Chapter 4_Information Fluency_-_FINAL2

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Chapter 4: Group 4 (Jolynn Donhoff, Kenneth Oms, Bethany
Powers, Charles Parry, Alexander Weston, Cheyne Henderson,
and Alice Moskola)
Information Fluency
o you know how to conduct accurate research, identify reliable infor-
mation, and use it ethically? If so, you have very likely engaged in a
set of abilities known as Information Fluency. Information Fluency,
also called Information Literacy, is a collection of critical thinking skills that an
individual uses when conducting research. Furthermore, it is also logical to con-
sider Information Fluency as its own type of research, which will be explained
later in this chapter.
APPLYING INFORMATION FLUENCY
First, these critical thinking skills allow everyone from all backgroundsand levels
of education to find information and conduct research in an ethical, organized,
and appropriate manner. Therefore, Information Fluency can be applied to al-
most anything and anyone. Surprisingly, you probably use Information Fluency
in your everyday life whether you are writing a document as a student or even
reading a news article during your day-to-day routine.
The set ofcritical skills that makeup Information Fluency allowsyou to establish
how much information you need, assess information and sources analytically,
D

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find the proper information, apply the information to achieve your goal or ob-
jective, recognize the legal, economic, and social concerns revolving around your
use of the information, and enable you to find and use information properly
within the standards of the law and ethical parameters.
As a writer, you can use Information Fluency to organize your documents in a
way that allows your reader to easily read your document and find the right in-
formation. As a reader, you can apply Information Fluency to determine what
and how much information you need, to evaluate the credibility of the source,
and to determine a good source from a bad one. This is explained in more detail
in the subsection, “Using Information Fluency as a Writer vs. as a Reader.”
For students, these critical thinking skills allows them to gain appropriate infor-
mation by asking the right questions and realizing what information is most im-
portant in their textbooks, scholarly articles, etc. In summary, Information Flu-
ency allows anyone to learn the correct information on their own.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The emergence of the Information Age has led Information Fluency to become
immensely important to society. Before the 90s, the internet did not exist for the
general population and people received information from books, newspapers,
letters, movies, and byword ofmouth. With the creation ofthe internet, the way
we find and read information has changed. To sort through this immense col-
lection of information, individuals must use and apply Information Fluency
when conducting research on the web. In the technological age, individuals need
the critical skills that Information Fluency offers.
THE IMPORTANCE OF INFORMATION LITERACY
Information Fluency is important whether you are as a student, part of an or-
ganization, or a professional writer. It allows every individual to be properly in-
formed. Without the skills it offers, people would generally rely on the biased
opinion whether found on the internet or circulated by their peers. For example,
this can lead to the population adopting inaccurate viewpoints that can affect
their lives such as his/her decision about a career or even misinformation about
sex and health issues. In addition, if students do not know the correct infor-
mation about plagiarism, they might find themselves in trouble with their school

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or the law. However, generally, the lack of Information Fluency leads to misin-
formation. If you do not know how to use and apply Information Fluency, you
will have a difficult time making decisions and determining how to research or
how to apply information to your everyday life and within your written commu-
nications. Simply, Information Fluency is the process that teaches us how to
learn. If you know how to learn, you will be able to handle any situation or pro-
ject, whether personal or business related, with efficiency.
In this chapter, we will explain how you can use Information Fluency and pre-
sent you with a variety of tools for a successful research endeavor.
INFORMATION FLUENCY: A FORM OF RE-
SEARCH
Many writers agree that the very essence of Information Fluency is the ability to
use finely tuned research skills to successfully gather information. Finding all of
the relevant informationon a subject is the prerequisite forbeing able to critically
analyze information, which writers carefully use to construct our writing pro-
jects. In short, writers rely on carefully developed research to achieve obtaining
the critical information that we need to assist us with our communications.
As writers, we are also learners, and our goal is to facilitate assisting others to
learn through our research and written communications. Professional writers
and students will agree that Information Fluency is considered research by the
idea that writers must identify and deeply explore all information that will be
useful for our readers. These ideas also include selecting relevant and credible
data from appropriate sources to assist us with our work. For writers, not only
will well-developed researchstrengthen our work,the correctly acquired research
will gain the confidence of our communication’s readers.
NATURE AND EXTENT OF INFORMATION RE-
QUIRED
As writers, we are likely to agree with one another that we want our final written
communications (the products of our blood, sweat, and tears) to be easy to use,

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useful to our readers, consistent in its formatting, and clear and concise. By care-
fully gathering, selecting, and scrutinizing all of the applicable information pos-
sible on our subject (who, what, when, where, how, why, pros, cons, unintended
consequences, by-products, etc.), we can begin the foundation and the nature
from where our work will begin and evolve into something useful and credible
that we can share with others.
Taking on the necessary and initial tasks to deeply explore all relevant infor-
mation, relationships, and the complexities of the subject matter and the extent
of the information needed that will support the goals of our writing, is one of
the key concepts involved Information Fluency. Simultaneously, so is the ability
to efficiently research information and effectively analyze appropriate and useful
sources on a subject(s). This also includes interpreting the informationfrom each
of our sources, in order to produce an effective communication that will assist
our readers with completing their tasks or provide new insight or information.
Whether our writing will assist a document’s user to perform a single task or
guide a user through many steps or provide them with insight on an entire sub-
ject, understanding the comprehensive totality
of our subject(s) and efficiently organizing the
sum of the relevant information is essential for
us as writers, in order to produce reliable and
useful information for our target audience.
Moreover, the nature of one’s writing typically
depends on the specific goal for the writing
project. We, as writers and readers, should con-
sider planning our work carefully, in order to
assess what information our users might actu-
ally seek from our client’s documents or
webpages. Depending on whether we are hired to write for a client, our em-
ployer, or for our own purposes, the nature of our writing should be borne by
understanding our client’s and/or the users’ needs, defining the mission critical
content for the writing project, careful planning, thorough research, and appli-
cation of the information into our communications.
In addition, writers recognize that the nature of what we are writing should also
take into consideration ourclient/employer’s institutionalized moralsand values.
Figure 1.1 Information Fluency Process

