family member not being in the labor force — increase in student debt without the means to pay it off competition with white ethnic groups - before we discussed the large influx of European immigrants into the US in mid to later 1800s - at the time when blacks are beginning to migrate north, European immigrants beginning to have upward social mobility - as ethnic whites leave low income housing, communities, blacks more in — however, white ethnics still dealing with prejudice, discrimination from elite whites — jobs, adequate housing still a struggle for many — and elite whites - wanting to reduce their overhead / increase profits - use incoming blacks as strikebreakers, scabs when ethnic whites tried to form unions — increased inter-racial problems at low end of economic hierarchy incoming blacks did, however, help out the social situation of ethnic whites - in that now the elite whites are putting the focus of their prejudice, discrimination - less on the ethnic white 2/16/18 mwf globalization - world is getting ‘smaller’ - we are tied to other nations, other cultures through: trade, information sharing (etc. computers), transportation (taking a plane to Japan or ???) - we can look at the relationship between the US and other countries as similar to dominant groups within US to minority
- 27. status groups - U.S. has become an economic, political, and military world power - our worldwide ties have created new minority groups through population movement and have changed the status of others. - dominant-minority relations in the U.S. have been increasingly played out on an international state as the world has essentially "shrunk" in size and become more interconnected by international organizations gender inequality in a globalizing, postindustrial world - deindustrialization and globalization are transforming gender relations along with dominant-minority relations - in many traditional and sexist societies, women are moving away from their traditional “wife/mother” roles, taking on new responsibilities, and facing new challenges - the changing role of women is also shaped by other characteristics of a modern society: smaller families, high divorce rates, and rising numbers of single mothers who must work to support their children as well as themselves - in part, the trends worldwide parallel those in the United States - according to a recent United Nations report, indicators such as rising education levels for women and lower rates of early marriage and childbirth show that women around the world are moving out of their traditional status Mw 2/14/18 they are entering the labor force in unprecedented numbers virtually everywhere, and women now comprise at least a third of the paid global workforce hate groups https://www.splcenter.org how does the SPLC define hate group? https://www.splcenter.org/20171004/frequently-asked-
- 28. questions-about-hate-groups#hate group definition of a hate group by Southern Poverty Law Center “an organization that – based on its official statements or principles, the statements of its leaders, or its activities – has beliefs or practices that attack or malign an entire class of people, typically for their immutable characteristics.” how does the FBI define hate crime? https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/civil-rights/hate-crimes “A hate crime is a traditional offense like murder, arson, or vandalism with an added element of bias. For the purposes of collecting statistics, the FBI has defined a hate crime as a “criminal offense against a person or property motivated in whole or in part by an offender’s bias against a race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, ethnicity, gender, or gender identity.” Hate itself is not a crime—and the FBI is mindful of protecting freedom of speech and other civil liberties.” “The organizations on our hate group list vilify others because of their race, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation or gender identity – prejudices that strike at the heart of our democratic values and fracture society along its most fragile fault lines.” chapter 8 notes – Asian Americans: model minorities? chapter begins with a story of a sociologist, riding in a taxi - he was born in the US of Japanese heritage (grandfather came to US in 1880s) - taxi drive asks him how long he was in the US (the answer is since birth) - brings up the perception of ‘other’ around Asian Americans focus of this chapter: Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans (oldest Asian groups in the US; often considered to
- 29. be ‘model minorities’) - model minorities stereotype: successful, affluent, highly educated, not suffer from minority group status (remember this is a stereotype) - intersectionality importance – a new immigrant to the US with little education, little knowledge of English, little money will have a different experience than someone educated in the US (possibly through college), raised in a middle class status household why an increase in immigration from the Philippines and India into the US? - both colonized — India by Britain — Philippines 1st by Spain, then the US current demographics - Asian Americans are about 5.6% of the total population (2012) – see table 8.1 above — contrasted with African Americans (13%) and Hispanic Americans (16%) - overall, rapid growth in numbers of Asian Americans in US recently — one reason: immigration changes in 1965 — one of the largest growing groups – Asian Indians — rapid growth is expected to continue - 10 largest Asian groups in fig 8.1 below - high percentage of foreign born in Asian American population — 88% of Asian Americans are either 1st generation (foreign born) or 2nd generation (their children) — — see figure 8.2 below - similar to Hispanic Americans, Asian Americans are - likely to identify with country of origin 1st
- 30. origins and cultures great diversity in languages, cultures, religions - Asian cultures are much older than the founding of the US - these cultures are quite different from each other, but there are some similarities similarities: - group membership is more important than the individual — some of above from Confucianism which emphasizes a person is one part of the larger social system, one part of the status hierarchy — — therefore loyalty to group, conformity to societal expections and respect for superiors are important - it is important to be sensitive to the opinions and judgements of others; avoid public embarrassment, giving offence — guilt / shame dichotomy — — Asian cultures: emphasis on not bringing shame to the family / group from others (if someone goes against societal expectations, they are bringing shame onto their family / group) — — — emphasis on proper behavior, conformity to convention and how others judge one, avoid embarressment (to self or to others), avoid personal confrontations — — — overall desire to seek harmony — — Western culture emphasizes individuals develop personal consciences and we need to avoid guilt (if someone goes against societal expectations, they are guilty of ... — Westerners guided by personal sense of guilt) - generally (but not always) traditionally patriarchal — in China foot binding was practiced for many generations the above tendencies are more likely for individuals new to the US, but not as likely for individuals / families in the US for many generations there is greater diversity within the Asian American population
- 31. than the Hispanic American population Contact Situations and the Development of the Chinese American and Japanese American Communities Chinese Americans - immigration push and pull from China - began in early 1800s — push (from China) – social unrest in China due to colonization of China by different European nations plus a rapid increase in population — pull (to the US) – economic opportunities such as Gold Rush ‘Yellow Peril’ – example of social construction of a racial group - term began in newspapers; meant to depict Chinese immigrants in a negative, demeaning way - without any regard for differences in culture, it was applied to Japanese immigrants Noel Hypothesis at contact and the following conditions exist result 2 or more groups come together - ethnocentrism - competition - power differential among the groups stratification racism application of Noel Hypothesis to Chinese immigration - yes, power differential from the beginning - ethnocentrism existed from the beginning - in the beginning little to no competition for jobs (robust economy and there were many jobs Americans did not want)
- 32. — in fact, the Chinese immigrants were often praised for being industrious, tireless — when the economy declined and jobs became more scarce, competion and then stratification / racism — — Gold Rush of 1849 no longer providing jobs for Chinese immigrants; completion of the railroads, which had employed many Chinese immigrants (as well as other groups such as Irish immigrants) — — also more Anglo-Americans are arriving from east coast, increasing need for jobs Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 - by law, Chinese immigrants were not allowed to become citizens (therefore very little to nothing in political and other sources of power) - virtually banned all immigration from China - though many Chinese men that immigrated from China had not initially wanted to stay, some were staying — since it was mostly men that came over, once the Chinese Exclusion Act passed, bringing women over was not possible — plus antimiscegenation laws prevented Chinese men from marrying white women - this ban continued until WW II, when the US made a distinction between Chinese and Japanese — at this point, China is our ally, so now acceptance — however, at this point, Japan is our enemy (even US Japanese Americans put into ‘relocation’ centers) — at start of WW II, Chinese immigration into US increased somewhat, increased even more with legal changes in immigration in 1965 split labor market - the Chinese immigrants could be used by business owners to thwart organized labor, so native-born workers saw them as a threat and pushed for the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act
- 33. ‘delayed’ 2nd generation - number of Chinese in US declined after Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 (see fig 8.3 above) - most of those that remained were men; ratio of women to men was 1:25 - due to antimiscegenation laws forbading Chinese men from marrying white women, very slow growth for a 2nd generation (those born in the US) - took until 1920s for 1/3 of Chinese Americans to be native born — since the 2nd generation is often a link between the 1st generation and majority society, the delay of a 2nd generation increased isolation of Chinese immigrants the ethnic enclave - discrimination forced Chinese immigrants from smaller cities, rural areas - most came to larger cities, in particular San Francisco (but, also LA) - in the cities ethnic enclaves developed — continued isolation — ability to maintain culture — though ‘China towns’ had existed from the beginning, these ethnic enclaves became more important — many of the men who stayed were skilled artisans, experienced business owners, etc – so recreated a semblance of Chinese society — allowed for continuation of culture (language, traditions, religion, values, dress) — China town enclaves became self-contained - there were efforts by Chinese immigrants to contest racist legislation, other descrimination, but lack of power (not even being citizens) prevented any real progress — at this point, China is itself colonized, so not able to speak for Chinese in the US
- 34. survival and development - exclusion and discrimination continues into 20th century - some economic opportunity in 2 business types: restaurants and laundries — restaurants – at this point, very few came from majority community; served Chinese, mostly single men — laundries – was used by majority society and was somewhat economically successful; however as more homes got washers (and then dryers), their use dwindled - the second generation grew up in these enclaves the 2nd generation - more contact with majority society - abandoned some traditional customs; not as loyal to the clan system that had been so important to the 1st generation - importance of WW II – many job opportunities outside of the enclave opened up — those who served in WW II could take advantage of the GI Bill and get advanced education (which improves employment opportunities) — some of this group are the background for the concept of model minority (a minority that has done well dispite prejudice, discrimination) — in reality, the Chinese American population has many at ends of a continuum (some doing well; others around poverty level) — occupational structure can be considered bipolar Japanese Americans - when Chinese Exclusion Act implemented in 1882, immigration from Japan began (there was now a vacuum for low skilled, low pay labor) the anti-Japanese campaign - Japanese immigration also began on the west coast, with similar employment
- 35. - prejudices, discrimination against Chinese immigrants were applied to Japanese immigrants (ex: ‘Yellow Peril’) - 1907 – agreement between US and Japan – the Gentlemen’s Agreement — drastically cut immigration of men into US, but did allow women — same antimiscegenation laws forbade Japanese immigrants from marrying white women — male Japanese immigrants brought Japanese wives to US (either women they had been married to prior to their leaving or women they married ‘in proxy’); this continued until 1920s’ restrictive immigration policies — as seen in fig 8.3 above, a Japanese 2nd generation was able to begin soon after the arrival of male immigration (unlike Chinese 2nd generation) - many of the Japanese immigrants that came to US were skilled farmers; many found economic stability in some type of farming — many majority people were concerned with result of the Alien Land Act (CA legislature, 1913); non-citizens (anyone from Asia) could not own land — not successful; Japanese 1st generation (not citizens; Issei) got around this by putting the land in the names of their children (2nd generation, and, therefore citizens) ethnic enclave - similar to Chinese immigrants, Japanese immigrants create their own subsociety — most in rural, agriculture; some in cities — did business mostly within the Japanese American community - though 2nd generation Japanese Americans (Nisei) were successful in educational attainment, it did not mean they got jobs commenserate with their education relocation camps - December 7, 1941 Imperial Japan attacks Pearl Harbor (in
- 36. Hawaii); almost 2,500 die - before Pearl Harbor, already a lot of anti-Japanese sentiment in US; FBI had been collecting information on Japanese American ‘leaders’ who were frequently sent to relocation camps earlier than other family members and without family knowing what had happened — the camps they were sent to were more restrictive - President Franklin D. Roosevelt and congress declared war on Japan on December 8, 1941 - the prejudice and discrimination already aimed at Japanese Americans increased; a lot of concern about their loyalty to the US since the US was now at war with Japan - February 1942 Roosevelt signs Executive Order 9066 — internship lasted through most of the war – a total of 3.5 years - result: West coast Japanese Americans were ‘relocated’ to various camps in western US relocation camp conditions – most were 2nd generation, therefore US citizens - behind barbed wire - armed guards - traditional Japanese American family life is challenged — women gain some status — the 2nd generation (Nisei) have more power, freedom as opposed to traditional Japanese American families - most families had a matter of weeks, many just a few days notice - could only bring what they could carry – therefore left many family heirlooms, etc behind - sold off property, etc at extremely low prices; some places just abandoned in the hope that they would be home soon military service - at first Japanese American citizens were not allowed to enter military due to loyalty concerns
- 37. - when allowed into armed forces, put into segregated units, where they did very well - not allowed to enter armed forces until they answered questions indicating their loyalty — some objected to some of these questions, and made statements along the lines of “I would like to serve if my father, brother, uncle, etc is no longer in separate relocation camp chapter 2 – assimilation and pluralism: from immigrants to white ethnics current US diversity can be observed by noting there are around 300 different languages spoken in the US - on one hand sharing a common language (not that everyone should know only this language) helps with communication - however, a language is important for passing on a culture (in fact, about ½ of the 300 languages belong to different Native American groups) - acceptance / non-acceptance of different languages is just one aspect of dealing with diversity — 2 concepts are important: assimilation and pluralism assimilation – a process that takes place over time where distinct / separate groups merge together - a common culture is shared - during assimilation, differences between groups is decreased pluralism – different groups within one society remain separate, distinct from each other - any social or cultural differences continue over time though these processes can be considered either end of a continuum, they are not mutually exclusive - a society can have a variation of degrees of assimilation / pluralism
- 38. - even within specific minority groups some may prefer assimilation / some may prefer pluralism 1820s – 1920s many immigrants came from Europe into US - 1820s – 1880s – old immigration - 1880s – 1920s – new immigration - 1960s – present – last wave of immigrants assimilation – overall: a process where distinct, separate groups merge over time - melting pot (a type of assimilation): refers to a type of assimilation where the different groups have a somewhat equal contribution to the new culture — theoretically, it is a positive, egalitarian perspective — however, this was not what happened - Anglo-conformity (Americanization) was the reality — incoming groups are pressured into giving up prior culture, language, religion, etc and conform to American / Anglo culture — done so that the British / American ways (including the English language) would be dominant traditional perspective on assimilation - Robert Park - Milton Gordon - human capital theory Robert Park – race relations cycle (1920s, 30s) - after contact (immigration / colonization) there is competition and conflict between groups - the process becomes assimilation — assimilation is inevitable when — the society is democratic — the society is industrial - as US society became more industrialized, modern, urban racial and ethnic groups would no longer be as important
- 39. question: Is the US both democratic and industrial (definitions below) - democracy: political system based on fairness, impartial justice; all groups are treated equally under the law - industrial: rationality is important — people are hired, promoted, fired based on merits, abilities, talents not race, ethnicity criticism of Park - no time frame is given; considering that Native Americans were here first, African Americans began arriving in the 1600s and the southwest was ceded to Mexico to the US in the mid 1800s — how long should it take? — if no time frame, when can ‘inevitable’ be expected?; therefore can’t test — lack of detail about how assimilation occurs Milton Gordon – described a total of 7 processes of assimilation; 3 are discussed in this text - culture: way of life: language, beliefs, norms, values, customs, technology, etc - social structure: networks of social relationships that organize society; connect individuals to each other; connect individuals to larger society; including groups, organizations, communities, etc — primary sector: intimate, personal interpersonal relationships (families, friendship groups) — secondary sector: more public groups, organizations — — tend to be task oriented, impersonal — — very large; can include businesses, factories, schools, colleges, public institutions 1. acculturation / cultural assimilation - a process; one group (minority / immigrant) learns the culture of another, usually dominant group - for immigrants to US: language, food, how to eat, values,
- 40. gender roles, etc - considered a prerequisite for integration 2. integration / structural assimilation: process where a minority group enters social structure of dominant society - begins in secondary sector, then primary sector - individuals first form more public relationships; then more personal (primary) relationships 3. intermarriage / marital assimilation - substantial integration into primary sector where many minority group members marry dominant group members acculturation without integration: acculturation, by itself does not ensure eventual integration - dominant group can exclude minority from secondary, primary sectors, limit opportunities - ‘Americanization without equality’ - applies to many minority status groups, especially racial / ethnic minorities table 2.1 Gordon’s Stages of Assimilation stage process 1. acculturation the group learns the culture of the dominant group, including language and values 2. integration (structural assimilation) a. secondary level b. primary level members of the group enter the public institutions and organizations of dominant society members of the group enter the cliques, clubs and friendship groups of the dominant society
- 41. 3. intermarriage (marital assimilation) members of the group marry with members of the dominant society on a large scale more recent thoughts on Gordon - Gordon proposed that assimilation sub processes would occur one after another (linear progression) - however, some of these sub processes are independent from others - assimilation is not always linear; some groups reduce assimilation, become more traditional human capital theory: not an assimilation theory, can help answer why some immigrant groups acculturate, integrate faster than others - status attainment, success based on that person’s human capital: education (considered an investment), personal values, skills - direct result an individuals efforts, personal values, skills, education - suggests that individuals that acculturate, integrate sooner, easier have personal resources, cultural characteristics of group members — immigrants coming into the US with some cultural characteristics (ex: speaking English) have an easier time — implication: those groups that don’t acculturate as fast are somehow lacking (maybe education, also values, group characteristics) — — this fits in with the traditional American ideals discussed earlier – hard work, ‘right’ choices, motivation, good character allows for upward social mobility criticism of human capital - doesn’t account for all factors that affect social mobility - doesn’t recognize that the US is not open, equally fair to all
- 42. pluralism - article by Horace Kallen, 1915 - rejected Anglo-conformist model, proposed that groups could have integration, equality without extensive acculturation - US culture could be a mixture of interdependent cultures / peoples - groups have separate identities, cultures, organizational structures - initially was not accepted / the tradition views above were preferred; pluralism did not fit into the expectations of that time - interest in pluralism has increased since about the 1960s — increased diversity in US (fig 1.1 below) — — though some see this increased diversity as a problem; propose reduced immigration, English Only, no bilingual education — throughout the world many nation-states have (or are considering) breaking into smaller groups — — ex: former USSR types of pluralism - cultural pluralism: groups have not acculturated or integrated; each has distinct identity — Native Americans are sometimes cultural pluralistic – living on reservations, keeping original language, culture, values — Amish also have distinct culture - structural pluralism: minimal cultural differences, but occupy different locations in social structure — a group is acculturated, but not integrated; group has adopted US culture, not does not have full / equal access to US institutions (education, employment, neighborhoods, clubs, churches (ex: separate churches according to race in US today)) - integration without acculturation (reverses Gordon’s stages); groups that have had some economic success without acculturation (keep language, culture, values) — enclave minority group: has own neighborhood, interconnected businesses that help with economic survival
- 43. — — businesses serve their own community, sometimes outsiders (ex: Chinatowns) — middleman minority group: groups that have interconnected businesses throughout the larger community – helps with economic survival — both enclave minority group and middleman minority group are successful partly due to cooperation and mutual aid within the group (might be weakened if there were greater acculturation) — both can be considered as type of assimilation or as type of pluralism (which are not opposites) other group relationships - separatism: when the minority group wants to severe all ties with the dominant group (political, cultural) — beyond pluralism — some Native American groups favor this; also considered in Scotland, Hawaii, French Canada - revolution: when the minority group wants to create a new social order either along with some dominant group members or a complete reversal of the social order - forced migration – Trail of Tears - expulsion – Chinese Exclusion act of 1882; Native Americans put on reservations - extermination / genocide – Nazi Germany and the Holocaust (targeted not just Jews; also Poles, Roma, homosexuals, those with disabilities) - continued subjugation keeping minority group in a powerless, exploited position (ex: slavery) from immigrants to white ethnics – 1820s – 1920s industrialization and immigration subsistence technologies – how a society provides for the basic needs of its members (food, clothing, shelter)
- 44. - only 3 now hunting, gathering (foraging) subsistence technology - only human energy - means of providing needed items (shelter, food, clothing) is through what nature does / does not provide — since nature is fickle, some years can be good, other years not good — little likelihood of developing surplus — since surplus drives inequalities (some benefit from the surplus, but other don’t benefit – their situation remains the same) — cooperation is encouraged agricultural - energy: human and animal (plows, carts, etc.) - is labor intensive, low productivity, all family members needed to participate to provide what was needed - with improved methods of growing, producing food, surplus begins — also – if fewer people are needed to produce the food, some people can begin to specialize in things such as pottery making, making clothing, etc. - people get their food, shelter, etc. needs met by either producing what they need themselves or using what they produce to barter for other things - what is important: land ownership and ability to get cheap, easily controlled labor - surplus is created, then increased stratification industrialization (industrial revolution): first in Great Britain around 1760, then moved to US and continental Europe - transition from agricultural subsistence technology to industrial subsistence technology - individuals and families are not just producing what they can and bartering
- 45. - increasing use of wage economy – people in paid employment, earn money, use this money to purchase needed items (food, shelter, etc.) — families make ‘money’ and use this to buy necessities — people are making things, not for their own use or to barter; they make items that will be sold to others — early on especially, these wages are not living wages (thus, both parents and sometimes children need to be in paid employment). - energy – continuing with human / animal energy; increase in other energy sources such as water, steam, coal, gas, oil — eventually becomes electricity - many who came to US were frequently pushed out of homelands due to various aspects of industrialization in homelands (many went to cities in Europe hoping to get ‘good’ factory jobs; not enough factory jobs in Europe since it was not industrializing at same rate of US, so don‘t need as many workers); end up coming to US to work in factories - came to US where they fit into our industrialized work force (most come into US low or non-skilled; factories need low skilled workers, many jobs are such that even non-skilled can find employment with a little practice — productivity of society increases, even more surplus - new industrial technologies were ‘capital intensive’ — need to invest heavily in machines, equipment, processes of production (land no longer as important) — human labor (even in rural areas) no longer as important — — technology increases agricultural yields without an increase in human labor (tractors, etc.) — — rather than small, family farms, farms get bigger and bigger (possible with tractors, etc) US rise to a global power results from combination of European immigration and industrialization
- 46. 3 subgroups of immigrants 1. Protestants from north, west Europe 2. mostly Catholic from Ireland, southern Italy, southern/eastern Europe 3. Jews, mostly from eastern Europe 1. Northern / Western Protestant Europeans - this group resembled US dominant group in racial and ethnic characteristics (including religion; though many Protestants did not consider Roman Catholics to be truly Christian, other Protestant groups were more or less accepted - less racial, ethnocentric rejection for these groups - sending nations were similar in development to US, so immigrants more likely to have education, skills, money which helped them settle into US - many went to Midwest, frontier areas - generally did not form ethnic enclaves (as with Italians) so not concentrated; not considered a threat (socially or economically), more easily accepted Norway - also settled in upper Midwest states - were farmers in homeland, were able to buy farmland - realized that they needed help to cultivate the land; recruited a labor force through family, friends in Norway - chains of communication / immigration resulted – more
- 47. coming into US from Norway over period of time Germany - today about 15% of Americans have German roots; this is more than any other single immigrant group - has had a large impact on US economy, politics, culture - German immigrants of early 1800s were likely to farm - later in 1800s German immigrants, not as likely to become farmers (not as much land available) - came with working skills, were artisans, so were able to settle in urban areas and do well 2. immigrant laborers from Southern / Eastern Europe, Ireland; mostly Catholic - not as accepted as prior group — not Protestant (at a time when Catholics were not considered Christian by many Protestants) — not educated, many illiterate in own language — — Ireland: long colonization by Britain greatly reduced educational attainment — had few skills – were largely poor farmers - Irish immigrants came during the Old Immigration period — others came after 1880s Potato Famine - the potato blight was not limited to Ireland - Irish saying: God sent the blight, but the English landlord sent the famine - to stay on family lands Irish had to pay rent to English landlords — in the form of food stuffs — while the potato crops are failing, a lot of food went to England (milk products, pork products, grain) peasant origins - not educated, without skills, mostly illiterate
- 48. - were culturally different; group / family more important than individual — did not fit into US culture of individualism, industrializing, capitalist values - Irish / southern Italians were considered different races - Irish immigration was largely single people – young males and females (teens in many cases) - some early Italian immigrants were brought over as contract laborers regional and occupational patterns - settled in urban areas - without education or skills, employment in largely manual labor (factories, mines, mills, construction, railroads, including Italian immigrants digging the first NYC subway tunnels) assimilation patterns - upward social mobility unlikely for 1st, 2nd generations; some by 3rd generation - upward social mobility positively impacted by partly by educating younger generations 3. Jews, mostly from Europe; part of New Immigration (after 1880s) - European laws had deprived many Jews of owning land, farming — therefore had settled in cities, knew trades; did not have a huge adjustment to city life — most men had a trade (tailors, skilled laborers), so were able to find decent employment in the cities — those without trades did manual labor - though the 1st 2 groups came as families, they also came as single adults (leaving area of origin as economic refugees) — Jews left area of origin as religious refugees, most arrived as family units — — due to the severe persecution in Europe, these religious
- 49. refugees were more likely to feel as though there was no going back to ‘old country’ - somewhat easier adjustment to US urban life (came as families, not likely to return, have trades for employment) - ethnic enclaves: lived in densely populated areas, created networks of businesses, very cohesive group, were able to offer financial help to others - essentially – this group was able to reach some degree of economic equality before widespread acculturation - prior to raising families Jewish women were in the work force (largely garment industry) — after having children they continued employment, but as piece work; often the whole family (including children) were involved Americanized generations - children of immigrants (2nd generation) learned more English, were exposed to American culture, values in public schools - in many families, it was expected children (2nd and 3rd generations) go into professions; with excellent and free or inexpensive education through college - as education and entering professions became profitable to Jewish immigrants, mainstream society resented this and began limiting (through quotas) number of Jewish students assimilation patterns - today Jewish Americans are above average in education, income and occupational prestige chains of immigration - true for all groups - some members come to US, begin establishment, write home - family, neighbors, friends would follow - these chains created cohesiveness that allowed for sharing of resources among new and old immigrants (ex: information is exchanged, general help getting settled, money, job offers,
- 50. family news) - immigrant groups differed in how long an enclave remained important table 2.3 median household income, percent of families living in poverty, and educational attainment for selected ethnic groups (US Census, 2008) median household income percentage of families living in poverty percentage who completed high school or more percentage who received an undergraduate degree or more All Persons $30,056 10% 75.2% 20.3% Russian $45.778 3.6 90.8 49 Italian $ 36,060 4.9 77.3 21 Polish $34,763 4.3 78.5 23.1 Ukrainian $34,474 4
- 52. campaign against immigration: prejudice, racism and discrimination – encountered by all groups; degree and how long varied anti-Catholicism - up until this time, US was Protestant (yes, many variations, but had similarities) - Catholics were considered to be very different; some even felt they were not Christian — celibate clergy, cloistered nuns, Latin masses — even rumors that the Pope would relocate to US and take over the US government — — these rumors were repeated in mid 1900s when John F. Kennedy was running for president - due to how Catholicism spread throughout the world (added onto existing faith practices), substantial differences among Irish, Italian, Polish Catholics so they usually set up independent parishes anti- Semitism (intense prejudice, racism, discrimination specifically targeting Jews) - pogroms (disturbance; from very mild to the Nazi’s ‘final solution’) began in Europe - for some Christians Jews were the killers of Christ (regardless of historical fact) - stereotypes of Jews: crafty business owners / materialistic money lenders — Jews went into businesses in the cities due to not welcome in farming areas — usury (charging interest for loans) was forbidden to Catholics in premodern Europe, so Jews took on this role,
- 53. leading to stereotype of being greedy and materialistic - initially (when numbers were small), not a lot of anti- Semitism in US - as more Jews left Europe, increase in prejudice, discrimination; especially as 2nd and 3rd generations were successful - peak of anti-Semitism in US – before WW II — a boat load of European Jews came to the US, but were turned away; almost 300 of that group died in Europe successful exclusion - based on quota system, the National Origins Act of 1924 drastically reduced immigration to US - using the census of 1890, limited immigration to 2% of people on that census - most generous quotas to those from Northern / Western Europe - many feel that this was responsible for many Jews not getting into the US and then dying in Europe patterns of assimilation the importance of generations - as is true to today, 1st generations don’t immediately assimilate; assimilation not until 3rd generation (or later) in general, the sequence for 3 generations 1st generation – begins process of assimilation; becomes slightly acculturated / integrated - settle in ethnic neighborhoods - limited attempt at acculturation / integration - focus is on family, group - men somewhat more likely to integration (need to learn language in workplace, etc) 2nd generation – quite acculturated, highly integrated into
- 54. secondary sectors of society (social marginality) - learn parents’ language at home; socialized into ‘old country’ ways / values which frequently stress family, not individuality - therefore are in conflict with the values they learn in public school (be independent, competitive) - hoping for upward social mobility, likely to move out of ethnic neighborhoods - more acculturated than parents - have learned to speak English fluently - more occupation choices than 1st generation - are upwardly mobile, but many are limited due to prejudice / discrimination - are ‘Americanized’ and raise their children that way - generally want to disassociate from ‘old country / ways’ 3rd generation – finishes acculturation process; has high levels of integration at secondary and primary levels - grandchildren of the 1st immigrants - are very much American, but have ties to grandparents, ethnic neighborhood; likely to speak English only (maybe a few words or phrases in ‘old’ language) above is presented in linear fashion, but this was not always the reality ethnic succession - prejudice / discrimination towards earlier ethnic groups is lessened as another group (considered to be a larger threat) comes in - this also means a push into higher social mobility, leaving their ethnic neighborhood for the next group - fits in with Gordon’s concept of integration at secondary level - can be understood by looking at 3 pathways of integration (politics, labor unions, religion)
- 55. politics - Irish arrived when the corrupt political machines of the 1800s were forming - they were not responsible for them, but did take advantage of them - corrupt politicians such as Boss Tweed (of Tammany Hall, NYC) used their position to ‘buy’ votes, favors from the Irish — if the Irish cast votes in their favor, the politician would give them municipal jobs, licenses (such as to run a butcher shop) - created economic opportunities and linked them to larger society labor unions - though most other immigrant groups participated in the labor movement, the Irish played a larger role - since many Irish were leaders in the labor movement, they were able to gain status, power - the average Irish worker (and other workers) benefited with job security, better wages - labor unions consisted of various immigrant groups - labor union leaders were intermediaries between working class white ethnics and larger society - women were also very active in the labor movement (a 4 month strike by mostly Jewish and Italian young women helped workers with wages, fewer work hours per week (had been 56 – 59 hours per week) - a deadly fire in the Triangle Shirtwaist Company (around 140 women, girls died either from the fire itself or from jumping to the street from several stories up) was responsible for improved working conditions, safety — Triangle shirtwaist fire religion - unlike immigrants from Northern / Western Europe, the Irish were Catholic - this was the start of the Roman Catholic church in the US; the
- 56. Irish dominated this institution for a long time - despite the unity of the Roman Catholic church, countries varied in customs and festivals - when other Catholic groups came (Italian and Poles) they ended up created their own parishes with their customs, festivals other pathways - crime — though we associate organized crime with the Italian Mafia, other immigrant groups were able to achieve upward social mobility through crime — Prohibition provided a very fertile ground for the then illegal manufacturing and distributing of alcohol — — in particular the Irish and Germans took advantage of this; their cultures were enmeshed with wine and beer - sports — sports offer a pathway to success without needing education, English fluency structural mobility - as industrialization grew, low skilled manual labor jobs were reduced; to be competitive in the new jobs, education is important - in the 1930s, a public school education became more available - after WW II (1950s) the G.I. Bill offered G.I.s a college education - overall, each generation acquired more education, achieved higher social mobility - see table 2.3 variations in assimilation (degree of similarity, religion, social class) degree of similarity - different immigrant groups varied in degree of prejudice,
- 57. discrimination encountered - those groups that the majority considered to be more similar in culture, perceived race were more accepted - emergence of preference hierarchy favoring people from Northern / Western Europe over Irish and those from Southern / Eastern Europe; Protestants favored over Catholics and Jews religion - the different immigrant groups not only kept to their own groups, they were also separate according to religion - Protestant, Catholic, Jews tended to live in different neighborhoods, had different workplace niches, separate friendship networks, and chose marriage partners from different pools - for many groups, religion continued to be a difference social class ethclass: intersection of the religious, ethnic and social class boundaries - people tend to associate with others, marry within their ethclass gender - not as much historical research of female immigrants - in general, men were more likely to immigrate first, then send for wives, families when housing, employment, general stability - immigrants from Ireland in 1800s were about 50/50 single male and female young adults, teens — most Irish females were employed in domestic work — being associated with (maybe living with) a family offered ‘respectability’ - most immigrant women were in paid labor prior to marriage; but not after marriage — in more patriarchal societies, the role of women outside the
- 58. home was more restricted — since many immigrant men did not earn enough, their wives often participated in paid labor – either outside of the home or inside the home — — if outside the home, women from more patriarchal families were likely to have jobs that were female dominated - the immigration of Jews was different from other groups in that entire families came together — more likely to work in the garment industry - in most groups, women were the ‘keepers of culture’; husbands spent more time in the majority world, but women were closer to home — not as important to learn a new language — continued with old ways of dressing, preparing food, celebrating holidays sojourners (birds of passage) come to new area to make money; intention is always to go home, maybe buy some land - not as necessary to learn language, customs — therefore not as accepted by majority group - many Italian laborers were sojourners - since Jews were fleeing extreme religious persecution and would not be going back they came as entire families — since they were here to stay, they were very committed to becoming American (language, citizenship, customs) the descendants of immigrants today geographic distribution – as depicted in figure 2.5, various groups are distributed throughout the states s - single largest category is German American (white area on map; from Pennsylvania to Pacific)
- 59. - Irish more concentrated in Massachusetts, where most first arrived - Italians more likely to arrive in New York City; more Italian Americans around NYC - higher concentrations for Native Americans, African Americans and Mexican Americans is partly due to institutional discrimination integration and equality - these immigrant groups are mostly assimilated (see table 2.3) - of the groups on this table; they are all at or above ‘all persons’ for income and education the evolution of white ethnicity – white ethnics have not just assimilated in continuous, linear fashion - 1. principle of third generation interest — though the second generation wants distance from ‘old country’ and ways, the third generation (or subsequent) wants to know more — over time, the US has become more tolerant of differences, more accepting of different ethnicities - 2. in 1960s, as African Americans, Hispanic Americans and Native Americans are seeking civil rights, they are also re- establishing cultures — therefore greater interest by white ethnics in prior culture as well (ethnic revival) symbolic ethnicity - individuals have as part of their self-identity an ethnic background, which has minor importance - this ethnic background is likely to be important during certain holidays (St. Patrick’s Day, Columbus Day), but otherwise not that important - this interest in ethnicity tends to be superficial, voluntary and changeable (since many Americans are mixtures of many different ethnic groups, some of us might put greater emphasis
- 60. on one ethnic background at one time, but another ethnic background at another time will contemporary immigrants follow the traditional path to assimilation? - some say yes - others suggest a segmented (fragmented) assimilation — some groups assimilating earlier than others; some groups desiring more separation chapter 5 – African Americans – from segregation to modern institutional discrimination and modern racism chapter begins with a story of a black man describes his experience of being ‘other’ - his experience of ‘otherness’ was that, as an adult, black male, society often considers him someone who will do harm to others - regardless of reality otherness: otherness: marginalized in society The End of De Jure Segregation - de jure segregation – segregation of blacks / whites according to law — also referred to as Jim Crow; emerged after end of reconstruction after end of Civil War — meant to keep freed slaves as exploitable work force; limit power - after end of slavery, plantation owners were able to remain in production through sharecropping — however, as agriculture technology became more mechanized, this high degree of hands on labor wasn’t as important; freed slaves and families have greater probability of leaving the south — also, with industrialization, many blacks move to urban north where the more restrictive Jim Crow laws were not practiced
- 61. — slowly, blacks gain some political power in north; are also able to organize some — — little by little, de jure segregation is reduced wartime developments - 1941 – US is not yet at war; however, getting ready for possibility of war - racial discrimination was common in employment; jobs were often segregated with Sleeping Car Porters being a job for blacks — poor pay, worked long hours, had to pay for own uniforms, food, lodging - A. Philip Randolf, head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters threatened to march on Washington - Executive Order 8802 signed by Franklin D. Roosevelt which banned discrimination in defense related industries (railroads were considered important to defense) - this is significant 1. a group of African Americans had their grievances heard and got what they wanted 2. government made a commitment to fair employment rights for blacks the Civil Rights Movement – series of attempts to end legalized segregation, help with huge inequalities faced by blacks - included: protests, demonstrations, lawsuits, courtroom battles Brown vs Board of Education (Topeka) 1954 (originally filed for Linda Brown) - began as 5 separate court cases, were consolidated by Supreme Court - Oliver Brown’s name was put first on list (felt having a man first, increased their chances) - essentially reversed the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision that said ‘separate but equal’ - the culmination of decades planning by NAACP (National
- 62. Association for the Advancement of Colored People) — objective: attack Jim Crow by identifying situations where the civil rights of African Americans had been violated; bring suit against that agency — goal: Supreme Court declares segregation unconstitutional in that case and all similar cases Linda Brown - though, in principle schools were desegregated, the ideology behind Jim Crow / segregation continued; Brown V Board of Education was continually fought, especially in the south - Prince Edward County (central Virginia) got around B v B of E by closing its public schools — all white children went to private schools for 5 years; no education for black children nonviolent direct action protest - 1st protest: bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, December 5, 1955, to December 20, 1956 - March 2, 1955 – Fifteen year old Claudette Colvin refused to give up her seat on the bus and her case was initially going to be used by the NAACP — however, after the incident she became pregnant by a married man and the NAACP hesitated to use her case since she would be put down due to the mores of the time — her pregnancy would also have been used against her in trial due to the social mores of the time — was also in Montgomery, Alabama - December 1, 1955 Rosa Parks also refused to give up her seat on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama - NAACP used Rosa Parks’ case to bring to the Supreme Court nonviolent direct action: confronted de jure segregation on the streets, not in court or legislatures - example the Montgomery bus boycott - based on Christianity, Henry David Thoreau and Gandhi
- 63. - objective is to confront the forces of evil(institutions) , rather than the individuals doing the evil; desire to win friendship, support of enemies - Martin Luther King, Jr. wrote a lot about nonviolent direct action (which can be (and has been) used in many other applications) — at the time of the bus boycott, King was a new pastor in Montgomery; he lead this effort - used many techniques depending on the situation: sit-ins, protest marches, demonstrations, prayer meetings, voter registration drives — response to these nonviolent direct actions was violence by police as well as groups like the KKK landmark legislation – 2 laws passed in 1964 and 1965 by Congress – both initiated by Lyndon B. Johnson 1. Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned discrimination on grounds of: race, color, religion, national origin or gender - applied to publically owned places such as swimming pools, parks, businesses and other facilities open to the public (and any programs receiving federal aid) 2. Voting Rights Act of 1965 - the same standards are to be used to register all citizens to vote (federal, state and local elections) — banned literacy tests, whites only primaries, etc — especially helped Southern blacks to vote the success and limitations of the Civil Rights Movement 1. changing subsistence technology - the rigid competitive system of Jim Crow is not enforceable when population industrializes and moves to urban areas 2. an era of prosperity - the 1950s into the 1960s was a prosperous time for the US - this prosperity reduced the intensity of intergroup competition