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Often, when writersproducedocuments forabusiness orestablished institution,
the nature of our work might include perpetuating and communicating the cli-
ent’s image or brand that the client/employer advertises or upholds with its cus-
tomers.
Finally, since gathering information (research) is a component of Information
Fluency, it is our recommendation that writers using this manual also refer to
the chapter on Research and Library Skills for further information on research-
ing.
PHYSICAL VS. DIGITAL INFORMATION
Information Fluency can be a difficult concept to grasp. This is especially true
when one has to use different media platforms and formats of technology. Ac-
cording to Illinois State University, “Information Fluency is the ability to criti-
cally think while engaging with, creating, and utilizing information and technol-
ogy regardless of format or platform. Specifically, an information fluent individ-
ual is able to: Discover, identify, and retrieve information from multiple venues
and in multiple formats” (1). In other words, an individual who is information
fluent should be able to excel using the two types of document formats: digital
and physical.
Both of these documents have their pros and cons and it is up to an individual
to know which type works best for them. Currently, most users tend to prefer
digital information over physical because of its ease of access. This, however,
should not discourage users from physical documents.
PHYSICAL INFORMATION
Miles A. Kimball and Ann R. Hawkins in Document Design define printed infor-
mation as “any documentmarked in somekind ofink on a physical page, usually
made of paper, cardboard, or plastic” (75). Simply, printed information is any-
thing that can be considered a hard copy document. They vary from books,
newspaper,journals, magazines, handouts, and even interviews. One ofthe more
significant pros of printed information is its durability. It requires a lot of force
to destroy a printed document. Meanwhile, digital documents tend to be very
fragile, and can succumb to any slight misfortunes. Another quality of printed
information is that it lacks the search features that digital documents tend to

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have. While this disheartens some users, it can actually be helpful to most. For
instance, most users who read physical documents tend to learn and memorize
the information they were searching for. This is because printed documents re-
quire the user to read, scan, and skim for the information that they require.
One of the second most valuable qualities of printed documents is their credi-
bility. Most books, newspapers, journals, and even interviews are conducted by
experts or professionals. This fact alone is enough to give users a sense of reas-
surance when it comes to the information and the information that they are re-
searching. This is important foran information fluent individual. An information
fluent individual needs factual information and almost all physical documents
are fact checked before they are printed.
The cons of printed documents, however, is their lack of mobility and bulk of
information. According to Miles A. Kimball and Ann R. Hawkins in Document
Design, “for the most part, physical documents must be physically carried from
one place to another, usually through shipping, mail, or direct distribution” (78).
This creates a big problem for most users. Ease of access is something that is
required for an information fluent individual and printed documents are hard to
come by. It requires users to either wait a mid to long period of time, or have
them travel. Another con is the amount of information inside of printed docu-
ments. While an information fluent individual should be able to skim, scan, and
read printed documents to find the information required – they are usually
pressed for time. Despite printed documents having a table of contents section,
index, and even a glossary, it still requires a lot of time by the user.
DIGITAL INFORMATION
First, Miles A. Kimball and Ann R. Hawkins define digital information in Docu-
ment Design as “any document conveyed to a user through an electronic viewing
interface, such as a computer monitor or digital projector” (75). Digital infor-
mation has become one of the best sources of information for an information
fluent individual. A lot of the media devices commonly used today are platforms
for digital information. These include ipods, cellphones, laptops, tablets, and
many others. Despite their ease of access, these devices can cause problems for
users who prefer digital documents over physical. One of the biggest cons in
terms of digital information is that it requires an internet connection. Despite
the internet being accessible in a variety of areas, such documents are usually

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inaccessible by the user or are unusable due to internet connectivity issues. One
of these issues is speed. Without a strong and fast connection, it could take up
to a few hours for a user to access the information that he/she requires.
Another hindering quality of digital information is its frailty. First, the infor-
mation can easily be corrupted. Second, the device needed to access the infor-
mation can be destroyed. Lastly, the information can be subject to viruses and
malware. There is also the possibility that the information is not factual. Most
digital documents are uploaded by users from around the world. This can cause
problems for an information fluent individual because he/she would need to
fact check all documents found through a digital platform before considering
the information in the document.
Nevertheless, an information fluent individual can easily see through the cons of
digital documents and learn to use them correctly. He/she can easily fact check
digital documents and find the information he/she requires instantly due to its
ease of access. Digital documents are also very portable, and come in a variety
ofsizes. Mostdigital documents provideusers with a search feature which makes
navigating through the document much easier and can narrow downtheir search
to the information that they need.
SEARCH TOOLS
According to Jennifer Sharkey in her article “Establishing Twenty-First-Century
Information Fluency,” students generally struggle with “weeding out non-rele-
vant sources.” That is to say, students struggle with assessing the relevance of a
source. This is where being fluent in search tools matters most. By playing tools
off one another, a researcher will be able to determine when a source is irrele-
vant. Using a broad search tool, even if it is a broad database like JSTOR, will
return information from avariety of disciplines. While this can begreat fordoing
multi-disciplinary research that looks at a topic from multiple points of view, it
also clutters your search results with irrelevant articles returned only because of
a tangential connection through asingle keyword. However,byusing bothbroad
research tools and discipline specific ones, a research databasecan begin to weed
out these irrelevant results by recognizing the disciplinary perspective from its
written from.