- 64. (especially in the north; not so much in the south) - when times are prosperous, reduced resistance to change - overall, minority groups are not as likely to be considered a threat 3. increasing resources in the black community - the prosperity also increased the economic and political resources of blacks - interconnected African American controlled organizations and institutions emerged (example: churches, colleges) 4. assimilation goals - the goals of the Civil Rights Movement were seen to be appropriate and reflective of US values (liberty, equality, freedom, fair treatment) by many (mostly northern whites / not so much by the south) 5. coalitions - alliances with other, more powerful groups increased resources of black community - example: white liberals, Jews, college students 6. mass media (especially TV) - when mass media showed footage of blacks being attacked for demonstrating their rights — this was frequently the first time northern whites really saw / understood what was going on though de jure segregation was ended, discrimination in jobs, distribution of wealth, political power, etc continued Developments Outside the South de facto segregation - inequality, segregation that appears to be voluntary by both blacks and whites, but isn’t - this de facto (by tradition) segregation results from
- 65. government and quasi government agencies (real estate boards, school boards, zoning boards) - in the north racial discrimination wasn’t as overt but existed (labor unions, employers, white ethnic groups, etc) - African Americans have dealt with greater poverty, higher unemployment, lower quality housing, inadequate schools - blacks expressed concerns with above through urban unrest and the black power movement urban unrest - riots began in 1965 in Watts, Los Angeles and spread throughout US cities - though racial riots were not new, but the new riots were more likely to be blacks rather than whites as aggressors — in particular white owned businesses in black neighborhoods were targeted — another concern – police brutality the black power movement - loose coalition of organizations, spokesperson – many proposed viewpoints that to some degree differed with the civil rights movement - some groups preferred not assimilation into white society, but increased black control over schools, police, welfare programs, other public services - emphasized black pride, African heritage, Black Nationalism - some felt that assimilation would require blacks to become part of the system of oppression - these concerns were brought out by Marcus Garvey in the 1920s the Nation of Islam - made distinction between racial separation and racial segregation — racial separation – a group becomes stronger with autonomy and self-control
- 66. — racial segregation – system of inequality – black community is powerless and controlled by majority - desire to develop own resources and be able to deal with majority group from a position of power - best known spokesperson – Malcolm X Protest, Power, and Pluralism the black power movement in perspective - by late 60s, US weakens in its commitment to racial change, racial equality — didn’t just go away, but went underground — at this point black power is part of US black culture, awareness gender and black protest - though often relegated to clerical type positions, African American women provided an important cornerstone for the movement Black-White Relations Since the 1960s: Issues and Trends - numerous advances in black / white relations and inequality, but a long way to go also - many thought that the US entered a ‘post-racial’ era with the election of Barack Obama - however, we saw increases in hate groups and hate crimes towards blacks after his election wins and inaugurations - over the last year and a half prejudice and discrimination towards blacks and other groups (Jews, Muslims, Hispanics, some Asians) have had a huge increase continuing separation - in 1968 a presidential commission looked at urban unrest; then warned that US was ‘moving towards 2 societies, one black, one white, separate and unequal’ - as stated above, though there was a brief period when many
- 67. (not all) felt racism towards blacks was no longer, we now know this is not true – and hadn’t been true during that time period - over time, there have been more riots; example the 1991 beating by the police of Rodney King — riots emerged after the trial that acquitted the police officers of almost all charges - in 2009 in Oakland, CA, Oscar Grant (23 year old black man) was shot in the back by police officers at a subway station — the officer shooting him claimed Oscar was reaching for a weapon, but Oscar had no weapon the criminal justice system and African Americans - in the US considerable mistrust between law enforcement and the black community a biased criminal justice system? - a long history of abuse, harassment, mistreatment of black citizens by police - police often perceived as an ‘occupying force’ - perception of bias increased after Trayvon Martin was killed by George Zimmerman - recent (2007) research: blatant and overt discrimination has been reduced, but biases remain (but this same study done in 2017 may have different results) - today these biases are more subtle, not always seen, especially by majority society - black children, juveniles and adults more likely to be watched, followed, arrested than white juveniles / adults the war on drugs - not just a ‘war on drugs’ – the war has been aimed primarily at the form of a drug (cocaine) that is cheaper and therefore used more in the black community - though both powder cocaine (used by more upper class whites) and crack cocaine (used more by lower class blacks) are illegal, their abuse is differentially treated
- 68. — punishments for crack cocaine have been much more severe than powder cocaine - in figure 5.1 we see higher arrest rates for drug abuse violations for black juveniles than for white juveniles - a similar finding in research done on use of marijuana — though use rates are the same for black / white youth, black youth are 3.5 times more likely to be arrested — according to Brent Staples, this is due to black being more likely to be watched, stopped, frisked and profiled racial profiling - police use race as an indicator in trying to determine whether a person is suspicious or dangerous - recent study on preschoolers and grammar school children also found that black children were more likely to be perceived as more ‘dangerous’ - these tactics increase the resentment, distrust and fear of law enforcement by the black community the new Jim Crow? - some see the above as a continuation of Jim Crow in that once arrested, blacks are more likely to be brought to trial, convicted (especially of felonies) - the stigma of a felony conviction drastically reduces gainful, legitimate employment; ineligible for many government programs including student loans — result: individuals are marginalized, excluded, treated as second class citizens increasing class inequality the black middle class - evidence of black middle class families from prior to Civil War — mostly due to occupations / businesses that serve African
- 69. American community - though everyone was hit hard by the recession (2007), it was especially problematic for black families - figure 5.2 shows the disparity in wealth (accrued over time) for blacks / whites urban poverty - the manual labor / factory / manufacturing jobs have left US cities, where many blacks are concentrated - as our society has moved into a post industrial subsistence technology, service jobs are prominent — however the more stable, better paying service jobs require more education, but the inner cities have very inadequate schools - blacks more likely to live in highly impoverished neighborhoods and do not have equal access to societal resources, such as education that allows for upward social mobility modern institutional discrimination closed networks and racial exclusion - a study in 2003 looked at students graduating from a trade school - the black and white students were very similar in education, training, etc; however, whites almost always got jobs afterwards and these jobs were better paying and more secure - interviews revealed that training / personality were not the reason for the differences — what mattered was not ‘what you know’ but ‘who you know’ — white students had access to better networks in the job market the differential impact of hard times - overall, African Americans are more vulnerable to both medical and economic problems
- 70. - hits this population earlier, hits harder, creates more stress, last longer - example: unemployment rates in figure 5.3 - another example: home ownership (which is an important part of wealth creation) - 2008 survey — compared to white families black and other minority families are 3 times more likely to have been victims of the subprime home loans — then, due to these loans are 2 times more likely to lose a home to foreclosure — in many instances the black community was specifically targeted for these loans the family institution and the culture of poverty 2 ways of explaining black, inner city poverty 1. ‘culture of poverty’ 2. structural culture of poverty - the black family is structurally weak (primary proponent was Patrick Moynihan, 1965) — more female headed households — higher rates of divorce, separation, desertion, illegitimacy — the above supposedly represents a ‘crumbling’ family structure, thus leading to more and more poverty - in figure 5.4 we see black / white differences have increased - therefore the ‘logical’ conclusion would be to ‘fix’ the ‘flaws’ in black families, the community structural - the matriarchal family structure, etc are NOT causing the
- 71. problems, but are the result of these problems - the real problem is related to many structures of society — continuing prejudice and racism reduces educational, housing opportunities; decreases employment possibilities — in particular African American men not as able to support a family due to: high rates of unemployment, incarceration (higher than majority population, but not due to any innate character differences), violence (including death) - black families are more likely to be in poverty since men are not as able to support families and black women are at the bottom of income hierarchy - some of these male / female employment differences result from de-industrialization — good blue collar jobs are gone; what’s left are the female concentrated, low income service jobs - overall, the problem of poverty in the inner city, black community is a reflection of the racism (and sexism) in our society figure 5.5: income by race / gender mixed race and new racial identities - in the US ‘race’ is usually thought of as a black / white issue - more ‘mixed’ children are being born - society (and how individuals see themselves) is not as starkly black / white as before possible identities for ‘mixed race’ individuals (from a small sample, not generalizable in percentages – but useful as a tool of understanding) 1. border identity — those with ‘border identity’ do not see selves as either black or white - validated border identity — see selves as biracial and society ‘validates’ this (family, friends, community)
- 72. - ‘unvalidated’ border identity — see selves as biracial, but are not validated by society — society sees them and treats them as black — can create conflict between self-image and how others define them 2. singular identity - see self not as biracial, but as just black - consistent with the traditional view of race as black or white 3. transcendent identity - reject idea of race - not define self as either black or white - instead define self as an individual 4. protean (changes as a person moves through different groups and social context changes) traditional prejudice and modern racism - textbook describes decline in traditional, overt prejudice / racism - however, over the last 2 years this has not been true - though prejudice measures have declined since 1940s (WW II), today many people are feeling more comfortable expressing (and acting on) prejudices that have been held in families over generations another way to look at prejudice is – there is a new form, modern racism - traditional stereotypes based on genetic inferiority are rejected - however, this perspective is a ‘blame the victim’ perspective — minority groups are considered to be responsible for change, improvements (society and societal structures should not be used)
- 73. Assimilation and Pluralism acculturation (look at secondary structural assimilation and primary structural assimilation separately) - using the Blauner hypothesis, we can see where African Americans, brought into this society as a colonized group have had (continue to have) more problems secondary structural assimilation - integration in public areas such as employment, schools, political institutions residential patterns - one way of looking at public integration - figures 5.8 and 5.9 indicate an overall lack of integration in the US school integration - since Brown v Board of Education, some integration has been achieved in schools - but still a long way to go figure 5.11 indicates a decline in the gap of high school educational attainment for blacks / whites however, figure 5.12 indicates there are still problems with a gap in college educational attainment political power - there has been an increase in political power for blacks, but it
- 74. is still low jobs and income - in this area as well: improvements, but not equality primary structural assimilation - there has been an increase in inter-racial friendships / marriage – again, much room for improvement chapter 6 — Native Americans: from conquest to tribal survival in a postindustrial society chapter begins with description of a Blessing Way ceremony for an unborn child. Similar to majority society baby showers, but with significant cultural differences. NATIVE AMERICANS ARE NOT ‘PAST TENSE’ Size of the Group - as per table 6.1 over 5,000,000 claim either whole are part Native American ancestry; not quite 3,000,000 for those claiming only Native American ancestry - overall, number of individuals claiming Native American ancestry has increased in last few decades — not necessarily due to more people being born — now that the Census allows a person to pick more than one background, more people are choosing ‘Native American’ and …. — also, today far less negative stigma associated with Native American, so more people are claiming it
- 75. Native American Cultures - there is no, one ‘Native American’ culture - many variations shared patterns, cultural characteristics - most groups depended on hunting / gathering, foraging subsistence technology prior to colonization — some also had cultivated gardens — also some evidence of cities to survive on a hunting / gathering subsistence technology is to be dependent on what nature does / does not provide season to season; therefore some differences between Native American and Western perspectives (different world views) - for a person to survive, the group needs to survive — therefore needs high degree of cooperation, sharing to be successful — each individual person / family is dependent of others for the communal hunting / gathering of food, shelter, etc. — end result: high degree of solidarity, cohesion - whereas Western culture sees humans as higher, more important than nature; Native American philosophy sees humans as being equal with nature — in Native American perspective, humans need to live in harmony with nature; no concept of ‘improving’ on nature or trying to put humans at top of a hierarchy — Western society, seeing humans as the top of a hierarchy, see a need to dominate nature (animals, plants, etc.); leads to ideas of land ownership, land development (commercial farming) - Native Americans do not have the same idea of private property, especially regarding owning land — land is part of the sacred; one cannot ‘own’ that which is sacred
- 76. — when colonists encountered Native Americans each did not understand the other’s perspective regarding the land — — colonists, with their European philosophy saw land as being owned — — Native Americans do not have a concept of owning, buying, selling land - whereas colonists brought with them from Europe an emphasis on the individual, Native Americans see the family / clan / larger group as being more important than the individual - Native American cultures were, due to everyone needed and all need to work together valued all individuals — stratification existed in pre-colonized Native American culture, but not the same as the stratification of Europe at the time — in some societies women had a lot of power as compared to European women (in Iroquois’ society a council of older women named the leader (a man) and could get rid of him; this council of women also made decisions regarding waging of war) - the concepts of not just land ownership, but also deeds and other legal issues were not familiar to Native Americans; they were more easily taken advantage of Relations With the Federal Government After the 1890s - ‘Indian Wars’ end by 1890, leaving Native Americans with few resources — confined to reservations (too small for hunting / gathering subsistence technology; bison and other game eliminated; soil generally not good for farming) — divided through western US; divided due to different languages, cultural differences (see figure 6.2) — lack of political power – not considered citizens, not able to vote (Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted citizenship, but depending on state laws, not all able to vote until 1957) — the US form of democracy – representative democracy was not something Native Americans were familiar with - subsistence technology of Native Americans changed from
- 77. hunting / gathering to dependence on a foreign government (US government) - in general reservations (see figure 6.2) are in remote, rural areas; industrialization, modernization not available - Native Americans lack the skills to compete in an industrial work force (know English, understand western work habits / routines) - continuing prejudice / discrimination reservation life - as with African Americans on plantations, Native Americans’ relationship with US government began as paternalistic — objective of Bureau of Indian Affairs – supervise Native Americans, keep power reduced, coercive acculturation (take the Indian out of the Indian) Sovereignty – to what degree are a people capable of / able to make decisions in own best interests http://rapidcityjournal.com/news/local/hope-and-hemp-the- unfinished-odyssey-of-alex-white-plume/article_8bd594bc-fbc3- 56b0-85ff-a5cfa88ccc7a.html paternalism and the Bureau of Indian Affairs - the BIA, not the tribes controlled the reservations - controlled food supply, dispersal of food, pretty much all of daily life, the budget, the criminal justice system - system gave rewards to ‘good’ Indians (were more like, worked with majority society) coercive acculturation: the Dawes Act and Boarding Schools - re: application of Blauner hypothesis, reservations dealt with coercive acculturation; culture attacked, ridiculed, efforts to wipe out language and religious practices Dawes Act - intention: give each Native American family its own piece of
- 78. land (in Western tradition), so that families (not the clan or tribe) could survive if they applied Western practices - on one hand, intention is benevolent; however, it did not take into consideration Native American cultures’ traditions - even those cultures that had a tradition of gardens, their societal structure was very different — in many Native American (and, indeed in many other indigenous groups such as in parts of Africa) women own the land, work the land, make decisions about the land — the Dawes Act required the land to be owned, worked, by men - another, non-benevolent intent was to destroy tribal social structures, especially the kinship / clan aspects — then replace with Western ideas of individualism, profit motive — when land is held by individual families, it is easier for Euro-American individuals to take the land Boarding Schools - children sent away from families, tribes, kinship structures - forbidden to speak own language, practice traditional religion - seldom saw families; sometimes sent to be farm hands, domestic workers with Euro-American families — overall outcome – Native American children indoctrinated into servant class religion – in varying degrees different tribes have maintained some of their original religious views / practices the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA – 1934) - in administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt, under direction of John Collier (knew about, understood, wanted to help Native Americans) - substantial changes — Dawes Act rescinded (and other means of individualizing tribal lands)
- 79. — reduction in coercive acculturation — increase in self-governance for Native Americans — — role of BIA less paternalistic - overall, these changes were never fully realized — though self-governance was encouraged, it was still to be according to Western norms (secret ballots, majority rule, written constitutions) — — above different from Native American traditions of: decisions made by a council; decisions made by consensus where individuals are encouraged to discuss (not secret ballet) the Termination Policy - many in majority society felt that the shift back to a tribal identity (rather than individual identity) was ‘un-American’, would not allow Native Americans to modernize - also, rescinding the Dawes Act reduced the probability of majority citizens from taking over Native lands - also various governments offered incentives to Native Americans moving to cities (job training, housing assistance) - many tribes were ‘terminated’ — once no longer federally recognized the people in those tribes lost services, etc. --- reality – from poor reservations with support to poor urban areas without tribal / family support relocation and urbanization - in 1940s (WW II) some Native Americans began moving to urban areas to work in defense factories - though incentives were given for Native Americans moving into urban areas, over time the blue collar (low income, low education) jobs were also reduced self-determination Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act (1975)
- 80. - increased aid to Native American schools, students; tribes gain more control over reservations Protest and Resistance early efforts - some protest since about 1910s - modern phase of Native American protest can be traced to WW II — many Native Americans experience life away from the reservation due to moving to cities for jobs and or joining the military — 1944: National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) — — pan tribal (members consisted of individuals from different tribes) - concerns with termination further fueled protests in 50s / 60s Red Power - similar to Black Power movement of African Americans - more assertive than NCAI (National Congress of American Indians) - AIM – American Indian Movement (founded 1968) – pan Native American Movement --- largely unification within younger people in urban areas - 1969 AIM occupied Alcatraz Island for almost 4 years — many tribes come together --- also media recognition — based on a law that stated, any unused federal land was to revert to Native American control — since Alcatraz Island was no longer used as a prison, it should revert to Native American control Contemporary Native American – White Relations natural resources
- 81. when Euro-Americans initially ‘gave’ reserved areas to Native Americans they chose to give lands that were not important to that subsistence technology - that is, during agricultural subsistence technology land to support crops and livestock was needed - however, as we became industrialized, some of this non- agriculture land has been found to be of use (coal, natural gas, oil, uranium and other minerals) — therefore effort to take back these lands (one of the earlier examples was the discovery of gold in the Black Hills area (had originally been given to Native Americans as it is not good for either crops or livestock) other concerns -radiation and health (both at time of extracting from the earth and if Native American lands are used to dispose of hazardous materials) - coal, other petroleum products - land rights (ex: pipelines through / close to Native American territory – in US and Canada) attracting industry to the reservation - attempts at bringing manufacturing to reservations has had mixed results — though jobs are brought in, the jobs available to reservation residents are low income, little probability of advancement — management jobs are filled by people the companies bring in from outside - jobs on the reservations are generally with agencies of US government (limited numbers) or associated with tourism (these jobs tend to be seasonal and low pay) broken treaties - some tribes are going back to 1800s treaties and asking for
- 82. compensation for past wrongs gaming and other development possibilities - though gaming has been very helpful to some reservations, not all are able to set up gaming — in particular, in our area, some tribes that had been terminated in mid 1900s are no longer considered reservations, thus can’t have gaming overall: poverty is an ongoing issue for most Native Americans contemporary issues - though there have been improvements, prejudice and discrimination are ongoing issues - since Native Americans are a colonized, conquered group the majority has created negative stereotypes since early contact - between labor and land, the majority wanted land from Native Americans — Native Americans were not willing to give up land and fought back — thus the first stereotype of Native Americans as bloodthirsty, ferocious, cruel savages - a contrasting stereotype is ‘The Noble Red Man’ — a simple culture that is totally harmonious with nature — has been used since the ‘New Age’ movement reality: both are stereotypes and therefore not true referring to Native Americans as ‘past tense’ - one on hand implies Native Americans no longer exist - or, that Native Americans do not have current problems stereotypes in sports – using Native American images as sports mascots - though some may say these mascots are meant to honor Native Americans, in reality these mascots are stereotypical