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This sort of research takes researchers beyond the “grazing” stage that Sharkey
mentions, diving deeper researching pool. Diving deeper not only returns better
sources, but also contextualizes the topic amongst work already done, making
researches more fluent in both their topic and the research process itself. Each
individual research tool, then, has its own role to play in the research process,
with varying degrees deficiency in different areas.
Knowing which tool to use, however, is only one area of Information Fluency.
How you use that tool will dramatically impact the results of your searches.
Sharkey notes that with the ubiquity of free search engines, like Google, the “use
of natural language search strings [and] selection of top hits” have become typi-
cal ofstudents’ search habits, but doingjust these things will not give aresearcher
the deeper understanding necessary to producing high quality work. The selec-
tion of keywords, then, and use of Boolean terms will become the determining
factor in whether research is thorough or surface-level.
GOOGLE
As much as your research should always include academic and peer-reviewed
sources, using free search engines remain helpful in determining where, specifi-
cally to focus your efforts. Free-search engines work well for their intended pur-
pose of returning a broad arrays of results in response to both natural language
strings and specific keywords. They can work great for deciding which direction
to take your general idea. They can even occasionally return credible sources that
you can include in your research. However, for academic research, free search
engines should generally be avoided.
The old wisdom regarding free search engines was that anyone can put up a
website and say whatever they want, and that is still true. But there is a new
problem with search engines, especially the beloved Google. As Eli Pariser talks
aboutin his TED2011talk entitled “BewareOnline ‘Filter Bubbles,’” many com-
mercial search tools now attempt to return search results based on your past
browsing histories, your location, your browser, and many, many more factors.
This means that your results to a search query may look very different from
somebody else.
Pariser’s idea of the “filter bubble” has long reaching effects on your ability to
use commercial, free search engines for your academic research, limiting your

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ability to fluently filter through the results these return. Information Fluency and
research necessitate the ability to access a wide variety of sources, therefore a
tailored search result, that returns only what an algorithm thinks you might want
to see based on past and present performance, will not be able to return the
variety of sources necessary for high quality research.
This is not to put anyone off using free search engines entirely. This is only to
say that researchers must take this development into account when choosing
which free search engines to use. In choosing which to use, researchers must
choose ones that are going to fit their needs. If the hypothetical researcher has
already done significant amounts of research online, then tailored results may
actually help them do preliminary research. On the other hand, if the researcher
does not have that kind of browsing history, as is the case with most students,
choosing an engine that returns more neutral results will be more effective.
Google Scholar
The exception to avoiding free search engine results for academic purposes,
however, is Google Scholar. Google scholar works much like JSTOR does, re-
turning results from a broad collection of academic resources. This makes it a
much better choice than a free-search engine. Scholar even includes the ability
to save articles to a library associated with yourGmail account, and a toolto help
academics track when their publication are cited in other publications. Like
JSTOR, though, Scholar searches are best done withthoughtful and specific key-
words, as it returns such a broad array of results.
LIBRARY RESOURCES
While free engines like Google and Google Scholar are good for preliminary
research, resources from the UCF Library should make up the bulk of your ma-
terial. Besides the knowledgeablestaffat the KnowledgeCommonsdesk(a great
place to find additional resources you may not have thought of), the libraries
online databases and catalog can return more credible results than a free search
engine ever will. The library even includes resource guides that help you find
your way in a variety of disciplines. These resources far outnumber the kinds of
resources found elsewhere and their effective use make up an important part of
Information Fluency.
Library Catalogs

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Starting with the databases can be tempting, but if you are doing research in the
library itself then it makes sense to take advantage of the physical resources
around you. Using books in the library can help you contextualize your topic by
providing a broader range of information. But pulling a book off the shelf can
be intimidating if you are not fluent in finding the information you need out of
them. Where you start will be up to you, but starting in the index or the table of
contents is usually a safe bet, but limiting your search to only the keywords you
know may cause you to miss a plethora of information that you hadn’t thought
to look for.
What’s great about using books for research is that they can help you focus your
search in areas you hadn’t thought of. Looking over the index can give you key-
words that you can then plug back into database and catalog searches. This is
what InformationFluency is about, the ability to effectively use resources to find
information, but it’s not just the index that can improve your Information Flu-
ency. Simply flipping through the pages may find you serendipitously stumbling
on an important piece of information that another researcher may have high-
lighted. Looking for these sorts of marks is almost like a sort of analog
crowdsourcing of what’s important in the book.
There is a few ways to search the catalog at the UCF Library. The easiest is to
just plug yourterms into the OneSearch baron the libraries homepage,and then
filter to catalog. If you do not like your results, you could also click on
“Books/Catalogs”to the right ofthat can search the libraries physical and digital
reserves. Either way, your search will benefit from the techniques that we will
discuss later.
If you think you may want to use a particular book, but the UCF Library does
not have it, then you may want to try to get it through the Interlibrary Loan
system where another library will send it to the UCF Library for you to use.
Articles & Databases
The Articles and Databases searches at the library are where the most efficient
and effective results are going to come from. The UCF Library subscribes to
many databases. There are hundreds ofpossible databasesto choose from,some
discipline specific, like the MLA databases, and some that aggregate a multitude
of disciplines, like Academic OneFile and JSTOR.

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If you are researching a particular subject but are not sure which databases to
use, the UCF Library will assist you. After you click Articles & Databases on the
library’s home pageyou’ll find collections and suggestions fora range of subjects.
If you are looking for a particular subject then you may want to start at the drop
down menu’s or one of the helpful subject links below that. If you already know
what you want to use then you can go ahead and click the first letter of the
database you want (below the subject dropdown) and browse until you find the
one you want.
Being able to effectively use these databases is probably going to be the deter-
mining factor in your level of Information Fluency. The best practice, here, is to
always use multiple databases in your research, and vary your search terms to
find different information. JSTOR will give you results that MLA International
Bibliography will not. Not because one is necessarily better than the other, but
because they aggregate different articles. Reading as many different articles as
you can, as long as they are relevant and useful, will produce higher quality re-
search, as you’ll be able to determine the conflicting views within a topic and
produce better results.
Research Guides
The UCF Library provides Research Guides for various subjects in a myriad of
disciplines. These tend to focus on more specific topics and are a good way to
get your research started. They can provide issues within a subject, books & en-
cyclopedias, dissertations, data, news, literature, technical reports, databases, and
more. If you are not particularly information fluent, or you just want to research
a topic you are less familiar with, these guides can be a good way to start. They
are easily found on the library’s home page.
Research Consultations
Lastly, if you need help doing extensive and in-depth research you may want to
consider setting up a one-on-one appointment with a librarian to help you find
more resources. Information Fluency involves being able to fluently use all of
you resources on hand, so as UCF student this may be one to consider. There
are a few ways to sign up which can be found in the Research Consultation page
in the “Services” dropdown on the UCF Library’s website.

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EFFECTIVE SEARCHING
Up until now wehave discussed the resources side of Information Fluency avail-
able to UCF students, but there’s a little more to it than that. Just because you
have the toolavailable doesnot mean you are going to be using it in the best way
possible. Ultimately, the wayyoursearch is goingto makea significant difference
in what materials you come up with. We have already discussed using multiple
resources to find different results and finding keywords in indexes, but we ha-
ven’t talked about narrowing searches or using Boolean terms.
Narrowing your Search
When you are using Google, it often becomes habitual to use natural language
search strings (ie. searches that sound like how youmight talk), but that’s missing
out on the power of some search systems. Some people know that you can have
an engine search exactly the terms you type by using quotation marks, but there’s
more to it than that. For example, using plus signs (+term) will tell the engine to
include commonly ignored words, while using a minus sign (-term) will tell it to
exclude that term. The latter works great for filtering out results that you know
are irrelevant to your search, thus saving you time and effort while doing your
research.
If your search engine allow you to search multiple subjects with some Boolean
operators, like author, title, and journal title, then doing so should help you to
find exactly what you are looking for.
Boolean Operators
Boolean operators further refine your search terms. You can refer to the below
chart, taken from a CSA database, for an explanation of the terms.
Use To
AND Narrow search and retrieve records containing all of the words it
separates.
OR Broaden search and retrieve records containing any of the words it
separates. The | can be used instead of ‘or.’
NOT Narrow search and retrieve records that do not contain the term
following it.

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() Group words or phrases when combining Boolean phrases and to
show the orderin which the relationships should be considered: e.g.,
‘(mouse or mice) and (gene or pseudo gene)
NEAR Find words within 10 words of each other.
* Truncation. This expands a search term to include all forms of a
root word, e.g., patent* retrieves patent, patents, patentable, pa-
tented, etc.
* Multi-character wildcard for finding alternative spellings. Use
to indicate an unlimited number of characters within a word, e.g.,
behavi*r retrieves behavior or behavior.
Single-character wildcard for finding alternative spellings. The
? represents a single character; two ?? represent two characters; three
??? represent three characters, and so on. Use within or at the end
of a word, e.g., wom?n finds woman as well as women, and car-
bon fib?? finds carbon fiber or carbon fibre.
ETHICS AND FOLLOWING LAWS
Information Fluency is a part of a wide spectrum of rules, guidelines and own-
ership laws that are needed to validate and prove one’s own work. Therefore,
you must provide sources that relate to your subject. You must know what
sources to search for before you begin writing and how to use them properly.
Citations for those sources need to be well communicated and written in your
own words. In addition, you must know the proper ways to cite your sources so
that your reader will not be confused. Therefore, due to copyright laws, publica-
tions must be acknowledged within your writing. If you do so when writing, you
will have a better understanding of how copyright works. Ethics and following
laws will help you to find where the information was found and will enable you
to genuinely prove your sources.

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WHY USE SOURCES?
We use sources to obtain ideas and go past our own knowledge and understand-
ing of information we come across. They are used to make arguments and re-
search to show that you understand what you have learned or discovered. Fi-
nally, sources enhance your writing and make it easier for others to make sense
of your work while also giving our readers access to more information on that
particular subject.
In The Writer Site by the University of Sydney, under module two, it states that
“When you write in an academic context, you are not writing for yourself. You
becomea memberof an academic community which has particular expectations,
including expectations about honesty and rigor in academic research and writ-
ing.” It is very important to identify and gather the appropriate sources for your
work and to know how to use the sources properly. Professors will give you
material to break down and understand at a higher level and they will also want
you to prove your knowledge through your own research as your writing should
not be dependent on your own opinion alone. The University says that instead,
readers need to know that your writing has exceeded your own level of under-
standing for that material.
Know What to Look For
When looking up sources, you need to begin with your subject and anything that
pertains to your topic within that subject. You need to make sure it is quality
workfrom a credible place. Having a primary source is very useful but makesure
you have secondary sources as well to support what you have found. Your
sources should come from a scholarly source such as articles, journals, short
stories, and books.
Use Your Sources Properly
After you have found the sources that you need, you can begin to think of how
to use them in a scholarly manner. The University of Sydney acknowledges that
when you write about a topic you are not only representing the work of others,
you are also writing to present your own inferences and using their help in mak-
ing strong persuasive arguments to support your own evaluations and conclu-
sions. You must show that the work is your own and that you have obtained