- 83. characterizations with little relevance to reality 11/14 culture and language – to pass on a culture the language of that culture must remain intact and alive - in figure 6.7 we see that many Native American groups have lost their languages religion – the years of forcing Native Americans into Boarding Schools began the process of trying to eliminate their various religious views - these boarding schools were run by different Christian groups; Christianity was imposed — despite these attempts, some Native American groups have retained aspects of their religions (some more than others) — in many cases, Native Americans have created a hybrid religious perspective that combines their original religious views with Christianity as compared to African Americans, Native Americans were more likely to retain culture — African Americans were colonized onto plantations where they were coerced into US culture (though from a second class position) — Native Americans were put on rural reservations, originally were not allowed full interaction with majority society; were able to continue with cultural attributes — — 2 problems with continuation of culture: loss of languages; loss of ways of eating in figure 6.8 we see that Native Americans are concentrated in the west in figure 6.9 we see that though Native Americans groups vary somewhat in educational attainment, overall Native Americans
- 84. have low educational attainment political power: since they are a very small group that is also spread over large areas, they do not hold any significant political power jobs and income - jobs on reservations, when they do exist are very low status, income - some of this would be related to low educational attainment - figure 6.10 shows median household income for whites / Native Americans figure 6.1 is a comparison of household income distribution between whites and Native Americans - Native Americans are more likely to be at the bottom than the top overall, high poverty for Native Americans
- 85. chapter 7 — Hispanic Americans: immigration, colonization, and intergroup competition Hispanic Americans – largest minority group (16.6 % of total US population) and is growing - mostly in west and south of US, but growing throughout the US - some Hispanic American groups have been in North America before Jamestown — Hispanic: from areas colonized by Spain - Hispanic groups share a language (but with different dialects) and some cultural attributes — but do not identify as one group labels: though our text uses Hispanic American (sometimes Latino American) as an inclusive term, most groups prefer referring to selves according to the country they are from figure 7.1 – relative sizes of the 10 largest Latino groups in US Hispanic groups include colonized and immigrant groups Hispanic Americans are perceived both as ethnic groups and racial groups Mexican Americans - conquered, colonized in 1800s, used as cheap labor (Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo)
- 86. — conquered for land; also exploited for labor - similarities to Native Americans: small size of groups, differed in both language and culture from majority group — both impoverished, relatively powerless, few resources, physically isolated - similarities to African Americans in the South: exploited for labor; after slavery low-paying jobs, subordinate status - all 3 groups were colonized by Europeans; in early 1900s didn’t have the resources needed to overcome low status, to fully retain own culture Mexican Americans are different from other Hispanic groups due to the close proximity of Mexico, allowing movement across border and renewal of language, culture cultural patterns religion: not protestant (as is most of majority US), but mostly Roman Catholic - Mexico is highly Roman Catholic; church is an important part of daily life; this continues in the US among Mexican Americans - family relations and obligations are important culture of poverty? - mistaken idea that ‘problems’ associated with Mexican American community originates with an unhealthy value system (weak work ethic, fatalism, etc) - though there are some differences in values between Mexican Americans and majority US, many values are actually quite similar (Hispanic Americans have greater support for ‘working hard to get ahead’) - this culture of poverty concept has also been applied to African Americans - African Americans considered to be too matriarchal / Hispanic Americans considered to be too patriarchal
- 87. machismo - has both negative and positive aspects; however majority society emphasizes negative - value system incorporating: men’s dominance, honor, virility and violence — includes being a respected father, a good provider family – tends to be more important for Mexican Americans than Anglo Americans - family provides support when life is difficult, but can get in the way of Anglo values of individualism (example: moving away from family for educational, employment opportunities) immigration - 1st contact with US was largely colonization, conquered (in some southwestern states some immigration if the groups retained political, economic capital) — this early colonization identification still impacts perception of new immigrants from Mexico - many factors impact immigration (legal and illegal) into US: conditions in Mexico; US demand for low or unskilled labor; global changes; changes in US immigration policy push and pull - immigration from Mexico has some similarities to immigration from Europe; in particular industrialization and globalization - another large factor: the 2,000 mile border between US and Mexico is the longest, continuous border in the world between a developed nation and a less developed nation — development in US has been faster than in Mexico; standard of living in US higher than in Mexico — pay in the US is higher than pay in Mexico (and Central / South America), even for low status, low paying jobs conditions in Mexico, fluctuating demand for labor, and federal
- 88. immigration policy - for 100 plus years, US has used Mexico as a source of cheap, low status, low pay labor (has benefited US agriculture, industry and other concerns) - when economy is good in the US, greater demand for Mexican labor; when economy is not good, less acceptance of Mexican labor - table below lists changes in US and Mexico and how they have impacted immigration from Mexico into the US Table 7.2 — significant dates in Mexican Immigration dates event result effect on immigration from Mexico 1910 Mexican Revolution political turmoil and unrest in Mexico increased early 20th century Mexican industrialization many groups (especially rural peasants) displaced increased 1920s passage of National Origins Act, 1924 decreased immigration from Europe increased 1930s Great Depression decreased demand for labor and increased competition for jobs leads to repatriation campaign decreased, many return to Mexico 1940s World War II increased demand for labor leads to Bracero Guest Worker Program
- 89. Increased 1950s concern over illegal immigrants Operation Wetback decreased, many return to Mexico 1965 repeal of National Origins Act new immigration policy gives high priority to close family of citizens Increased 1986 IRCA* illegal immigrants given opportunity to legalize status many undocumented immigrants gain legal status 1994 NAFTA** many groups in Mexico (especially rural peasants) displaced. Increased 2007 recession in US widespread unemployment in the US, job supply shrinks Decreased * Immigration Reform and Control Act -details below- ** North American Free Trade Agreement Great Depression (1930s) – US initiates repatriation policy (sending undocumented Mexicans back to Mexico) - though this policy was aimed at people in the US illegally, many legal residents were intimidated and also left WW II increased US desire for cheap labor from Mexico (US men in the military, production in US has increased due to the war, even women in the US are in paid employment)
- 90. - bracero program – began during WWII, continued into 1960s — goal: bring in cheap labor from Mexico (predominately for agriculture) — saved US agriculture a lot of money, since they were paid less than US workers — involved bureaucracy in both Mexico and US; this bureaucracy was meant to create fairness for both US employers and Mexican laborers Operation Wetback – began in 1950s - intended to repatriate illegal immigrants from Mexico - in actual practice, the civil rights of many US citizens were violated — partly why there is such a high degree of distrust in Mexican American community for US officials — example: though many people complain that illegal immigrants from Mexico are abusing US health care, etc that is not so; more often even legal residents avoid US government and don’t use many services that would be entitled to 1965 policy changes - replaced racist 1924 policy that drastically reduced immigrants from coming into US - opened up immigration for close family members of people already US citizens - increased immigration from Mexico as immigrants gained citizenship, which allowed relatives in Mexico to immigrate IRCA – Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986) - any illegal immigrants in the US since 1982 could get legal status - about 3 million people took advantage of this (3/4 of them from Mexico); but did not stop illegal immigration from Mexico
- 91. - much of the illegal immigration from Mexico is for low wage, seasonal work; workers return when the season is over recent immigration from Mexico - Mexico continues to have lower standard of living as compared to US (housing, health, education, etc) and jobs are relatively scarce, increasing the desire to come to the US — World Bank (2013) – about half of the Mexican population lives in poverty — when they seek jobs in the US their low educational attainment (average is 8.5 years) restricts employment opportunities NAFTA – North American Free Trade Agreement (1994) – U.S., Canada and Mexico became one trading zone - has created benefits and problems for all 3 countries — in Mexico cheap imported corn has put some small farmers out of business and in need of employment — some of these displaced individuals have come into the US looking for work the continuing debate over immigration policy - as we come out of the Great Recession, US is again considering reducing immigration — how many? - from where? – what skills? should there be priority for relatives? what about unauthorized immigrants? - one suggested solution – a wall between the US and Mexico to prevent drugs and illegal immigrants from coming into the US from Mexico — not likely to help substantially — — trebuchet like apparatus used to ‘toss’ drugs into US — — planes can be used sometimes – also drones — — submarines successfully drop drugs along the coast — — most important – sophisticated tunnels connecting US and Mexico – have electricity, air conditioning, small vehicles can move; can easily bring in drugs and people, totally bypassing any wall
- 92. - today US is divided on immigration; some are OK with continuing with what we have, others want to reduce or stop immigration all together http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/chinese- migrants-lead-us-agents-san-diego-border-49475177 immigration, colonization, and intergroup competition – 3 concerns 1. political / economic - long history of political, economic issues between 2 countries - sometimes encouraging immigration (legal and illegal) to benefit both citizens of Mexico and US corporate interests (especially agriculture) - this movement across the border has a long history (see time table above) 2. colonized status - the fact that persons of Mexican heritage first ‘entered’ the US was through conquest, the initial contact was as a conquered group / colonization - any new people coming into US from Mexico are perceived of and treated more like a colonized group than an immigrant group people coming into the US from Mexico are entering a situation where those before had already been given the status of ‘colonized’ which works to perpetuates prejudice, discrimination - has characteristics of both colonized group and immigrant group - colonization includes paternalism, racism 3. prejudice, discrimination increase with competition, sense of threat
- 93. - when people in the US are concerned about jobs or other possible threats, increased prejudice, discrimination of immigrants from Mexico - combination of competition, differences in power and prejudice can inform attitudes split labor markets split labor markets affect Mexican Americans (also affect African Americans and Native Americans) — in addition to racial split labor market - has also been a gender split labor market where women of Hispanic descent get the lowest end jobs - in general, persons with Mexican heritage are in lower economic hierarchy; some families (more likely if 3 or more generations in US) are achieving - economically - middle class status, but are still treated as 2nd class citizens (similar to African American families) split labor market - primary labor market – generally, own the means of production or high up - secondary labor market – sell labor for subsistence wages; is easily divided or split creating competition which group benefits from a split labor market? - majority – especially those who own the means of production - exploitation of secondary labor market through ‘splitting’ this secondary labor market into at least 2 different groups, each willing to work for less money, in not so good working conditions; secondary labor market – those who sell their labor for subsistence wages (proletariat) protest and resistance: protest, resistance since initial contact in 1800s - one area of concern: jobs and the split labor market
- 94. — when factory or agri-business owners want to thwart unions, hire in Mexican Americans at a reduced salary, increasing animosity to Mexican Americans from poor whites — attempts to exclude Mexican Americans from labor unions Mexican Americans important to US labor movement - if not allowed into white labor unions, formed their own labor unions - more groups form after end of WW II - Mexican Americans (like other minority status groups) had greater realization of what had been denied them Chicanismo: ideology that was behind activism, militancy of 60s (similar to Black Power, Red Power) - Chicanismo & Black Power similarities: grew out of impatience with ongoing prejudice, discrimination, unequal status; rejected negative stereotypes, but promoted sense of pride in own group (but not ‘my group is better than your group’) - move away from continued trying to assimilate; rather develop pride in own group Chicanos - term adopted in 60s - had initially been a negative term - as with Negro becoming Black; Indian becoming Native American, then First Peoples; indicates a self-image - self image that emphasizes positive aspects - and these names were self-given, not imposed by dominant group Chicano women (Latinas) very involved also - similar to African American, etc women dealt with racism and sexism organizations and leaders https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=cesar+chavez&&view=d etail&mid=49B3538BC1596FBDF4EC49B3538BC1596FBDF4E C&FORM=VRDGAR
- 95. most important – Cesar Chavez and United Farm Workers - also follower of non-violent direct action as initiated by Gandhi - used the Catholic church as an ally, which also helped put off ‘communist’ depictions - brought together many different groups involved in agriculture – African Americans and Filipino Americans - used boycott successfully – grapes were boycotted for 5 years – also media — won better wages, working conditions for workers — also brought wages, working conditions of agricultural workers to US awareness Puerto Ricans and other minority groups Puerto Ricans: Puerto Rico became US territory at end of Spanish American war of 1898 - Puerto Rico and citizens first contact with US war, conquest - with on-going poverty, lack of resources, people of Puerto Rico not able to assert independence - as the century wore on, U.S. firms began to invest in and develop the sugarcane industry that decreased opportunities for economic survival in the rural areas and forcing many peasants to move into the cities - overall relationship with US based on colonization - since 1917 Puerto Ricans are US citizens (Puerto Rico is a territory of US) – helped facility movement onto mainland US - movement to the mainland began gradually and increased slowly until the 1940s, when the number of Puerto Ricans on the mainland increased more than 4 times, to 300,000 - during the 1950s, it nearly tripled, to 887,000 Puerto Ricans - Migration (push and pull) and employment - Puerto Rico is US territory - mostly very poor; people migrate from Puerto Rico to mainland largely for jobs
- 96. transitions – Puerto Ricans and other minority groups - Puerto Ricans not immigrants, but deal with transition coming to the mainland - changes in language, culture (including some religious practices) — most people from Puerto Rico are Catholic, but as with many other Catholic areas approach the Catholic faith differently according to locale race / perception of race in Puerto Rico versus mainland - Puerto Rico has much greater diversity - mixture of people from Africa, indigenous peoples, European background — concept of ‘race’ is not dichotomous in Puerto Rico as on mainland (i.e. black versus white) — in Puerto Rico, more important than race is SES (socio- economic status) - in coming to mainland, many Puerto Ricans don’t understand prejudice, discrimination based on skin color - Puerto Ricans in US have elements of both colonized group and immigrant group Cuban Americans - until the end of the Spanish American War Cuba was a colony of Spain - with end of the Spanish American War, Cuba became an independent nation — however the US remained heavily involved in Cuba, even having US troops occupy Cuba twice - after Castro - Castro overthrew Bautista (himself exploitive of peasant population) - those considered loyal to Bautista were killed and or exiled — (loyal) government officials, educated, land owners - exiled immigrants - initially upper classes, educated, fit into US mainstream society — were, in general accepted; including great acceptance due to
- 97. having escaped from Communism — were also give advantages that others did not get - subsequent immigrations - individuals of lower socio- economic status (SES); currently still ‘boat people’ Cuba - 3 waves: elite, middle class, less than middle class - elite: escaping Castro, Communism, openly accepted - had values that fit in more with US middle class (partly due to education) - 2nd group - not as accepted (lower SES, not as educated) - 3rd group - not accepted (even lower education, SES) Hispanic Americans from Central & South America - areas of social, economic, political instability the usual distinction between minority and majority refers to numbers of individuals in a group · majority having greater numbers; minority having fewer numbers · NOT in this class, instead whether a person / group is considered minority or majority is based on their relationship to power, resources, authority, privilege — minority (subordinate) – reduced access to power, resources, authority, privilege — majority (dominant/core) – greater access to power, resources, authority, privilege — — benefit when things remain the same does NOT indicate what should be, but the reality of the relationship between minority / majority (dominant) groups the book we are using has 2 continuing themes, which will be explained in more detail later 1. how subsistence technology impacts the relationship between majority and minority
- 98. - subsistence technology: how a society provides for the basic needs (food, water, shelter) for the people 2. contact situation between majority and minority: considers the initial contact between majority and minority according to two perspectives: Noel / Blauner · Noel: whether or not the following conditions were in place at time of contact: ethnocentrism, competition, power differential among the groups · Blauner: whether the initial contact was immigration or colonization for the past 3 decades (as compared to mid 1900s): more immigrants coming into US and these immigrants have been coming from more diverse areas · regardless of how people in the US feel about these immigrants, we must remember that (aside from Native Americans) we are a nation of immigrants race – perceived physical differences ethnicity – perceived cultural differences where this class differs from the text book · text refers to everyone, including Native Americans as immigrants · however, many Native American groups do not see themselves as immigrants; in fact some refer to selves as ‘First Peoples’ or ‘First Nations” · referencing Native Americans as immigrants considers the understanding that individuals came from Asia into the Americas through the Bering Strait many thousands of years ago · today, archeologists are finding evidence of human inhabitation in the Americas much earlier than previously thought — this cannot be considered immigration since it is so many thousands of years ago
- 99. · by not identifying Native Americans as immigrants, we are respecting their perception of themselves — respect for others (including how individuals / groups refer to themselves) will be an important part of this class hierarchy and inequality: simply noting differences among groups is not problematic - perceived differences between groups is not problematic until there is an implied status hierarchy (that is, differences in how goods, services, power are distributed) · the terms on this graph are labels · they are arbitrary, do not have clear boundaries · used here because these are the terms / labels used in the US census · by using labels, we are putting all persons of ‘x’ group together — however, individuals within any of these categories will be different from one another · problem with these labels: more categories are likely to be added; does not acknowledge people that are from more than one category unequal distribution of goods, services, power creates inequalities · diversity in US today is not limited to ethnicity, race – other factors include social class (SES or socio-economic status), education, size of group, religion, language, sexual orientation, differences in physical abilities … ‘markers’ of group membership as a minority group 1. inequality: experience a pattern of disadvantage, inequality - degree of disadvantage can vary (genocide, slavery to no left hand desks) 2. visibility: group members share a trait / characteristic that can be observed; that differentiates them as unique (language,
- 100. dress, grooming, physical characteristics, religion, etc.) · these differences are considered to be evidence that the group is inferior · these traits allow group members to be identified & treated as inferior · these various characteristics have no innate meaning ethnic / racial minority groups · ethnic minority groups: defined primarily due to cultural differences · racial minority groups: defined primarily due to physical differences - ethnic and racial groups overlap racial and ethnic groups are social constructs (society determines what the groups are, where the boundaries are, what the hierarchies are) - therefore the consequences are social · categories of race and ethnicity exist not due to any biological aspect, but due to historical, social, economic, political processes · social consequences can include: where to live, type and degree of education, employment, etc. — impact: exposure to pollution, available diet (nutritious or not), neighborhood safety (can kids play outside without fear of violence or environmental problems?) racial minority groups - defined as minority according to perceived physical characteristics · categories change over time, and from place to place · no scientific proof of what the categories are or what criteria should be used to put a person in one category or another · yes, genetic differences can be noticed; however, they are not proof of racial heritage 3. awareness: group members identify as a group; are a self- conscious social unit - a sense of group identity emerges creating a degree of
- 101. solidarity (we are all in this together) - can also mean that people in different groups have world views different from others 4. ascription: ascribed membership (a person‘s status is given at birth) · ascribed characteristics tend to be permanent - not changeable · achieved characteristics – gained through an effort — today our society emphasizes a person’s achieved characteristics; we determine a person or a group’s status in society based on what we think they have achieved — however, we also need to recognize that what a person achieves will dependent on what choices s/he has been given — a person’s ascribed membership impacts the choices set before them; life choices are broadened or narrowed according to things such as: neighborhood a child grows up in; school district (US schools are not equitable); parents’ relationship to the means of production (economic status); parents’ educational attainment, etc. 5. intimate relationships: tendency to marry within group (endogamous) · sometimes voluntary by minority group; sometimes enforced by dominant group · other intimate relationships (friends) are also likely to be within group · prior to 1967 many states in the US had laws forbidding 2 people of different races from marrying traits above set boundaries of who is or who is not part of which groups · these are ‘markers’ of group membership - these visible signs allow quick and easy identification - and differential treatment · these traits / characteristics themselves not significant - become significant through socialconstruction process · pattern of inequality - part of daily life - not really
- 102. acknowledged as existing by those in majority, dominant groups because they do not experience the negative effects inequality: most important characteristic of minority groups (reduced access to resources (something most people want, but there is not enough to go around), power, authority, privilege) - includes patterns of inequality, exploitation, slavery, genocide · these patterns emerge due to majority (dominant) group’s actions · frequently the inequalities are not recognized by members of majority, dominant group (they simply don’t ‘see’ it – because they haven’t experienced it) stratification exists in US, though we like to think it doesn’t · results in social classes (SES: socioeconomic status) stratification - unequal distribution of valued goods, services, power - stratification is basic to almost all human societies (some make exception for hunting / gathering societies) — theme – subsistence technology – how a society provides what the individuals need, such as food, shelter water · strata: horizontal layers - social classes - differ re: resources, education, age, gender, talent · degree of access to resources, power, authority important depending on a person’s racial status, their perceptions of racism can be very different Theoretical Perspectives: different theoretical perspectives (ways of understanding) inequality · no one theoretical perspective can explain all problems · these are looked at in chronological order · not mutually exclusive Marx · Marxism - complex theory - core concern is societal inequality — inequality due to a society‘s system of economic production