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your research from trustworthy resources. If your sources are not properly cited,
the reader may think that your work is not complete or trustworthy.
WHY USE CITATIONS?
Citations are useful when you are trying to formally express your ideas, the cita-
tions show the location of your source and how you are indebted to it says Judy
Hunter the writer of The Importance of Citation, she states that “A citation can
appear in different formats: within the text (in-text citation) at the bottom of the
page (footnotes), or at the end of the paper (endnotes). Different disciplines use
different formats. The mechanics of citing are complicated, and vary in each
format.” Additionally, how you cite a source varies from the method you use.
For example, MLA and APA are two different styles of documentation that are
commonly used in schools and colleges. However, for the sake of this manual,
we will tell you how to cite a source in MLA style.
Hunter states that when you do not cite your sources, you are violating the rights
ofthe actual person who created the idea (1). If you decideto use a writer’s work,
you must cite him/her. If you fail to do so, you are violating that person’s work.
Another reason for citations, Hunter says, is that “keeping track of sources is
important because academics value being able to trace the way ideas develop”
(2). It also helps a reader find the information by having the credentials of the
source that was listed. The reader is then able to see where your ideas came from
and it allows him/her to understand them on a broader scale.
In Line Citations
In the text, A Writer’s Reference, Diana Hacker states that an in text citation is
made with a combination of signal phrases and parenthetical references. She
goes on to explain that “a signal phrase indicates that something taken from a
source (a quotation, a summary, paraphrase, or fact) is about to be used; usually
the signal phrase includes the author’s name” (370). After a citation, you would
normally include the page number. If there is no page number, a simple “1” in
parenthesis will suffice.

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Quotations
If you use direct words from another’s work you must encompass them with
quotation marks. Without the quotation marks, you are stating that the author’s
words are only your words.
Block Quotations
Block quoting is when you offset a quote (about an inch of space) that is more
than four or five lines. It shows that words are being taken directly from the
source of the work. Hacker states that quotation marks are unnecessary because
the indention is enough for the reader to know that it is a quote (364). You do
not need quotation marks if you utilize a block quote.
Things to Avoid
When you begin to write, you must ensure that you know when quotations are
needed to avoid improperly citing sources. In addition, you must include the
page number you found your work on. Finally, you must ensure that you are not
using the other writer’s language when you are summarizing his/her words to
avoid plagiarism.
COPYRIGHT
Copyright grants legal rights to an individual that creates a work. I-Safe America
Inc. in “Copyright Quick Reference” says it involves publication, production,
sale or distribution. It states that, “Copyright laws are based on the concept that
someone who creates a tangible work deserves to be compensated for it, thus
promoting new work and benefiting society as a whole” (1). Copyright allows
others to still use the work, but also generates work for others to use to exceed
on the topic. In summary, it offers a good sense of protection for writers.
Fair Use
The U.S Copyright Office has labeled fair use under section 107 of the U.S.
Copyright Laws. It entails the rules that people can reuse others work, but in a fair
manner. It states that “Section 107 contains a list of the various purposes for
which the reproduction of a particular work may be considered fair, such as crit-
icism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research” (1). These
are the few things that are considered fair use when using someone else’s ideas.

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Nothing is safe when you try and use another’s work. Plagiarism is seen in your
writing, and there are many tools that can detect a copied document.
What is Not Protected by Copyright
It is easier to see what is not covered under the copyright laws says I-SAFE
America: “Works that have not been fixed in a tangible form of expression,”
“Ideas, procedures, concepts, principles, discoveries, or devices – as distin-
guished from a description, an explanation, or an illustration,” and “Works con-
sisting entirely of information that is common property and contains no original
authorship such as stand calendars, height and weight charts, tape measures and
rulers, and lists or tables taken from public documents or other common
sources” (1). These are a few that are not allowed to be copyrighted; they are not
official documents or publications. Therefore, they do not fall under the copy-
right laws.
Protection
When you elect to use copyright laws on your own papers and documents, you
will be backed up by the laws that are in place. Therefore, you can feel confident
that others will use your work with good intentions since it is copyrighted. It
ensures that you will be compensated for your workand your work alone. How-
ever, you must make sure that your work is under the guidelines to be copy-
righted.
USING INFORMATION FLUENCY AS A
READER VS. AS A WRITER
As you have been reading, there are a lot of research tools that surround Infor-
mation Fluency. By now you may be wondering where that line draws between
being a reader and being a writer. This section will focus on the distinction be-
tween the two so you can find information quickly and efficiently.

18
HOW AN INFORMATION FLUENT WRITER
COMPOSES A DOCUMENT
Until this point, this chapter on Information Fluency has focused on skills that
generally combine readers and writers since the two are so intertwined. As read-
ers, we are probably also writers and vice versa. However, as a student writer,
you will be interested to know that there are tools you can use to write in an
information fluent way. This is important because your writing must develop a
reader-centered format.Yourreaders need to be able to find information quickly
and efficiently.
ORGANIZING INFORMATION: HEADERS, TOPIC SEN-
TENCES, TABLES, AND PAGE GRIDS
Applying Information Fluency to your writing involves using tools such as head-
ers, footers, topic sentences, tables, and page grids to organize your information
and to make it easier for your reader find the information he/she needs.
Headers and Footers
Headers and Footers allow controlled and organized fluency within the docu-
ment. Headers contain information and graphics on the top of the page of the
document, while footers contain information and graphics on the bottom of the
page. The information placed in headers and footers allow for page control and
organization.
The following are typically found in headers and footers:
 Name or logo
 Physical line to separate the header/footer from the rest of the text in
the document
 Paper’s title
 Section title
 Date
Often, the header will contain just the name of the paper, the author, and the
date, whereas the footer contains the page numbers. Word editors such as Mi-
crosoft Word or Google Docs will be able to format your header and footer for
you such as adding your name, page title, and date to the header of every page