- 103. — ‘means of production’ important to understanding inequality (that is the most important institution in a society is the economy) — a person’s status is based on what that person’s relationship is to the means of production (do they own the means of production, or do they sell their labor for subsistence wages) — — means of production (materials, tools, resources, organizations a society uses to produce, distribute (usually unequally) goods & services) Marx saw 2 and only 2 classes · proletariat (working class) - sold their labor for subsistence wages (to only get laborers and families from day to day, year to year, generation to generation) - bourgeoisie (elite) - owned the means of production — the system of means of production can / does change · this system creates inequality, which leads to competition, which leads to conflict · Marx perceived conflict as good since it can bring about needed social change — eventually this conflict would result in working class overcoming exploitation with a new, utopian, egalitarian society emerging Marx did not see emergence of middle class · today we are losing our middle class - most people are in downward social mobility — lower classes are increasing in numbers, upper classes decreasing in numbers, but increasing in resources means of production changes over time; below are different subsistence technologies and what’s important for that period) · agriculture period land is important · industrial period factories, machines - capital · post-industrial – knowledge, ability to use knowledge
- 104. Weber - came after Marx · felt that Marx's view of inequality (primarily economics) was too narrow · in addition to considering SES (socio-economic status; in Marx’s terms the economy) need to also consider, prestige, power (ability to influence others - INCLUDING DECISION MAKING – example political power through voting) — above 3 often go together - but not always - that is, someone can be high in SES (a person who has accumulated wealth in organized crime), but not have the prestige that a person of the same SES whose SES was acquired through more accepted means) — — note: accepted means does not always mean appropriate, good for all members of society, etc. (ex: current financial - banking, investment community); accepted means refers to what a society allows for Weber: 3 different, often overlapping stratification systems 1. ownership, control of property, wealth, income (similar to Marx concept of class) 2. prestige: honor, esteem, respect 3. power (including decision making) - ability to influence others, pursue own interests, goals distinction of income and wealth · income – amount earned within a set period of time; usually 1 year) · wealth – accumulated over time – one person’s lifetime or through generations of a family — wealth has a greater impact; can help us and others in a downturn; income tends to be unstable Lenski (after Weber) - accepts Weber‘s premise of importance of class (property), prestige, power
- 105. · includes that to understand stratification, we need to consider societal evolution (level of development) · nature of inequality related to subsistence technology - how a society satisfies basic needs (food, water, shelter) — subsistence technology impacts degree of inequality & criteria of inequality) hunting / gathering // foraging – little surplus, little to no stratification – human energy only agricultural societies rely on human & animal labor to create the energy to sustain life - this inequality based on control of land, labor (are most important components to means of production) industrial society - land ownership not as important as in pre- industrial; ownership of manufacturing, commercial interests are important · control of capital is now important; the nature of inequality will also be different postindustrial society - societies‘ economic growth based on technology, computer related knowledge, information processing, scientific research · therefore specialized knowledge, new techniques, education important now · postindustrial stratification not based just on land or capital, education is also crucial — and education (including probability of an adequate education) is unequally distributed Patricia Hill Collins: adds concept of intersectionality (female, black) · intersection of race, class, gender (not look at them separately but recognize they are): — interlocked and mutually reinforcing
- 106. inequalities need to be examined in more complexity - not just not dichotomy of 2 classes (elite versus workers) - within the many class strata, individuals are then situated according to the combination of race, class, gender - for that specific person being white (or black, or Asian, etc.) is not the same experience for all persons who appear to be of that group · important to consider where that person fits into society by also examining that person‘s class, gender - within the current social context the above is a ‘matrix of domination’- that is, there are many cross systems of domination and subordination · cross over each other · overlap with each other · impact an individual person‘s experiences, opportunities · the concept ‘matrix of domination’ does not end with race, class, gender — other factors such as disability, sexual preference, religion, age, national origin, being homeless how individuals are ranked to each other re: power is not static · a man working at a low income, low prestige job will have low power at work · when that same man goes home, his power is likely to increase, especially if the household is based on more patriarchal principles difference between minority group and majority group is not based on numbers, but on relationship to power minority group status & stratification minority status · stratification due to differential access to wealth, income, power, authority, privilege - a person‘s status (minority or
- 107. majority) impacts that person‘s life chances, health, wealth opportunities, potential success social classes / minority group status - often correlated, not always · some groups are more able to not be as constrained by minority status (example a Euro-ethnic white may be low income, but if they are not also considered minority status due to perceived race, they are likely to have more opportunities than a person in a similar niche who is also African American, Hispanic American or Native American) · somewhat together, not 100% · differences in power leads to competition, conflict - to control goods, services — can result in emergence of exploitation institutions such as slavery · social classes may be correlated with a group’s place in the strata; however these are separate social realities at core of struggles between dominant / majority groups and minority / subordinate groups are inequalities of property, wealth, prestige, and power race · even though race is not regarded as an important biological characteristic, it is still an important social concept since it used to differentiate among people · and, as a social construct, the consequences of race are social (where to live, type of employment, educational attainment, access to appropriate nutrition, neighborhood safety, etc.) dominant-minority group relationships due to desire to control valued resources (goods & services including land, labor, education, etc.) visible traits used to define boundaries across groups - if traits are more easily noted, the identification is more certain
- 108. (increases ability to itemize people into groups) · boundary - race, religion, language, occupation · important: these categories are not perceived as simple ‘different- - hierarchy is imbedded history of evolution · current scientific data points to the beginnings of human kind in Africa, then dispersing throughout the globe — melanin (protects our skin from sun) is more prevalent in people that live closer to the equator — over thousands of years, as peoples move northward and then east and west, melanin no longer needed to protect from sun — in fact, the farther from the equator, melanin is counterproductive because it can reduce our ability to produce vitamin D 1400s - technology of ship building and navigation improves, allowing Europeans to explore and then colonize / exploit other areas · as exploration, colonization increase, the importance of race increases — when areas are colonized, the peoples in those areas are considered inferior (it helps to justify exploitation) · racism used to justify military conquest, genocide, exploitation, slavery using biology to ‘explain’ race · the ‘categories’ developed are arbitrary, blurred, ambiguous · often more variation within a category than across different categories social construction of race · race played role in creating institution of slavery in what became the US · rather than science, meaning of race due to historical, social, economic, political processes · racial differences re: slavery - emerged so that elite can justify exploitation of slaves · importance of race was a social construction - so current
- 109. consequences are social prejudice · negative attitudes (cognition, thoughts) applied to an entire category of people · these attitudes are usually very invested in affect (the emotions), so can be hard to ‘un-do’ — that is, negative emotions (affect) are generally attached to groups that are defined as being inferior discrimination – actions, behaviors; treating people differently; sometimes based on prejudices stereotypes are generalizations that are thought to apply to all members of a group · competition between groups likely leads to prejudice (rather than prejudice leading to competition) · prejudice serves the purpose of rationalizing inequities in societies (if X group is inferior, then it is ‘OK’ to exploit them) — over time this societal inequality becomes part of the cultural heritage of a society gender · both gender and race have biological and social components · both can be very visible and convenient means of sorting and judging people · need to look at gender not just – male / female, but also how individuals have various life opportunities, experiences based on gender, class and race this approach permits us to analyze the ways in which race, ethnicity, gender, and class combine, overlap, and crosscut each other to form a “matrix of domination” (Hill-Collins). discrimination and prejudice often go together, but not always · some very prejudiced people don’t act on their thoughts (may want to be politically correct) - or some non-prejudiced people
- 110. may discriminate (better to treat ‘others’ poorly than to be the scapegoat yourself) ideological racism – a belief system or a set of ideas · asserts that a particular group is inferior · is used to legitimize or rationalize the inferior status of the group · incorporated into the culture of society and can be passed on from generation to generation. institutionalized discrimination · patterns of unequal treatment based on group membership and built into the institutions and daily operations of society · can be obvious and overt, but usually operate in more hidden and unintended ways · individual level prejudice and discrimination, and group level racism and institutional discrimination reinforce each other some thoughts on causes of prejudice · being raised in a racist society (with an underlying acceptance of prejudice and discrimination) · prejudice emerges from intergroup conflict · competition between groups can lead to prejudice — more likely that prejudice is a result of competition (rather than prejudice being a cause of competition) · though prejudice may originate due to competition, it often continues as an underlying basis of society well past original competition other reasons for prejudice - it is learned through the processes of socialization; sometimes learned from family; sometimes learned through other agencies of socialization (example: peers, school) - what we learn ‘to be true’ through socialization is often difficult to change - since prejudice is learned, it can be ‘unlearned’ that it is passed from generation to generation
- 111. self-fulfilling cycle of prejudice though the origins of prejudice are group competition, it often continues long after Myrdal proposed · with greater power, dominant group forces minority group into an inferior status (example: slavery) · to both create and justify racial stratification, dominant group invents, accepts prejudice · dominant group observes that members of the minority group are, indeed, in an inferior status (low income, inadequate education, poor living conditions); this reinforces idea that group members are inferior · prejudice / racism help justify discrimination social distance scales social distance: related to prejudice, not quite the same · suggests 7 degrees of social distance 1. to close kin by marriage 2. to my club as personal chum 3. to my street as neighbors 4. to employment in my occupation 5. to citizenship in my country 6. as visitors only to my country 7. would exclude from my country chapter 9 – Current Immigration capital - things that can be acquired, saved, used, passed down to new generation (not necessarily for human capital) to develop other stuff (generate profits) - helps people to be productive in future
- 112. - can include: labor, land human capital - skills that people possess — resulting from training, a job, experiences — can increase the ‘value’ of a person on the job market - considered to directly affect personal productivity — these skills can be directly applied to the job market, increase likelihood of economic success textbook divides immigration into US in 3 waves – 1) 1820s – 1880s; 2) 1880s – 1920s; 3) 1960s and on - 1st and 2nd waves had a tremendous impact on US; likely the 3rd wave will also have a large impact – some feel even more of an impact than the 1st 2 third wave - much diversity regarding area of origin – not just Europe, all across the globe (more than 200 sending nations) - immigrants from Mexico highest number (double of next highest sending nation) last 4 decades: over 30 million newcomers have arrived (not counting undocumented immigrants); exceeds the pace of the first mass immigration Legal Immigrants to the United States 1960-2010 New Hispanic Groups: Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Colombia table 9.1 – selected characteristics of 3 Hispanic American groups & non-Hispanic whites, 2012 group size % with less than high school diploma
- 113. % with college degree or more % foreign born % who speak English less than ‘very well’ median household income % of families in poverty non-Hispanic whites 8.9 31.9 3.9 1.7 $56,525 7.4 Dominicans 1,568,168 34.0 15.5 46.6 44.0 $33,900 27.3 Salvadorans 1,937,369 51.4 7.7 60.9 52.3 $43,487 20.6 Colombians 1,000,125 14.2 31.5 63.9 39.0 $50,102
- 114. 11.9 about 25% of all immigrants since the 1960s from Latin America (cultural reference), South America (geographic reference), the Caribbean the sending nations for these immigrants are economically less developed and most have long-standing relations with the United States these immigrants tend to be more educated, more urbanized, and more skilled than the average citizens of the nations from which they come immigrants from the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, and Colombia have made up 7% to 9% of all immigrants in recent years and about 30% of the immigrants from Central and South America and the Caribbean these groups had few members in the United States before the 1960s, and all have had high rates of immigration over the past four decades. However, the motivation of the immigrants and the immigration experience has varied from group to group. new Hispanic Groups: Immigrants From the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, and Colombia Dominican immigrants are motivated largely by economics and they are especially concentrated in the service sector - a high percentage of Dominicans are undocumented El Salvador, like the Dominican Republic, is a relatively poor nation - many of the Salvadorans in the United States today are actually political refugees Colombia is somewhat more developed than most other Central and South American nations but has suffered from more than 40 years of internal turmoil, civil war, and government corruption Colombian Americans are closer to U.S. norms of education and income than other Latino groups, and recent immigrants are a mixture of less-skilled laborers and well-educated professionals Non-Hispanic Groups from the Caribbean – Haiti and Jamaica
- 115. table 9.2 – selected characteristics of 2 non-Hispanic Caribbean groups and non-Hispanic Whites, 2012 group size % with less than high school diploma % with college degree or more % foreign born % who speak English less than ‘very well’ median household income percentage of families in poverty non-Hispanic whites 8.9 31.9 3.9 1.7 $56,525 7.4 Haitians 898,484 22.8 19.0 59.2 37.2 $42,275 19.5 Jamaicans 1,061,037 15.5 25.0 59.3 1.2 $49,310 12.5 two of the largest non-Latino groups come from Haiti and
- 116. Jamaica in the Caribbean. Both nations are much less developed than the United States, and this is reflected in the educational and occupational characteristics of their immigrants Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere. Haitian-Americans today are mostly first generation and about 30% of the group arrived after 2000. The ultimate path of Haitian assimilation will unfold in the future https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s3337cj4sJQ dirt cookies - food insecurity: “Food insecurity is limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods or limited or uncertain ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways.” USDA Stable government - lacking Jamaicans tend to be more skilled and educated and represent something of a “brain drain.” Jamaicans typically settle on the East Coast, particularly in New York City area. DACA Deferred Action for Childhood Arrival - in addition to wanting to send back “bad hombres” ICE (Immigration and Customs Enforcement) is sending back individuals that have not harmed the community - now the current administration is wanting to send back young people allowed ‘deferred status’ due to DACA problems - many are educated and would be positive additions to society - many don’t have anywhere / family to ‘go back to’ - some are currently serving in our mililtary - some have completed their education and their absence will take away skills, tax contributions - thinking that they were protected many young people have self-identified, thus making it easy to find them and send them away - not just Mexican immigrants Contemporary Immigration From Asia
- 117. Immigration from Asia has been considerable since the 1960s, averaging close to 300,000 people or about 30% to 35% of all immigrants The sending nations are considerably less developed than the United States, and the primary motivation for most of these immigrants is economic. Also, many Asian immigrants are refugees from war and others are spouses of U.S. military personnel who had been stationed throughout the region. Immigrants from India, Vietnam, Korea, and the Philippines make up about half of all immigrants from Asia. The four groups considered here are small, and they all include a high percentage of foreign-born members. They are quite variable in their backgrounds, their occupational profiles, their levels of education, and their incomes. They tend to have high percentages of members who are fluent in English, members with higher levels of education, and relatively more members prepared to compete in the American job market. The four groups vary in their settlement patterns. Most are concentrated along the West Coast, but Asian Indians are roughly equally distributed on both the East and West Coasts, and Vietnamese have a sizable presence in Texas, in part related to the fishing industry along the Gulf Coast. Middle Eastern and Arab Americans Immigration from the Middle East and the Arab world began in the 19th century but has never been particularly large. The earliest immigrants tended to be merchants and traders, and the Middle Eastern community in the United States has been constructed around an ethnic, small-business enclave. The number of Arab Americans and Middle Easterners has grown rapidly over the past several decades but still remains a tiny percentage of the total population. This is a diverse group, which brings different national traditions and cultures as well religion. 9/11 and Arab Americans
- 118. There always has been prejudice directed at Middle Easterners in American culture. These vague feelings have intensified in recent decades as relations with various Middle Eastern nations and groups worsened. Americans responded to the attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon by Arab terrorists with an array of emotions that included bewilderment, shock, anger, patriotism, deep sorrow for the victims and their families, and increased prejudicial rejection of Middle Easterners, Arabs, Muslims, and any group that seemed even vaguely associated with the perpetrators of the attacks. Today, the Arab American community faces a number of issues and problems, including profiling at airport security checks and greater restrictions on entering the country. Thus, although the Arab American and Middle Eastern communities are small in size, they have assumed a prominent place in the attention of the nation. They are victimized by a strong stereotype that is often applied uncritically and without qualification. Relations between Arab Americans and the larger society are certainly among the most tense and problematic of any minority group. Immigrants from Africa Immigration from Africa has been quite low over the past 50 years. However, there was the usual increase after the 1960s, and Africans have made up about 5% of all immigrants in the past few years The number of native Africans in the U.S. has more than doubled since 1990, and this rapid growth suggests that these groups may have a greater impact on U.S. society in the future The category of “sub-Saharan African” is extremely broad and encompasses destitute black refugees from African civil wars and relatively affluent white South Africans. Nigerian and Ethiopian immigrants tend to be highly skilled and educated, and they bring valuable abilities and advanced
- 119. educational credentials to the United States. Nigeria is a former British colony, so the relatively high level of English fluency of the immigrants is not surprising. They have been able to translate their relatively high levels of human capital and English fluency into a favorable position in the U.S. economy. They compare quite favorably with national norms in their income levels. Compared with Nigerians, Ethiopians rank lower in their English fluency and are more mixed in their backgrounds. For example, almost 20% of Ethiopian immigrants in 2010 were admitted as “refugees and asylums” versus only 1% of Nigerian immigrants. Although Ethiopians compare favorably with national norms in education, they have much higher rates of poverty and much lower levels of income. These contrasts suggest that Ethiopians are less able to translate their educational credentials into higher-ranked occupations. Immigrants and the Primary Labor Market The immigrants entering the primary labor market are highly educated, skilled professionals and business people. Members of this group are generally fluent in English, and many were educated at U.S. universities. They are highly integrated into the global urban-industrial economy, and in many cases, they are employees of multinational corporations transferred here by their companies. These immigrants are affluent, urbane, and dramatically different from the peasant laborers so common in the past. Because they tend to be affluent and enter a growing sector of the labor force, they tend to attract less notice and fewer racist reactions than their more unskilled counterparts. The groups with high percentages of members entering the primary labor market include Indian, Egyptian, Iranian, and Nigerian immigrants. Immigrants and the Secondary Labor Market The secondary labor market – this mode of incorporation is
- 120. more typical for immigrants with lower levels of education and fewer job skills. Jobs in this sector are less desirable and command lower pay, little security, and few benefits and are often seasonal or in the underground or informal economy. The groups with high percentages of members in the secondary labor market include Dominicans, Haitians and the less skilled and less educated kinfolk of the higher-status immigrants. Immigrants and Ethnic Enclaves Some immigrant groups, especially those that can bring financial capital and business experience, have established ethnic enclaves. Some members of these groups enter U.S. society as entrepreneurs, owners of small retail shops, and other businesses; their less-skilled and educated co-ethnics serve as a source of cheap labor to staff the ethnic enterprises. Comparative Focus: The Roma: Europe's “True Minority” Collectively, the Roma are the most disadvantaged minority group in Europe and present the greatest challenge to integration. Their continued poverty, exclusion, and marginalization challenge the themes of multiculturalism and democracy that are purportedly valued throughout Europe. Furthermore, this is not a new situation and the Roma are by no means newcomers to Europe. Roma are not a single group or a homogeneous entity. Members of these groups share little in common and are more similar to the majority members of the country in which they reside than to each other. However, from a pan-European perspective, they are often considered a single group. Violence and intolerance towards Roma is not only still very much present but is on the rise. Discriminatory attitudes are especially on the rise in Central and Eastern Europe. The deep divide between Roma and non-Roma in Europe is largely the result of a long history of isolation and segregated living.