19
and adding page numbers automatically in the footer of your document. Pre-
made templates are also an option and will format your document for you. Just
replace or add the text into the template. Aesthetically headers and footers can
be justified based on your preference unless you have been instructed to format
it a specific way.
Topic Sentences
A topic sentence is similar to a thesis statement for the body paragraphs of your
paper. Writers use topic sentences to establish the main idea so the reader will
understand what each body paragraph of the paper will be about. The support-
ing sentences of the body paragraph should further explain the topic sentence.
Remember, that the topic sentence should not be too specific or broad. You
simply want to convey the main idea across rather than one specific detail.
Additionally, using sequences such as First, Next, and Final will further help the
transition between body paragraphs and connect them. When writing your par-
agraphs, you may want to start with an outline to help arrange and develop your
topic sentences. Once you have established your topic sentences for each para-
graph, you can use the outline as a template for your paper and add your sup-
porting sentences. Think of a topic sentence as a mini thesis statement. There-
fore, keep in mind that any information should all unify and relate.
Tables
Tables can display textual or numerical data in a set ofarranged rowsorcolumns.
They are similar to lists that have two dimensions rather than just one. This will
allow you to organize a large amount of information in a small amount of space
and allow the reader to see a specific piece of data, usually numerical, when
needed. Tables are also helpful in arranging data to allow for data comparison.
However, keep in mind that the design of the table is important so you should
consider how the reader would want to use the information in the table.
COMPETITOR RANKING CURRENT SHARE SHARE IN 3 YRS.
Largest competitor 50% 30%
Second largest competitor 25% 20%
Third largest competitor 15% 12%
Table 1.1 Projected growth of competitors over 3 years.

20
Tables consist of three components. Columns are the vertical axis of data. Rows
are the horizontal axis of data and cells are the area specifically for each data
element. Since data in a table are organized not only vertically but also horizon-
tally, there are different ways of ordering data. Typically one would order the
data in the table numerically or alphabetically. The table below example contains
common elements from the periodic table and is arranged alphabetically by ele-
ment. Numerical arrangement will be good for things such as rank and order.
Page Grids
Grids are an effective method of designing consistent pages. They divide each
pageinto rectangular areas that help organize content. They are generally straight
vertical or horizontal lines that intersect each other on a page to help place ob-
jects.
There are different types of objects that paper can contain:
 Headings
 Basic test
 Images
 Captions
 Headers and footers
 Tables
 Footnotes
A page grid allows you to place any of these objects in the grid fields. Using a
consistent page design will create a layout that the reader will be able to follow.
Page grids encourage good alignment since page grids are rectilinear. Also, it
provides an enclosure for design objects. Contrast, proximity and order are also
other organization principles pagegridsinfluence. Someword editingprocessors
have options to add gridlines to help assist you in placing objects into the docu-
ment.
STRATEGIES TO WRITE CLEARLY AND SUCCINCTLY
Integrating your research into your writings clearly and succinctly is important
to helping your reader understanding the credibility and the sources of your re-
search, without getting bogged down in too many details. The specific way that

21
you do this depends on the style manual you are using, but the following ideas
will assist you in a general method.
Active Voice
Using active voice in your own writing is important, but becomes doubly so
when setting up who said what in a quote or paraphrase. Active voice clarifies
for your reader who did what in a concise manner by not splitting up the verb
and by making it clear who the subject is in the sentence. Whatever research you
are using, someone implemented it. Therefore, it is ethically important that you
clearly show who published that resource.
One of the most common examples of passive versus active voice is the sen-
tence: “mistakes were made.” The agent of this sentence has been omitted, mak-
ing it unclear who committed the mistakes. You only know that the mistakes
were committed. When integrating your sources, setting up your quote by saying
“research has shown that” would be similarly confusing. Besides being wordy,
the agent of that research has, again, been omitted making it unclear who per-
formed that research. Even with a propercitation, the person who actually wrote
the work may be lost in your works cited/in-text citation.
Contextualizing your Research
It may be tempting while you are writing to quote or paraphrase your research
as if it spoke for itself. It does not. While you may know the context of your
quote, your reader may not be as familiar with a particular source as you are. As
such, youmust explain all information from other sources and explain their con-
nection to your ideas. It is a simple process but doing it concisely will help your
reader follow your arguments.
To that end, the writer has to makea judgment call about how much information
to include. You often do not need the full quote, but you have to consider your
audience/reader’s familiarity with the subject and decide what assumptions can
be made(both when decidingwhat of the quote to include and how to introduce
and explain it). If you are writing a paperforjournal, read and reviewed bypeers,
then it is probably a safe assumption that you will not need to explain every little
detail about your argument. However, at the same time, if you think your audi-
ence might be less familiar with the subject matter, then you’ll need include
enough relevant information that your reader can understand how your source
relates to your work.

22
EVALUATING THE CREDIBILITY OF SOURCES AS A WRITER
Evaluating sources is one of the most challenging aspects of the writing process.
Writers often become so focused on their own interpretation of a topic that they
forget to select and evaluate reliable outside sources. Sources do not serve to
overtake a piece but highlight the writer’s creation with factual support. Once
the writer feels comfortable with their topic, the reliability of their sources
quickly becomes the backbone of the document. Discovering credible sources is
the first step to creating factual and unbiased writing.
Beginning the Evaluation Process
Writers should primarily consider who will be seeking their text and their pur-
pose behind doing so. Before citing a source, always consider what type of in-
formationthe readerwill desire. If the information is too advanced fortheir level
of topical comprehension, the source would be useless. A problem can also arise
if the source provides vague and generalized information. It is important to con-
sider the reader’s need for fluidity.
Readers seek sources that directly match and flow within the writing. Mis-
matched facts or interjected opinions take away from the writer’s main focus.
With that in mind, seeking multiple credible sources is a great way of supporting
ever-developing information. All writers process information differently. The
writer’s personal interpretation can easily be skewed from that of a similar
source. Finding a variety ofreliable material that factually confirms his/her point
or argument supports the writer’s message and will complete the piece.
Primary vs. Secondary
The first step toward sourceevaluation is determining if the source is considered
primary or secondary. A primary source is a first-hand account based on fact.
Primary sources are normally created during or near the time period that infor-
mation was determined factual. Some examples include newspaper articles, let-
ters and government records. Primary sources are highly credible and leave little
room for error or fiction. A secondary sources is one that is written after an
event such as a review or biography. Secondary sources are analytical and base
their information from an original primary source. They also have a greater risk
for factual error because they leave more room for opinionated bias. The more
a source is used overtime, the less credibleits sister sources become.The passage

23
of time results in a deficit for credibility as information expands with every pass-
ing moment.
Checking for Credibility
Although information may seem credible, it never hurts to double check the
source’s background. Where did you find the information? When was it pub-
lished? Who is the source’s author and are they well established? The more re-
search an author conducts, the stronger their piece will become overall. It is also
a good idea to evaluate the source’s sources. Not only is this a great wayto ensure
credibility, but it may also provide other outlets to useful sources that relate to
your topic.
Check the Date
Find out when the source was written. The validity of a source is ever changing.
A source may contain information that has been updated multiple times since
the piece was first written. New information surfaces every day. Outdated
sources may not have the factual informationthat has been broughtto light since
the source was originally published. Keeping your sources current also assists
with keeping them as accurate as possible. The source maynot befrom last week,
however, a source from 2008 may have more credibility than one from 1950.
When Selecting a Source
Pulling information from a variety of random websites may seem appealing but
it is never a smart decision. The less credible your sources are, the less credible
your writing becomes. Online search engines are great for finding information
quickly although it may not be accurate. Trusting the top five popular search
engine results is never a scholarly choice. Writers should always strive to choose
credibility over popularity when conducting research. Taking a less opinionated
and more scholarly approach aids writers while simultaneously boosts overall
writing quality.
Evaluating the Author
Once writers select an appropriate source, evaluating the author is the next step
towards credibility. Writers are often unheard of and have little fame or history
behind their name. However, citing an established and well-respected writer is a
great way to add extra credibility to a piece. Readers seeking factual information

24
will devote greater trust to a writer if they acknowledge the work of a profes-
sionally respected author. On the contrary, jarring information backed by un-
heard of sources can be concerning. Readers want to feel comfortable with their
text. Researching your source’s authors can avoid potential curve balls related to
pieces they have done in the past. Researching a source’s author is just as im-
portant as the manner in which the reader sees the writer. Writers should be able
to avoid road bumps before a reader is forced to find one in the source’s history.
Evaluating Bias
Checking a source to ensure a lack of bias is necessary in the process of evalua-
tion. The piece will be less factual as it becomes more personal. The author’s
opinion is unnecessary when writers are in search of factual or historical occur-
rences. Reliability stems from fact and not opinion. Bias may not be easy to ob-
serve, but it is vital that writers check their sources to ensure that all readers can
feel comfortable during the learning process. Unless the reader has picked up
the piece for pleasure, pieces involving personal bias should not be regarded as
credible to the writer’s audience.
The Importance of Source Evaluation
Finally, regardless of the writer’s literary approach, sources should always play a
supportive and cohesive role throughout his/her writing. Text without a source
is similar to opinion without fact. It may be informative to some readers, but
others can make the personal choice to disregard it. Technical writing requires
substantial sourcing for accurate and positive audience acceptance. The use of
properly evaluated sources presents the reader with factual evidence, which the
writer creates to instill credibility within the written communication.
HOW AN INFORMATION FLUENT READER FINDS
APPROPRIATE INFORMATION
Now that you know some of the skills to write in an information fluent way, we
will delve into tactics you can use as a reader to better sort through information.

25
WAYS TO FIND THE MOST IMPORANT INFORMATION
As a reader, you have a few tools that can help you find information quickly and
efficiently. In this section, we will discuss three particular aids: Skimming, Scan-
ning, and Reading.
Skimming
When a reader is looking for something specific in a book or document he/she
will typically skim through the pages looking for something that will pop out.
Now this does not allow the user to actually know what is going on in the doc-
ument or book, but it will allows them to get the answer in a very timely manner.
Headers are an example of this since the heading typically pops out more than
the content itself.
Scanning
Scanning is very similar to skimming. However, this method is used to actually
find good chunks of information that might possibly be used in writing. This
method is very useful when looking up sources to cite for your work. It allows
the reader to obtain some knowledge about what they are looking for. It could
also create a biased output since some information could be lost in the process.
Reading
If the other two tactics fail and you find the section you have been scanning and
skimming is not quickly providing you with useful information, you will have to
actually read the information and comprehend whatyou are lookingfor.Reading
all the information helps you understand and confirm that the information is
usable and pertains to the subject that is being written about.
HOW TO IDENTIFY A GOOD SOURCE AS A READER
There are many factors that a reader needs to consider when evaluating a source
for potential information. Such as, how easily can one find the information? Is
the document well written? Does it have an easy to follow format? While this
section will go over many of those questions, the most important factor to con-
sider as a reader is to ask oneself – is the source credible?

26
Is the Source Credible?
An information fluent reader can easily determine whether or not a source is
credible by what format it is in. If the source is in a physical format, like a book
or a journal, then it is easy to find out whether it is credible or not. For the most
part, it is hard forany individual to get a physical document published in modern
times. Not just anyone can write a manual, a book, or even an essay and have it
published by a company. All publishing companies make sure that whoever has
sent a document in for publication is qualified. Almost all physical docu-
ments/sources are written by individuals who are qualified to write about what
ever information is in their document. Most, if not all, physical documents go
through several levels of editing and proofing before they are published. There-
fore, a source is credible if it is in physical form.
However, most sources of information used today come from digital outlets on
the internet. When looking for valid sources online, an individual should always
remember that anyone can publish anything on the internet. So how does one
know whether or not a source is credible online? One of the first things you
should do is check to see if the web address ends in an “.edu” or a “.gov”. When
a website ends in .edu it means that said site was constructed by an educational
facility such as a college or a university. When a website ends in “.gov” it means
that the site was constructed for or by a government office or agency. These
kinds of websites are the most credible because of their professional standing.
While all other websites could have potential information worth citing as a
source, they should be evaluated carefully.
A Good Source Always has an Author
This is another important factor when determining the value of a source. An
information fluent individual should always use sources that have an author or a
series of authors attached to it. This is an important element when deciding if a
source is “good” because a reader can research the author and see if he/she has
credibility. In other words, one can check the author's credentials. This can be
very useful when it comes to digital documents because, while all physical docu-
ments have authors, most digital documents do not. Therefore, you should al-
most always use sources that have an author attached to them.