- 121. Immigration: Issues and Controversies A majority of Americans regard immigration as a positive force but many others are vehemently opposed The history of this nation is replete with anti-immigrant and nativist groups and activities. The present is no exception. A majority of Americans regard immigration as a positive force but many others are vehemently opposed The history of this nation is replete with anti-immigrant and nativist groups and activities. The present is no exception. The contemporary anti-immigrant movements have generated a number of state laws that require law enforcement officers to check the immigration status of anyone they stopped, detained or arrested when they had a “reasonable” suspicion that the person might be an undocumented immigrant. The immigrants – Although very grateful for the economic opportunities available in the U.S., immigrants may be ambivalent about U.S. culture and values. In a recent survey, immigrants were more likely to see immigration as a positive force for the larger society and more likely to say that immigrants work hard and pay their fair share of taxes. Cost and Benefits – Americans are especially concerned with the economic impact of immigration. Contrary to some strains of public opinion, many studies, especially those done at the national level, find that immigrants are not a particular burden. In general, immigrants, undocumented as well as legal, pay local, state, and federal taxes and contribute to Social Security and Medicare. Undocumented Immigrants Americans are particularly concerned with undocumented immigrants but, again, are split in their attitudes. The estimated number of undocumented immigrants increased from 8.4 million in 2000 to a high of 12 million in 2007, an
- 122. increase more than 40%. The number has declined during the recession and is now about 10.2 million. Some undocumented immigrants enter the country on tourist, temporary worker, or student visas and simply remain in the nation when their visas expire. Others cross the border illegally. One of the reasons that the supply of unauthorized immigrants has been so high is because of the continuing demand for cheap labor in the U.S. economy. A variety of efforts have been made to curtail and control the flow of undocumented immigrants. Various states have attempted to lower the appeal of the United States by limiting benefits and opportunities. State Bill 1070 in Arizona Proposition 187 in California Other efforts to decrease the flow of illegal immigration have included proposals to limit welfare benefits for immigrants, deny in-state college tuition to the children of undocumented immigrants, increases in the size of the Border Patrol, and the construction of taller and wider walls along the border with Mexico. Over the past decade, a variety of proposals to reform the national immigration policy have been hotly debated at the highest levels of government but none have been passed. Focus On Contemporary Issues: Birthright Citizenship Among advanced industrial nations, the United States and Canada alone automatically confer citizenship on any baby born within their borders, including babies born to undocumented immigrants. In the US, this policy is based on the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which was passed shortly after the Civil War to guarantee the citizenship rights of ex- slaves. Birthright citizenship is one of many hotly debated immigration issues. Arguments for ending birthright citizenship commonly cite the costs to taxpayers and that it would reduce the incentive for
- 123. people to enter illegally. On the other hand, if the primary incentive for immigration is work and job opportunities, ending this policy would have little impact on population flows and repeal of birthright citizenship would increase the size of the unauthorized immigrant population and create a large, permanent class of marginalized people, who would be stateless, without full citizenship rights anywhere, and easily exploited. It is quite likely that birthright citizenship will be a prominent issue in American politics for some time. Is contemporary assimilation segmented? Although the process of adjustment was anything but smooth or simple, European immigrants eventually Americanized and achieved levels of education and affluence comparable to national norms. Some analysts argue that assimilation for new immigrants will be segmented and that the success story of the white ethnic groups will not be repeated. Others find that the traditional perspective on assimilation continues to be useful and accurate. Is contemporary assimilation segmented? The Case for Segmented Assimilation Douglas Massey presents a compelling argument in favor of the segmented assimilation perspective. Assimilation today, he argues, is segmented and a large percentage of the descendants of contemporary immigrants – especially many of the Hispanic groups and Haitians – face permanent membership in a growing underclass population and continuing marginalization and powerlessness. The Case Against Segmented Assimilation Recent studies argue that contemporary assimilation will ultimately follow the same course followed by European immigrant groups 100 years ago and as described by Gordon’s theory. Recent Immigration in Historical and Global Context The current wave of immigration to the U.S. is part of a
- 124. centuries-old process that spans the globe. Underlying this immense and complex population movement is the powerful force of the continuing industrial revolution. In the 19th century, population moved largely from Europe to the Western Hemisphere. Over the past 50 years, the movement has been from South to North. This pattern reflects the simple geography of industrialization and opportunity and the fact that the more developed nations are in the Northern Hemisphere. Recent Immigration in Historical and Global Context Labor continues to flow from the less developed nations to the more developed nations. The direction of this flow is not accidental or coincidental. It is determined by the differential rates of industrialization and modernization across the globe. Immigration contributes to the wealth and affluence of the more developed societies and particularly to the dominant groups and elite classes of those societies. The immigrant flow is also a response to the dynamics of globalization, particularly since the 1980s. The current era of globalization has been guided by the doctrine of neo-liberalism, or free trade, which urges nations to eliminate barriers to the free movement of goods and capital and by the international agencies that regulate the global economy pressure nations to reduce the size of their governmental sector. The combined result of these global forces may be an increasingly vulnerable population in less-developed nations. Americans tend to see immigrants as individuals acting of their own free will and, often, illegally but the picture changes when we see immigration as the result of these powerful, global economic and political forces. When viewed through the lens of globalization, it is clear that this population movement will continue because immigrants simply have no choice. New Immigrants and Old Issues While it is probably true that American society is more open and tolerant than ever before, we must not mistake declines in
- 125. blatant racism and overt discrimination for their demise. Gender issues and sexism remain on the national agenda. Most importantly, minority women remain the victims of a double jeopardy and are among the most vulnerable and exploited segments of society. Many female members of the new immigrant groups find themselves in similarly vulnerable positions. These problems of exclusion and continuing prejudice and sexism are exacerbated by a number of trends in the larger society. The new immigrant groups have abundant problems of their own, of course, and need to find ways to pursue their self- interests in their new society. Will we become a society in which ethnic and racial groups are permanently segmented by class, with the more favored members enjoying a higher, if partial, level of acceptance while other members of their groups languish in permanent exclusion and segmentation? What does it mean to be an American? What should it mean? chapter 10 – minority groups and US society: themes, patterns and the future the importance of subsistence technology - as the founding of what would become the US was during the time of agrarian subsistence technology, that set the basis of our society - agrarian subsistence technology requires land and labor — thus the land of Native Americans was taken away and the group almost eliminated; this group entered this society as a colonized, conquered group — Native Americans did not work out as labor and poor; indentured servants from home did not work out either; plantation owners (in particular, but not just this group) began to use person’s of African descent as cheap, exploitable, easily controlled labor, beginning what would become the institution
- 126. of slavery in the US — — blacks / African Americans, the descendants of this group from Africa, have been incorporated into our society as a conquered, colonized group impact of industrial subsistence technology - the various groups that came from Europe during the mid 1800s into the early 1900s came during industrialization - each group started at the lower tiers of society, but since they had not been incorporated as colonized / conquered, but as immigrants, their increase in status was easier - as the US became more industrialized and, eventually persons of African American and Hispanic American heritage were given industrial jobs, helping lift the European immigrants up further - for the elite to succeed in an industrial society, they can increase profits by creating competition between the lower ranked groups - this creation of competition sometimes took the form of a split labor market, creating more antagonism between groups - another group denied full acceptance into society were persons from Asia; enter US society as immigrants (so not as many problems as Native Americans, African Americans, Mexican Americans, but still have problems) impact of post industrial / information / service subsistence technology - in this subsistence technology requires more and more education for workers - those groups brought into US society as colonized, conquered groups have had and continue to have problems with academic attainment, keeping their status predominately low the importance of the contact situation, group competition and power
- 127. Blauner – immigrant or colonized Noel – ethnocentrism (largely determined by immigrant / colonized initial contact), ability for each group to effectively compete and power differentials the importance of intersectionality there is no XYZ experience - the experience of 2 women in our society will differ according differences such as racial / ethnic background, SES, educational attainment, urban or rural residence, political ideology, sexual orientation — each of the above can combine and recombine to make each of us unique assimilation and pluralism overall the concept of melting pot (creation of a new society as diverse groups make equal contributions) does not apply to the US acculturation – learning the culture of a new group assimilation – groups that had been distinct come to share common culture / merge socially pluralism – different groups work together while retaining separate identities, cultures, organizational structures today groups differ on degrees of acculturation, assimilation, pluralism
- 128. HTTP://WWW.CBSNEWS.COM/NEWS/URANIUM- CONTAMINATES-DRINKING-WATER-IN-US- WEST/ AP December 8, 2015, 11:17 AM "You can get cancer": Uranium contaminates water in the W In this Monday, Sept. 14, 2015 photo, 9-year-old Carlos Velasquez drinks well water from a hose at a trailer park near Fresno, Calif. Residents of the trailer park receive notices warning that their well water contains uranium at a level considered unsafe by federal and state standards. AP PHOTO/JOHN LOCHER FRESNO, Calif. -- In a trailer park tucked among irrigated orchards that help make California's San Joaquin Valley the richest farm region in the world, 16-year-old Giselle Alvarez, one of the few English-speakers in the community of farmworkers, puzzles over the notices
- 129. posted on front doors: There's a danger in their drinking water. Uranium, the notices warn, tests at a level considered unsafe by federal and state standards. The law requires the park's owner to post the warnings. But they are awkwardly worded and mostly in English, a language few of the park's dozens of Spanish-speaking families can read. "It says you can drink the water - but if you drink the water over a period of time, you can get cancer," said Alvarez, whose working-class family has no choice but keep drinking and cooking with the tainted tap water. "They really don't explain." Uranium, the stuff of nuclear fuel for power plants and atom bombs, increasingly is showing in drinking water systems in major farming regions of the U.S. West - a natural though unexpected byproduct of irrigation, drought, and the overpumping of natural underground water reserves. An Associated Press investigation in California's central farm valleys - along with the U.S. Central Plains, among the areas most affected - found authorities are doing little to inform the public at large of the risk. That includes the one out of four families on private wells in this farm valley who, unknowingly, are drinking dangerous amounts of uranium. Government authorities say long-term exposure to uranium can damage kidneys and raise cancer risks, and scientists say it can have other harmful effects. In this swath of farmland, roughly 250 miles long and
- 130. encompassing cities, up to one in 10 public water systems have raw drinking water with uranium levels that exceed safety standards, the U.S. Geological Survey has found. More broadly, nearly 2 million people in California's Central Valley and the U.S. Midwest live within a half-mile of groundwater containing uranium over the health limits, University of Nebraska researchers said in a study in September. http://www.cbsnews.com/news/uranium-contaminates-drinking- water-in-us-west/ http://www.cbsnews.com/news/uranium-contaminates-drinking- water-in-us-west/ Entities ranging from state agencies to tiny rural schools are scrambling to deal with hundreds of tainted public wells. That includes water wells at the Westport Elementary School, where 450 children study outside the Central California farm hub of Modesto. At Westport's playground, schoolchildren take a break from tether ball to sip from fountains marked with Spanish and English placards: "SAFE TO DRINK." The school is one of about 10 water-well systems in Central California that have installed on-site uranium removal facilities in recent years. Prices range from $65,000 to millions of dollars. Just off Westport's playground, a school maintenance chief jangles the keys to the school's treatment
- 131. operation, locked in a shed. Inside, a system of tubes, dials and canisters resembling scuba tanks removes up to a pound a year of uranium from the school's well water. The uranium gleaned from local water systems is handled like the nuclear material it is - taken away by workers in masks, gloves and other protective garments, said Ron Dollar, a vice president at Water Remediation Technology, a Colorado-based firm. It is then processed into nuclear fuel for power plants, Dollar said. Before treatment, Westport's water tests up to four times state and federal limits. After treatment, it's safe for the children, teachers and staff to drink. Meanwhile, the city of Modesto, with a half-million residents, recently spent more than $500,000 to start blending water from one contaminated well to dilute the uranium to safe levels. The city has retired a half-dozen other wells with excess levels of uranium. State officials don't track spending on uranium-contaminated wells. But the state's Water Resources Control Board identified at least $16.7 million the state has spent since 2010 helping public water systems deal with high levels of uranium. In coming years, more public water systems likely will be compelled to invest in such costly fixes, said Miranda Fram, a researcher with the U.S. Geological Survey in Sacramento. Fram and her colleagues believe the amount of uranium increased in Central Valley drinking water
- 132. supplies over the last 150 years with the spread of farming. In California, as in the Rockies, mountain snowmelt washes uranium-laden sediment to the flatlands, where groundwater is used to irrigate crops. Irrigation allows year-round farming, and the irrigated plants naturally create a weak acid that is leeching more and more uranium from sediment. Groundwater pumping pulls the contaminated water down into the earth, where it is tapped by wells that supply drinking water. The USGS calculates that the average level of uranium in public-supply wells of the eastern San Joaquin Valley increased 17 percent from 1990 to the mid- 2000s. The number of public-supply wells with unsafe levels of uranium, meantime, climbed from 7 percent to 10 percent over the same period there. "We should not have any doubts as to whether drinking water with uranium in it is a problem or not. It is," said Doug Brugge, professor of public health and community medicine at Tufts University School of Medicine in Boston. "The larger the population that's drinking this water, the more people that are going to be affected." In California, changes in water standards since the late 2000s have mandated testing for uranium in public water systems.
- 133. For private well-owners and small water systems, however, officials were unable to point to any public health campaigns in the most-affected areas, or any help testing or dealing with uranium- contaminated wells. "When it comes to private domestic wells, we do what we can to get the word out. It's safe to say that there's always more than can be done," said John Borkovich, head of water quality at the state Water Resources Control Board. The Associated Press commissioned independent sampling of wells at five homes in the countryside outside Modesto. The results: Water from two of the five private wells tested over the government maximums for uranium - in fact, two and three times the maximum. None of the five families had ever heard that uranium could be a problem. "It would be nice to be informed, so we can make an informed decision, and those wells can be tested," said Michelle Norleen, one of the five, who was later relieved to learn her own water had tested safe. © 2015 The Associated Press. All Rights Reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed.
- 134. https://news.vice.com/article/heres-what-coal-mining-is-doing- to-communities-in-the-navajo-nation Here's What Coal Mining Is Doing to Communities in the Navajo Nation By Laura Dattaro March 18, 2015 | 1:25 pm For sixty years, the billions of tons of coal found beneath Arizona's Black Mesa have powered the cities of the Southwest. But getting at all that coal has meant the displacement of more than 12,000 people of the Navajo Nation, one of the largest removals of Native Americans since the 19th century. For those that have remained, the mining process has compromised their health and their environment. The mesa rises up from the dry Arizona landscape a few miles south of Kayenta Township, where Peabody Energy operates a mine that in 2013 produced nearly eight million tons of coal. The company proposed in May 2012 to expand its excavation, a plan that needs approval from the Interior Department's Office of Surface Mining,
- 135. Reclamation, and Enforcement (OSMRE). Locals are concerned because that would add 841 acres of land to the Kayenta Mine complex — which would displace even more Navajo and ensure continued air and water contamination for decades to come. A VICE News crew traveled to the Black Mesa area to document the effects of coal mining on their health, the environment, and the local economy. The conflict between the company and locals extends beyond health and environmental concerns, though. The Interior Department's Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) has threatenedmany Navajo with arrest if their sheep graze on company-owned land, Marsha Monestersky of the grassroots Navajo organization Forgotten People told VICE News. As many as 200 families, she said, remain on land the company has eyed for expansion. In October, the agency sent SWAT teams to detain Navajo elders for owning too many sheep. Many in the region believe the BIA is using concerns
- 136. about overgrazing as an https://news.vice.com/article/heres-what-coal-mining-is-doing- to-communities-in-the-navajo-nation https://news.vice.com/contributor/laura-dattaro excuse to intimidate the Navajo into abandoning their land, leaving the way clear for Peabody Energy to expand. The Navajo obtained in December a US Department of Justice moratorium on BIA efforts to terminate their permits to keep sheep and other grazing animals. The moratorium expires this month. "We're not sure what's going to happen," Monestersky told VICE News. "We haven't heard anything at all. It's the uncertainty that really is traumatizing for the people." The situation in Kayenta isn't the only conflict over coal in Navajo Nation. Across the border, in New Mexico, tribal authorities purchased the Navajo Mine, which powers the Four Corners Generation Station in Fruitland. But not everyone was on board with the purchase, which cost millions of dollars that some residents say
- 137. could be used for better purposes. "They shouldn't have done that," Joe Allen, a lifelong resident of the Fruitland area, told VICE News. "It's just more pollution." Earlier this month, a US District Court judge in Colorado ruled against a planned 714- acre expansion of the Navajo Mine, calling OSMRE's analysis of environmental and health impacts of the expansion insufficient. "We don't need the mine. The pollution, we don't need," Allen told VICE News. "Are they going to keep on going until they get the last bit of the coal?" Follow Laura Dattaro on Twitter: @ldattaro https://twitter.com/ldattaro A Muslim cook wanted to stop the hate. So she started inviting strangers to dinner. By Rebekah Denn May 8 https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/food/a-muslim-cook- wanted-to-stop-the-hate-so-she-started-
- 138. inviting-strangers-to-dinner/2017/05/05/370b96ca-30f2-11e7- 9534- 00e4656c22aa_story.html?tid=sm_tw&utm_term=.5535048a073 5 Amanda Saab shares her point of view on religion during the “Dinner With Your Muslim Neighbor” she co-hosted in Seattle. (Meryl Schenker /For The Washington Post) Her face framed by a delicate floral-print headscarf, Amanda Saab stepped into a Safeway. Ninety minutes later, the cashier rang up her groceries: $218.45 between Amanda’s brimming cart and the one steered by her husband, Hussein. The couple called an Uber and loaded the bags into the trunk. The driver asked their plans. A dinner party, Amanda replied: “Would you like to come?” Inviting strangers was one point of the feasts that Saab, 28, prepares for what she calls “Dinner With Your Muslim Neighbor.” She cooks — often in her own home and sometimes, as on this vacation trip, in a borrowed kitchen — and the couple answers any questions guests might have about their religion.
- 139. Amanda has had exposure to such questions, and the uncomfortable rise in fears about Islam, on a national stage. She’s learned that the answers — and any changes to hearts and minds — best unfold one tableful at a time. Reality TV devotees know the cooking part would be a breeze for Amanda, a fan favorite on Season 6 of Fox’s “MasterChef” in 2015. Friends and relatives knew it, too. Advancing from an Easy-Bake Oven at age 5 to a KitchenAid mixer at 16, she baked tiered cakes and piles of pastries for her extended family’s weekly gatherings in her home town near Detroit, where the Muslim population is among the nation’s largest. On weekends, she stayed up past her bedtime to watch “Iron Chef America.” Her religion seemed no more a public issue than anyone else’s when Hussein, 30, saw the “MasterChef” casting call. “You would rock at this,” he told her, and judges agreed after tasting her baklava blood- orange cheesecake at the open auditions. https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/food/a-muslim-cook- wanted-to-stop-the-hate-so-she-started-inviting-strangers-to- dinner/2017/05/05/370b96ca-30f2-11e7-9534- 00e4656c22aa_story.html?tid=sm_tw&utm_term=.5535048a073
- 140. 5 https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/food/a-muslim-cook- wanted-to-stop-the-hate-so-she-started-inviting-strangers-to- dinner/2017/05/05/370b96ca-30f2-11e7-9534- 00e4656c22aa_story.html?tid=sm_tw&utm_term=.5535048a073 5 https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/food/a-muslim-cook- wanted-to-stop-the-hate-so-she-started-inviting-strangers-to- dinner/2017/05/05/370b96ca-30f2-11e7-9534- 00e4656c22aa_story.html?tid=sm_tw&utm_term=.5535048a073 5 https://www.muslimneighbor.com/ https://www.muslimneighbor.com/ When she survived the first rounds, viewers wrote about the joy of finally seeing a “hijabi” woman on an American cooking show, a fellow “Muslimah” who represented them so beautifully. They praised her favorite comfort food (kibbe neeyah, made with raw beef) and noted her graciousness and generosity as she baked turmeric-date cakes and French toast (with the first bacon she had ever fried, though she didn’t eat it). They asked where she bought her dainty headscarves (everywhere from Target to Haute Hijab). On the flip side came suspicious social-media posts and hurtful ones; she recalls viewers calling her
- 141. oppressed, asking if she needed the permission of Hussein, a Boeing employee, to appear on the show, questioning her “true” motivations. “It made me realize: Just my existence in the world is bothersome to some people.” Ultimately, she was eliminated because of an underbaked cake. Home in Seattle when the episode aired, she decorated five fancy cakes and delivered them to a local food bank, moving forward. ‘Have I played a part in that?’ Then came the 2016 election season. Unlike Hussein, who could walk through a crowd without drawing attention, the hijab flagged Amanda as a practicing Muslim, a literal target for people such as the shopper she overheard at a sporting-goods counter who said the guns on sale were needed against people like her. On TV, she heard then- candidate Donald Trump calling for a “complete shutdown” of Muslims entering the United States. Clearly, she said, a lot of people must not know any Muslims. Her voice cracked as she recalled the realization: “Have I played a part in that? Have I not reached out to people and given them an opportunity to meet me?”
- 142. She told Hussein, “Let’s invite strangers over for dinner.” That’s a tall task in Seattle, where the difficulty of making new connections is so established it has its own name: the Seattle Freeze. That’s on top of standard suspicions of free and supposedly no-strings meals. https://www.hautehijab.com/?gclid=CK350sbB2dMCFdaCswodI BIDuw https://www.hautehijab.com/?gclid=CK350sbB2dMCFdaCswodI BIDuw https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/plum- line/wp/2017/01/31/is-this-a-muslim-ban-look-at-the-history- and-at-trumps-own-words/ Once again, the TV exposure helped. Amanda’s social media posts, with invitations to share them widely, brought more volunteer guests than their dinner table could handle. “I wish we could say that we don’t have feelings of contempt for Islam and what it appears to represent,” one local commented on Amanda’s blog after she wrote about the first dinner. She responded with an invitation to the next. Dinner With Your Muslim Neighbor became a regular event, its reach only broadening when the couple moved back to Michigan recently to
- 143. be closer to their families as they started their own. Hugs, gifts and questions One Friday in April, Amanda asked on Facebook whether anyone wanted to host a Seattle dinner three days later, when she and Hussein would be visiting. “I’ll do the cooking!” she added with a smiley face. Seven solid offers came in by day’s end, some from people she had met, some from people she hadn’t. The Saabs shopped near the home of their selected hosts, Stefanie and Nason Fox, whom they had met at a Seattle vigil for victims of the 2016 massacre at Pulse nightclub in Orlando. The dinner fell during the eight days of Passover, which her hosts observed. Researching the Jewish holiday’s dietary restrictions, Amanda purchased matzoh meal for the first time and arranged her menu around rules of chametz and kitniyot. The welcoming dinner table at the Fox home was set for eight with bright Fiestaware plates and clusters of white hydrangeas, fat beeswax candles alternating with tall lit tapers. Guests arrived bearing more flowers and made their introductions either to the Saabs or the
- 144. Foxes, depending on whom they knew. (The Uber driver, babysitting grandchildren, texted her apologies.) They filled their plates from the Saabs’ buffet: salmon blanketed in caramelized onions with a contrasting bite from horseradish, rosemary-roasted potatoes, carrots with honey and thyme, a leafy salad, almond- garnished asparagus in an orange-yogurt sauce. Hussein led the group in an Arabic prayer, then asked Stefanie whether there was an appropriate Hebrew blessing to follow. After praise for the meal, the questions began. Where’s your family from? (Dearborn, Mich. Both have Lebanese ancestry.) Does Islam have sects like Christianity does? (Yes, Sunni and Shiite are the main ones.) And, eventually, a less-charged query: “Can I ask how you make your potatoes so crispy?” (Bottom rack of the oven, lots of olive oil.) “We’re not theologians,” Hussein said. “We’re not clerics. . . . We try to practice our faith as best we can, and we’ll answer any questions you throw at us as best we can.”
- 145. Amanda described meeting Hussein in their mosque’s youth group, though they were friends for years before dating. Her mother did not wear a hijab at the time, she noted, but Amanda was a typically rebellious 16-year-old who questioned her religion, studied it and ultimately embraced the covering “to wear my faith outwardly, to remind myself of my inward faith and connection to God.” She donned the hijab midweek, months into the school year. Her Spanish teacher asked if she was a new student. Tears and tool kits As congenial as it was, conversation throughout the two-hour meal was intense and sometimes tearful, covering doctrine and culture and extremism. Both Amanda and her hosts choked up describing the vigil where they met. A stranger yelled, “What are you doing here?” at the hijab-clad woman, steps away from where Stefanie and Nason Fox stood wearing shirts that read “Stop profiling Muslims.” Amanda ran over and embraced the then-strangers. “I’m just so sorry that you walked down the street and people are so terrible,” Stefanie Fox said. Stefanie
- 146. works for a Jewish organization in Seattle, and noted that “I get a lot of hate mail in my job, but it’s not personal.” Emotions also cranked higher when Fox’s neighbor, Greg Pomrehn, said he doesn’t find his own faith as a Christian represented well in the media and can only imagine it’s the same or worse for Muslims. His wife, Charissa Pomrehn, said she had prayed as a Christian to know more about her Muslim neighbors and that the dinner was like the literal answer to her prayers — with food a “disarming” way to make the connection. “What you are doing, I think, shines a light,” Anjana Agarwal told Amanda. It’s easy to imagine such fraught topics going off the rails with different guides. It helped to have a social worker’s presence, trained in hearing other people’s perspectives. The question is how much one couple can do. The Saabs consider the investment of time and money worthwhile and plan to continue the dinners, but both have full- time jobs, with Amanda now overseeing a
- 147. social services agency. Their first child is due this summer. Partnering with Michael Hebb, a teaching fellow at the University of Washington’s communication leadership department, they’re assembling a free online tool kit they hope others will use to hold their own dinners. “There’s never been a more important time” for this, said Hebb, a former underground restaurateur who specializes in creating conversations on difficult topics, most recently a global project called “Let’s Have Dinner and Talk About Death.” He thinks Muslim-neighbor dinners can scale up the same way, to the hundreds or thousands — or hundreds of thousands. “If you give people the right tools, you’ll set them up for success.” At the Fox home, that night’s dinner concluded with Amanda’s macaroons and a kosher strawberry trifle. Guests embraced the Saabs and one another as they said good night, bearing ribbon-tied goody bags with date-filled maamoul and coconut cookies from a Middle Eastern bakery in Dearborn. If the country is seeing a rising tide of hatred and fear, Nason Fox told Amanda, the dinner had been “a
- 148. ripple effect” of response, spreading farther than any of them might know. “There are so many stories,” she said. “Who’s hearing that and taking it in?” Denn is a freelance writer based in Seattle. For information on how to host a dinner, go to MuslimNeighbor.com. Amanda Saab will join Wednesday’s Free Range chat at noon: live.washingtonpost.com. https://www.washingtonpost.com/recipes/maamoul-cookies- filled-with-dates/7683/?utm_term=.ad178714e71e https://www.muslimneighbor.com/ https://live.washingtonpost.com/ Black Juror: Prosecutors Treated Me "Like I Was a Criminal" Marilyn Garrett, key to a Supreme Court case on racism in the courts, speaks up after nearly 30 years. —By Stephanie Mencimer | Thu Nov. 5, 2015 6:00 AM EST Until I contacted her in Rome, Georgia, on Tuesday, Marilyn Garrett had no idea she had
- 149. become a minor celebrity in legal circles. Nearly 30 years ago, she briefly served in the jury pool during the capital trial of Timothy Foster, a 19-year-old black man charged with murdering an elderly white woman. The prosecutors dismissed her, along with every other African American called to serve, leaving an all-white jury that convicted Foster and sentenced him to death. On Monday, unbeknownst to her, the 63-year-old played a starring role in US Supreme Court arguments over racial discrimination in jury selection. The rejection has stuck with Garrett all these years in large part because she felt like the prosecutors treated her "like I was a criminal." Their interrogation left her in tears, she told me, even though she was just there to do her civic duty. Now she's gotten a little payback, courtesy of Justice Sonia Sotomayor, who channeled Garrett's outrage in the chamber of the nation's highest court. Timothy Foster's lawyers have long argued that the trial prosecutors illegally removed blacks from his jury pool, but the Georgia courts rejected every one of
- 150. those arguments. The Supreme Court is now hearing the case thanks to a treasure trove of documents his lawyers discovered in 2006. A public records request unearthed prosecutors' notes that make a mockery of a jury- http://www.motherjones.com/authors/stephanie-mencimer http://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/foster-v-humphrey/ http://www.supremecourt.gov/oral_arguments/argument_transcri pts/14-8349_n648.pdf http://www.supremecourt.gov/oral_arguments/argument_transcri pts/14-8349_n648.pdf http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2015/11/sonia-sotomayor- invokes-jailed-relatives-jury-racism selection process that was supposed to ensure racial fairness. (You can read about some of the sordid history here.) In various hearings and appeals, Foster's prosecutors claimed that they'd dismissed potential black jurors not because they were black, but because they were defensive or impudent or had failed to make eye contact, or simply that they were women. The Georgia courts accepted those explanations, but the prosecutors notes suggest that they were false. Exhibit A for Foster and his famous lawyer, Stephen Bright, is Marilyn Garrett (now
- 151. Marilyn Whitehead). Court records show that Garrett was a model citizen who would probably make a good juror. She was a lifelong resident of Georgia's Floyd County who'd attended the segregated local schools in the 1950s and '60s. She held down two jobs, went to church every Sunday, and sang in the choir. And she told prosecutors she would be comfortable imposing the death penalty—a basic requirement for anyone serving on a capital jury. There were initially 10 black prospective jurors in a pool of 95. After dismissals for health reasons and other legitimate causes, only five of them remained. The prosecutors did an extensive workup of the remaining black jurors, ranking them by desirability should they be forced to seat one. The jurors' ethnicity was highlighted on questionnaires, which even in 1987 referred to Foster as "a member of the Negro race." The prosecution's notes included a draft affidavit from one of their investigators, stating that if it "comes down to having to pick one of the black jurors, Garrett, might be okay.” Even so, Garrett
- 152. and the others were placed on a list slugged "Definite NOs." The prosecutors then used their peremptory strikes—challenges they are not required to explain during jury selection—to remove all of them. After the jury was seated, Foster's lawyers challenged the removals, invoking the then-fresh Supreme Court ruling in Batson v Kentucky, an 1986 case in which the court ruled that it was unconstitutional to exclude jurors based on race. Defense lawyer Bright told the high court that the prosecutors had created bogus "race neutral" excuses, some after the fact, to justify their exclusion of Garrett. They claimed, for instance, that she was close in age to Foster. (He was 19, she was 34.) They also noted that she was divorced—even though divorced whites were allowed to serve—and that she showed "complete disrespect for the court." "I looked at her, and she would not look at the court during the voir dire, kept looking at the ground," prosecutor Stephen Lanier said at one hearing. "Her answers were very short, if the court will recall…Said "yeah" to the court on four occasions.