27
A Good Source is Unbiased
A good source always gives the reader facts. It does not push any agendas, and
it is not opinion based. Good sources are never opinion driven and those that
are, should not be used unless otherwise necessary. This is because an infor-
mation fluent individual wants well-researched ideas and information, and not
opinion based information that could end up being false.
A Good Source Always Uses Proper Language
A valuable source is usually written using academic and technical language. The
language is what sets a good source apart from a bad one. As mentioned earlier,
most good sources are written by scholars and professionals, who have the qual-
ifications to write and report valid and valuable information. However, a good
source can also bewritten in a simple easy to understand manner, but you should
always evaluate the language being used.
A Good Source Has an Easy to Follow Style
The last and most important fact in determining whether a source is valuable or
not is determining whether or not it has a good format. This of course will vary
depending on the reader, but for an information fluent individual this is what a
good source looks like.
A good source will often display its information in an easy to grasp manner. The
reader does not have to spend too much time looking for it. While an infor-
mation fluent individual should be able to find what they are looking for quickly,
he/she should stick to documents that can provide the information they need
faster.
A good source will not have a choppy and undefined format. If the source does
not seem to have a well-constructed structure, it is probably not a good source.
An information fluent individual should use sources that are organized and care-
fully constructed. If the formatting seems choppy, then it was most likely not
done by a scholar or professional and therefore should not be considered credi-
ble or useful.

28
What to Do if You Are Unsure
If you are unsure, just apply the above methods of evaluation. If the source does
not meet any of these criteria guidelines, then you should move on to another
source. An information fluent individual only uses good sources. Good sources
should be credible, written by an author, factual instead of opinion driven, and
have a structured format.
FINAL WORDS
INFORMATION FLUENCY: A SMOOTH PATH TO SUCCESS
Information Fluency allows individuals to have a smooth and information filled
path to success. It is a widely applied resource that readers rely on during every-
day studies. Fluency may not seem apparent, but it is everywhere as you march
through your daily routine. Thinking critically, writers are able to not only gain
from what they learn but apply for their own future use. It is easy to skim infor-
mation for temporary use but Information Fluency allows readers to absorb and
put their learned information into action. The more a writer puts into a piece,
the easier it will be for a reader to obtain long term knowledge.
Information Fluency is madeup oftwo main components,Information and Flu-
ency. It is important not only to relay information but to gain from it. The more
a writer learns about a specific topic, the greater reputation he/she will gain.
Readers appreciate and cling to writers with obvious backgrounds and extensive
knowledge on their desired topics. Writers may not feel that their subjective
knowledge matters, but it will show throughout the document as readers learn
to become fluent.
Fluency is the overall ability to communicate a clear message to readers. Writers
must consider all aspects of their topic and clearly map out a literary path for
their readers. Fluency allows the reader to easily transition from one section to
another without missing any information. Readers seek InformationFluency not
only as a method of seeking knowledge but retaining it. Learning to learn is the
first step to putting a writer’s piece to use, not just skimming over pages in ran-
dom order.
Writers strive to successfully establish a desired level of communication with
their readers. A partnership via text is created as they conquer a deep level of

29
conceptual understanding. The more effort a writer puts into their piece, the
greater level of understanding will be given to their reader. Heavy research is
necessary for writers to support and confirm their arguments. Readers seek a
fluent chain ofknowledge.Sources and citations are a great wayto reassure read-
ers that the information they are being presented with is valid. A reader should
not have to set aside one piece for further confirmation from another. Infor-
mation Fluency allows readers to have a complete understanding as they begin
to dive into a topic.
Both writers and readers should follow the Gather, Evaluate, and Use Model.
The moreinformationthat is gathered, the clearer the material will be to evaluate
and the easier it will beto eventually use. Projects should be time consuming and
carefully planned. Sticking to a plan creates fluency on its own. If a writer has a
fluent plan of action, the piece will begin to flow on its own. Proper planning
helps to develop a well-rounded project. Readers avoid jumbled and poorly out-
lined pieces. A well-organized document is a must have when creating a reader
centered project. Readers may not always dig into a writer’s work. They often
skim or scan a document before they begin reading it. They see proper headers,
footers, and tables as initial signs of an informative read. In addition, readers are
drawn to eye catching topic sentences as they initially skim through a project’s
text. Giving readers these courteous signs will make them more interested in
what a writer has to say.
Technology has been both a gift and curse to our literary world. The internet is
filled with valuable sources and never ending information. As long as we check
our sources and follow a fluent train of thought, we can gain an abundance of
knowledge from today’s technological resources. Applying your knowledge of
Information Fluency on the web will keep you on the right track.
A successful writer should always consider the reader or clients’ morals and val-
ues. Therefore, establishing a piece fit for your audience is key to a successful
project. The more information you know about your readers, the greater satis-
faction you can give them. Some readers are looking for a specific flow and writ-
ers are able to base their fluency around what they are looking for.
Writers may be unsure if their piece has Information Fluency. In this case, it is
important to take a step back and consider the audience. The audience is seeking
proper and unbiased language. Sources should be evaluated for credibility and

30
established authorship. Information Fluency not only collects critical thinking
skills but allows the reader to put them to use. Following the fluency guidelines
is a necessary and substantial way to create a successful project.

31
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