- 153. Shows a complete disrespect for the court and its authority. She appeared very shaky, very nervous. Her voice quivered. Not a very strong juror." Later, in an argument that could be fairly described as Orwellian, Lanier http://www.motherjones.com/mojo/2015/11/timothy-foster- supreme-court-smoking-gun-black-jurors https://www.schr.org/about_us/staff https://www.schr.org/files/post/files/Foster%20v%20Chatman% 20- %20Joint%20Appendix%20Volume%20II%20filed%20in%20Su preme%20Court.pdf https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/476/79 contended that he struck Garrett from the jury because she had never asked to be removed from it. "They really got me in a defensive mode, and then they said I was indignant. They had me in tears." Almost 30 years later, Garrett still remembers the day clearly. If she seemed defiant to the prosecutors, she told me, it might have been because "they really were nasty to me." The Foster case was her first experience being questioned on a courtroom stand, Garrett recalls. She had arrived at the courthouse at 9 am after finishing
- 154. her night shift at a textile factory two hours earlier. It was one of the two jobs she worked to support a pair of kids on her own. ("I was sleepy.") She also worked as a teacher's aide in a Head Start program. In the subsequent appeals, prosecutors repeatedly referred to her as a "social worker"—a class of professionals they said they didn't want on the jury. "They just kept asking me over and over why I had two jobs," Garrett recalls. "I was a single parent trying to take care of my children. It irritated me. They really got me in a defensive mode, and then they said I was indignant. They had me in tears when I went out of there. They attacked me with all that negative conversation. I'm a very sensitive person. It scared me. I didn't expect to be treated like that. It was really humiliating." It certainly didn't make her want to be on a jury again—not that she's had much opportunity. Since the Foster trial, Garrett has only been called up for jury duty once, and she didn't serve in that case, either. Her treatment in that Georgia courtroom shows the subtle means by which
- 155. prosecutors have managed to keep African Americans off criminal juries in spite of the Supreme Court's edict. During Monday's arguments, Justice Sonia Sotomayor was visibly upset over the way prosecutors had treated Garrett. She was especially piqued by their claims, long after the trial was over, that they'd bounced Garrett from the jury because her cousin had been arrested on a drug charge—an issue they never raised with Garrett during her questioning. "There's an assumption that she has a relationship with this cousin," Sotomayor demanded of Georgia's lawyer. "I have cousins who I know have been arrested, but I have no idea where they're in jail. I hardly—I don't know them...Doesn't that show pretext?" Garrett told me that she did, in fact, have a relationship with her cousin. But "what did that have to do with Timothy Foster?" She was pleased when I told her that Sotomayor had come to her defense. "Thank her very much!" she said, laughing. "What she said was was true. They really did mistreat me, and I hadn't done anything."
- 156. STEPHANIE MENCIMER, Reporter http://www.motherjones.com/mojo/2015/11/timothy-foster- supreme-court-smoking-gun-black-jurors http://www.motherjones.com/authors/stephanie-mencimer http://www.motherjones.com/authors/stephanie-mencimer Flyers with ‘racist tone’ delivered on San Bernardino doorsteps have residents ‘floored’ By BEATRIZ E. VALENZUELA | [email protected] and GAIL WESSON | [email protected] | San Bernardino Sun PUBLISHED: February 15, 2018 at 11:04 am|UPDATED: February 16, 2018 at 8:41 am When Matthew Flanagan went outside his San Bernardino home Valentine’s Day morning, he discovered a newsletter in a bright plastic bag in his driveway. “I didn’t think too much of it,” he said Thursday. “We sometimes get flyers and newsletters like that and, honestly, a lot of times they just end up in the trash.” But Wednesday morning, Flanagan opened the bag to find a thin newsprint publication, High Mountain TIDBiTS, filled with entertainment events, businesses and local news from the San Bernardino County mountain communities of Rim of the World and Crestline. Wrapped in the newsletter was a flyer that shocked Flanagan. “I was floored,” he said. The publisher was not connected to the distribution, said Eileen Hards, spokeswoman for the San Bernardino Police Department. The black-and-white flyer had the profile of a white woman, looking upward with flowing blond hair below large block letters seeming to shout, “Love Your Race.” Underneath the photo was the logo and website address for the National Alliance.
- 157. San Bernardino PD ✔@SanBernardinoPD Attention Community Members! We wanted to let you know we are aware of the inappropriate flyers being distributed in the 3000-3700 block of Parkside and Broadmore. 46 were collected today and the all relevant authorities have been notified. Please destroy or throw away if found. Brian Levin, director of the Center for the Study of Hate and Extremism at Cal State San Bernardino, described the alliance as a neo-Nazi group whose flyers have turned up nationwide. He said it is “not too unusual for members of these groups to put these kinds of messages inside other publications.” Flanagan photographed the flyer and newsletter and posted them to the neighborhood social media site, NextDoor, with the question, “Anyone else get this white supremacy trash on your driveway?” The San Bernardino Police Department confiscated about 46 flyers they labeled as “inappropriate” from Flanagan’s neighborhood in the 3000-3700 block of Parkside Drive and Broadmore Boulevard North near Arrowhead Country Club. The streets are east of Waterman Avenue and north of the 210 Freeway. The department tweeted that others found should be thrown away. The date on the newsletter shows it was distributed Feb. 2 and the publication’s website indicated that while it’s mostly sent to residences in the mountain communities, there are some locations, including coffee shops and restaurants in San Bernardino, Highland, Mentone and Lucerne Valley, where the paper can be found. Hards said it was unclear whether the flyers were thrown from a vehicle or dropped off. A Police Department tweet purposely did not include the bottom of the flyer, because it mentioned the name of the group, Hards
- 158. said. “We’re not going to advertise the group,” she said. The issue, she said, was that the flyers “had a racist tone.” Police received a couple calls Wednesday afternoon about the flyers and investigated. Hards said police also notified some local and federal public safety partners that work with the city on terrorism and hate crime issues. The National Alliance nearly collapsed in 2013 when the Southern Poverty Law Center reported the organization stopped accepting membership. It’s unclear if the dissemination of the flyers is evidence the group is looking to again attract members to its ranks. Flanagan and this publication reached out to TIDBiTS, but as of Thursday morning, they had not responded. “I honestly didn’t expect that here,” Flanagan said. “Although I know we have pockets of very conservative people in the area, I never for once suspected to see this show up on my doorstep. To get it hand delivered to us was sad and upsetting.” YOUR POINTS WILL BE TAKEN AWAY IF IT IS LATER FOUND THAT SOMEONE COPIED YOUR PAPER Extra credit paper directions: - Each paper is potentially worth 2 points extra credit which is added on to your midterm or final exam score. - Papers are due the Saturday after finals – September 8. - Papers are submitted through Blackboard. No e-mail or hard copy papers accepted. Instructions for this are on a separate instruction sheet. - You write the paper only on the articles that are on Blackboard for this class. - If you write more than one paper, you cannot reuse any concepts from prior paper/s. Technical expectations:
- 159. - 300 – 350 words - double spaced - in a 12 point non serif font (Arial, Tahoma, Calibri, Candara, Verdana are some examples) Paper expectations: This paper is not a formal essay or term paper. This paper is not a summary, an opinion or a simple response. The objective of this paper is to allow students to show they have an understanding of course concepts and can apply them to current social conditions. It will include the following conditions: - After reading one of the articles on Blackboard, students will consider 2 concepts from this course that can be applied to the article. These concepts will be defined according to the definitions in this class. No dictionary, encyclopedia or other source definitions are acceptable. - Papers will NOT have: — introduction — opinion — citations — references - Each paper must include 3 quotes from the article. - Your paper will be written on a computer, saved to a computer or portable device such as a flash drive, then up-loaded to Blackboard. The title of each paper MUST include some aspect of the title given on Blackboard (example: for a paper on an article about Rosa Parks, the title of the paper might be ‘RosaParksExtraCredit.’) -The format described below must be followed. Do NOT show references as I’m already very familiar with the course concepts and articles. Do not follow APA, MLA or another academic
- 160. format. - Students may write up to 7 extra credit papers for a total of 14 extra credit points - PAPERS MUST BE SAVED AS doc, docx, or pdf. NO EXCEPTIONS Format of the paper: - Paragraph 1: Identify and define the first of the two concepts you will be applying. — note: The definitions MUST come from either our textbook or class notes. Papers using dictionary, Wikipedia, etc definitions will not be read. - Paragraph 2: Identify and define the second of the two concepts you will be applying. — note: The definitions MUST come from either our textbook or class notes. Papers using dictionary, Wikipedia, etc definitions will not be read. - Paragraphs 3 and 4: Show how each of these concepts can be applied to the article you’ve read. 75 years ago, Zoot Suit Riots marked a dark period in Southern California history These youths, one stripped of all his clothes and the other badly beaten, fell victim to raging bands of servicemen who scoured the streets in Los Angeles, June 20, 1943, looking for and beating zoot suited youths. The servicemen blame the zoot suited youths for numerous unprovoked assaults on their colleagues. (AP Photo) By BEATRIZ E. VALENZUELA [email protected] | San Bernardino Sun PUBLISHED: June 1, 2018 at 4:12 pm | UPDATED: June 1,
- 161. 2018 at 4:12 pm The look is unmistakable: Crisp lines in voluminous trousers, polished shoes and exaggerated proportions. They are hallmarks of the zoot suit, which became connected to a youth subculture during the American jazz era. In Southern California, the flashy attire also is linked to rebellion and Mexican-American pachuco culture. And 75 years ago this weekend, on June 3, 1943, the zoot suit became forever tied to one of the darkest periods in the region’s history when U.S. military men took the streets of Los Angeles attacking young Mexican-American men, targeting those adorned in the attire. Experts and scholars say the causes of the ensuing violence, that came to be known as the Zoot Suit Riots, are complex and varied: a growing distrust of immigrants, rampant racism and a perceived lack of patriotism from outsiders, among them. But what is certain is that signs of racial and cultural tension, exacerbated by changing demographics — and ultimately by war — had been growing for years. Violence erupts during the Zoot Suit Riots in Los Angeles. MUST CREDIT Special Collections, UCLA Library Jose Leonidas Lara, of Fontana, known as “Pachuco Jose,” models a zoot suit from his clothing line, “Drape Shapes” by Pachuco Jose Productions, at Tequila Hoppers Bar & Grill in Upland, CA., Sunday, May 27, 2018. (Staff photo by Jennifer Cappuccio Maher, Inland Valley Daily Bulletin/SCNG)
- 162. Violence erupts during the Zoot Suit Riots in Los Angeles. MUST CREDIT Special Collections, UCLA Library Jose Leonidas Lara, of Fontana, known as “Pachuco Jose,” models a zoot suit from his clothing line, “Drape Shapes” by Pachuco Jose Productions, center, with models Valerie Valentine, left, and Marty Mae, both wearing Lady De Couture, by Sheena De La Cruz, at Tequila Hoppers Bar & Grill in Upland, CA., Sunday, May 27, 2018. (Staff photo by Jennifer Cappuccio Maher, Inland Valley Daily Bulletin/SCNG) Paramount resident Manny Alcaraz, with his 1933 Chevy Master, has been immersed in the pachuco culture for four decades and although he was a very young child during the Zoot Suit Riots, he said he’s experienced bigotry due to the way he dresses. Portrait taken in Paramount on Friday, May 25, 2018. (Stan Lim, Los Angeles Daily News/SCNG) Soldier, sailors and marines who roamed the street of Los Angeles, June 7, 1943, looking for hoodlums in zoot suits, stopped this streetcar during their search. Crowds jammed downtown streets to watch the service men tear clothing off the zoot suiters they caught. (AP Photo) BUILDING ANIMOSITIES What erupted into rioting by servicemen, off- duty police officers and regular citizens in 1943 began building in the 1920s, explained Eduardo Obregon Pagan, a historian and professor at Arizona State University who wrote the book, “Murder at the Sleepy Lagoon: Zoot Suits, Race, and Riot in Wartime L.A.“ During that time, immigration increased from countries other than northern European nations such as Germany and England,
- 163. according to Pagan. “We started seeing people who were different,” he said. “They were religiously different. They tended to be dark-skinned.” In response to the country’s shifting demographics, in 1924 Congress attempted to close the bordersof the nation to nearly every country except those in northern and western Europe. When youth culture began to cross color lines in the 1930s, at a time when there was legally imposed segregation, it caused anxiety among adults, specifically whites. “A lot of this was precipitated by black cultural expression hitting the white mainstream,” Pagan said. “You have this underground highly sexualized, highly physical, artistic expression and it was like the entire Western civilization was about the collapse.” Zoot suits became popular during the 1930s and early 1940s among some of those marginalized young people — particularly black, Latino, Jews and immigrant youth — who frequented jazz clubs and dance halls where black musicians performed. Pachucos and pachucas were well-dressed Mexican-American men and women who typically wore a zoot suit. The term originated in El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juárez, Mexico. “It was punk rock before punk rock,” said John de Luna, a pachuco historian and Boyle Heights zoot suit designer known as Barrio Dandy. “They were actually in resistance, in creating a youth movement that would hopefully change the world for the better.” WARTIME TENSIONS When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on Dec. 7, 1941, pulling the United States into World War II, anti-immigrant sentiment was on the rise, and along with it disdain for the style of the flashy zoot suit. The excessive style of the suit was seen as indulgent, especially when fabric was being rationed for the war effort. “Here the sailors are saying, ‘That fabric should be used for our uniform, instead you’re using that fabric for a zoot suit,’” said artist and zoot suit designer Jose “Pachuco Jose” Lara of
- 164. Fontana. “The notion of patriotism was tied to difference — symbolic difference — and the idea that somehow that recent immigrants are somehow not patriotic and are a threat,” said Professor Brian Levin with Cal State San Bernardino’s Center for the Study of Hate and Extremism. “And that’s a narrative that we teach today.” Then, in the summer of 1942, several pachuco, or Mexican- American, zoot suiters were arrested in connection to the murder of José Gallardo Díaz. The case was subsequently known as the Sleepy Lagoon murder. The zoot suit and anyone who wore it were vilified in the Los Angeles press, Lara said. Headlines like “Marijuana Orgies Before Terror Sorties Bared in Gang Roundup” and “BLACK WIDOW GIRLS IN BOY GANGS; WAR ON VANDALS PUSHED” painted young Latinos and Latinas as hoodlums and thugs and the zoot suit as the uniform of their gang. While some of the zoot suiters were parts of gangs, not everyone who donned the style was a criminal, Pagan and Lara both said. “Even before the Zoot Suit Riots, people were tearing the zoot suits off these kids,” Pagan said. “Why would you try to rip clothing off of kids? This was a way of putting working class kids back into their place. As a person of color your obligation was to remain in the background of public places.” Americans were so incensed and offended by a piece of clothing, they felt the need to tear it off the person, which both Pagan and Levin said has been echoed in recent reported attacks. “We see it in the ripping of the hijabs off Muslim women’s heads — it’s just a piece of cloth. It’s doing nothing to anyone else,” Pagan said. THE RIOTS AND THEIR LEGACY The skirmishes between young Latinos and servicemen
- 165. intesified on the evening of June 3, 1943, when about 50 sailors, armed with clubs and sticks, from the local U.S. Naval Reserve Armory marched through downtown Los Angeles, attacking anyone in the pachuco garb. Over the next several days, it was more servicemen, off-duty police officers and civilians joined the racially motivated, riots not only attacking zoot-suiters but also blacks and Filipinos. It wasn’t until the U.S. military barred personnel from leaving their barracks did the attacks finally die down on June 8. The Los Angeles City Council issued a ban on zoot suits the following day. “When people who are different are affirmatively exercising their rights in public, it is frequently deemed a threat,” Levin said. “It’s also presented as a symbol that existing tradition is somehow under attack.” But the week-long attacks did not stop young Latinos from wearing the suits. In fact, the riots may have had the opposite effect, despite the temporary ban on the suits after the riots. “A lot of the zoot-suiters became activists,” De Luna said. “Malcolm X, Cesar Chavez, Dolores Huerta, they were pachucos and zoot-suiters. They became involved in these movements of youth resistance that would allow them the take on these large systems of oppression in the ’60s and ’70s. They defined themselves in a new way. In an American identity born in the barrios and in the boroughs of New York.” In the 1950s and 1960s, the popularity of the suits began to wane. That changed in 1979, when Luis Valdez brought the style back into the spotlight with his play, “Zoot Suit.” It told the story of the Sleepy Lagoon murder trial and subsequent riots. One of those inspired by the “Zoot Suit” movie starring Edward James Olmos was Manny Alcaraz, 70, of Paramount. “It really grabbed me,” Alcaraz said. “It’s part of my heritage and since then I knew I had to have a zoot suit. I have seven now.” Alcaraz feels the suit and the associated car culture gives him a
- 166. connection to his cultural past. Today, the pachuco subculture continues to thrive and evolve in Southern California with a variety of styles that mimic the vibrant East Coast zoot and the more subtle and subdued West Coast drape. There are regular meetups, including the popular Barrio Boogie in Los Angeles. And on the 75th anniversary of the Zoot Suit Riots, a commemorative cruise, organized by Alcaraz, will kick off Sunday, June 3 at 11 a.m. at Lincoln Park at 3845 Selig Place, make its way into Downtown Los Angeles and conclude at Joe’s Autopark Lot at 330 S. Main Street. The cruise will then be followed by an after-party, complete with music and dancing and a photo exhibition entitled, “From East to West; Heads up, fists clinched: 1943 & The Black & Brown Zoot.” “It’s important for people to know that it was a real thing that actually happened and that it’s part of our history,” said Alcaraz. Seventy-five years later, some historians see similarities in the climate during World War II-era Los Angeles and today. “I think the fears that existed at that time: international conflict, immigration and even the taking in of refugees, has some reflection today,” Levin said.”The difference today is we actually keep data on these kinds of things.” According to the center’s most recent study released in May, Los Angeles had a 10.8 percent increase in reported hate crimes from 229 in 2016 to 254 in 2017. This marks the fourth consecutive annual increase in hate crimes in the city. Pagan noted the views that preceded the riots included one that “race caused social danger,” and that there are troubling parallels evident today. “Those who didn’t fit into the box of Americanization was seen as a threat and that is part of the subtext that we’re seeing today,” he said. “If someone stands out as a religious or racial minority they are a threat of what the American society is.”
- 167. possible concepts for extra credit — the following concepts are from chapters 1 and 2 of the text book. They are in no particular order. There could still be some concepts in chapters 1 and 2. There are most definitely more concepts in the rest of the book. This list is meant only as a suggestion. - socioeconomic status (SES) - inequality - definition of minority group - definition of majority group - characteristics of a minority group - racial minority group - ethnic minority group - race - ethnicity - race as a social construction - markers of group membership - stratification - theories of Karl Marx (proletariat, bourgeoisie, means of production, importance of the economy, conflict as good - living wage - theoretical perspective proposed by Weber - theoretical perspective proposed by Lenski - subsistence technology (foraging, agriculture, industrial, post- industrial) - intersectionality (Patricia Hill Collins); matrix of domination - relationship between power, competition, conflict - evolution - prejudice - stereotypes - gender - discrimination - ideological racism - institutional discrimination - miscegenation - assimilation - pluralism - Anglo conformity
- 168. - social structure - human capital theory - multi-culturalism - ethnic enclaves - separatism, forced migration, genocide, revolution - industrial revolution - any of the different immigrant groups discussed in class - chains of immigration - anti-Catholicism - anti-Semitism - pogrom - push factors; pull factors - three generation model - quota system - ethnic succession - labor unions - structural mobility - degree of similarity - ethclass - sojourners - ethnic revival